PRICE : 10 Cents (U. S.), 6 Pence (U. C), or 10 Francs (FRANCE).

FALLACIES OF RACISM EXPOSED

UNESCO PUBLISHES

DECLARATION BY-'

WORLD'S SCIENTISTS

MORE than fifteen years ago, men and womenof goodwill proposed to publish an inter-national declaration which would expose

"racial"discrimination and"racial"hatred asunscientific and false, as well as ugly and inhuman.The world at that time was running downhilltoward World War II, and so-called"practical"considerations prevented publication of the state-ment-even if they could not prevent the war.

False myths and superstitions about racecontributed directly to the war, and to the murderof peoples which became known as genocide-butvictims of the war were of all colours and of all"races". Despite the universality of this agony anddestruction, the myths and superstitions stillsurvive-and still threaten the whole of mankind.The need for a sound unchallengeable statement ofthe facts, to counter this continuing threat, is amatter of urgency.

Accordingly, Unesco has called together a groupof the world's most noted scientists, in the fields o !biology, genetics, psychology, sociology and anthro-pology. These scientists have prepared a historicdeclaration of the known facts about human race,which is reprinted in this issue of the Courier.

Unesco offers this declaration as a weapon-anda practical weapon-to all men and women ofgoodwill who are engaged in the good fight forhuman brotherhood. Here is an official summaryof the conclusions reached in the declaration :

. In matters of race, the only characteristics whichanthropologists can effectively use as a basis forclassifications are physical and physiological.

. According to present knowledge, there is noproof that the groups of mankind differ in their innatemental characteristics, whether in respect of intelli-gence or temperament. The scientific evidenceindicates that the range of mental capacities in allethnic groups is much the same.

. Historical and sociological studies supportthe view that the genetic differences are not of impor-tance in determining the social and cultural diffe-rences between different groups of Homo sapiensand that the social and cultural changes in differentgroups have, in the main, been independent ofchanges in inborn constitution. Vast social changeshave occurred which were not in any way connectedwith changes in racial type.

. There is no evidence that race mixture as suchproduces bad results from the biological point ofview. The social results of race mixture, whetherfor good or ill, are to be traced to social factors.

. All normal human beings are capable of learningto share in a common life, to understand the natureof mutual service and reciprocity, and to respectsocial obligations and contracts. Such biologicaldifferences as exist between members of differentethnic groups have no relevance to problems ofsocial and political organization, moral life andcommunication between human beings.

Lastly, biological studies lend support to the ethicof universal brotherhood ; for man is born with drivestoward co-operation, and unless these drives aresatisfied, men and nations alike fall ill. Man is borna social being, who can reach his fullest developmentonly through interaction with his fellows. The denialat any point of this social bond between man andman brings with it disintegration. In this sense,every man is his brother's keeper. For every man isa piece of the continent, a part of the main, becausehe is involved in mankind.

t :m>, r

/

. --^s

VOLUME m-M° 6-7 JULY-AUGUST 1950

UNESCO COURIER-Page 2

A HUNDRED GROUPS

WITH A

COMMON AIM

This is the third in a series of special

articles describing the work of some of

the 100 international non-governmental

organizations whose co-operation withUnesco helps the accomplishment of

its programme.

On the masthead of the Courier, and on an e'Ver-ir. ! creasing number of. publications in the world of m. ts and letters, you sele Unesco's

insignia-the familiar Gree ! k temple, with the initials of theoi'Ylwization fonning the columns ae1'OSS the fi'ont, This classic façadcis not merely symbolic of Unesco's purposes in pi'omoting the freeCfchange of knowledge and educated thought, but actually represents someof the work which Unesco encourages.

In the publication Fasti Archaeolo-gici, for example, one comes across apicture of the restored temple ofAugustus, at Pola, Italy, an originalbuilding in this architectural formwhich we have inherited from ancientGreece. This book, published withUnesco aid, by the International Asso-ciation for Classical Archaeology, sur-veys the classical acquisitions of differ-ent countries, with photographs ofrestored monuments, statues, and bas-relief, coins and pottery. Its purposeis to familiarize specialists in the civi-lizations of archaic and classic Greece,pre-historic Italy and early Rome, andancient Syrian and Christian cultureswith the work that is going On in theirfields of study.

As anthropologists trace the originsof myth and tradition, and linguiststhe origins of language, archaelogistsuncover the physical aspects of thepast. The world they restore is onein which distinctions of form and co-lour, custom and language are notbarriers, but elements in the growthand development of the modern world.

CORPUS VASORUM ANTIQUORUM

Most of the work done by the inter-national organizations which areworking under consultative ar-

rangements with Unesco is concentrat-ed in specific fields of activity.Sometimes their achievements meanlittle or nothing to the average man,but the results of their study andresearch are reflected in many aspectsof life which he takes for granted. Aschool of English decorators, for ins-tance, is now studying artistic formsdating back to the drawings of thecave-men, to adapt them to modemmural painting.

In the field of research in ancientartistic form and design, an impor-tant contribution is being made by theInternational Academic Union, withthe help of a grant from Unesco.This work is the preparation of aseries of books, the Corpus Vasorum

Antiquorum, on ceramic collections inFrance, Italy, Spain, Greece and theUnited States.

An instalment is being prepared inEngland on early Australian and NewZealand pottery. Another volume isdevoted to the Swedish collection ofceramics of Mediterranean countries,the Near East, Cyprus and Greece, anda further one deals with the collectionof the National Museum of Copen-hagen. These comparative studies in-clude the origins of shapes and subjectmatter of design, and the names of thepottery-makers and designers.

FROM ALCHEMY TO AN ATLAS

An even better example of some ofthe highly specialized work of theInternational Academic Union is

the catalogue of Latin manuscripts onAlchemy which it is compiling.Unesco's interest in such a project isits vital contribution to the history ofscience, since alchemy has been calledthe"prelude to chemistry".

This group is also at work on a dic-tionary of mediaeval Latin, which wasthe lingua franca, the internationallanguage of scholars and artists forover eight-hundred years of westerncivilization's development. Ten coun-tries are co-operating in this work,which will be assembled at the FrenchInstitute. France has already two-hundred-and-sixty-thousand card-index notes as its part of the work.

In this field of languages, the Per-manent International Committee ofLinguists is working, with Unesco's aidon the production of a highly-technic-al linguistics atlas, which will indicatethe spread of cultural bounderiesbeyond national frontiers, and theinter-mixture of peoples beyond politic-al barriers. This Committee is alsoat work on a dictionary and grammarof the almost extinct Tasmanian lan-guage.

Other studies of extinct languageshave gone far to prove the vast extentof migrations of pre-historic peoples,

The UNESCO COURIER is an international periodical devoted to the workof UNESCO and to activities and developments throughout the world in edu-cation, science and culture.

A full year's subscription (12 issues) costs only $1. 00 US., or 5/-or 200French Francs.

SUBSCRIBE NOW ! Tell your friends about the UNESCO COURIER andget them to subscribe too.

Write to our agent in your country listed below, or directly to UNESCOHouse, 19, avenue KIeber, Paris, 16', France.Argentina : Editorial Sudamericana S. A. Alsina 500 Buenos-Aires.Australia : H. A. Goddard Ltd.. 255a. George St., Sydney.Belgium : Librairie encyc1opédique, 7, rue du Luxembourg, Bruxelles IV.Brazil : Livraria Agir Editora, Rua Mexico 98-B, Caixa postal 3291, Rio-de-Janeiro.Canada : The Ryerson Press, 299 Queen Street West, Toronto.Chile : Libreria Lope de Vega, Moneda 924, Santiago de Chile.Colombia : Mr Emilio Royo Martin, Carrera 9a, 1791, Bogota.Cuba : La Casa Belga, Sr. D. René de Smedt, O'Reilly, Havana.Czechoslovakia : Orbis, Stalinova, 46, Praha XII.Denmark : Einar Munksgaard, 6, Norregade, Copenhagen.Egypt : Librairie James Cattan, 118. rue Emad el Dine, Cairo.France : Maison du Livre Franais, 4, rue Felibien, Paris (6'). (Wholesale only)'.Great Britain : H. M. Stationery Office : London : York House, Kingsway (Retail Counter

Service) : P. O. Box 569. London S. E. I. (Post orders),-Mauch ester 2 : 39-41 KingStreet.-Edinburgh 2 : 13a Castie Street.-Cardili : 1 St Andrew's Crescent.-Bristol I : Tower Lane.-Belfast : 80 Chichester Street.

Greece : Eleftheroudakis, Librairie Internationale, Athens.Hungary :"Ibusz"Akademia-u. 10, Budapest V.India : Oxford Book and Stationery Co., Scindia House, New Delhi.Israel : Leo Biumstein, Book and Art Shop, 35, Allenby Road, Tel Aviv.Italy : Messaggerie Italiane, Via Lomazzo, 52. Milano.Lebanon and Syria : Librairie Universelle, Avenue des Francois, Beirut.Mexico : Libreria Universitaria, Justo Sierra 16, Mexico DF.Netherlands : N. V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9, The Hague.Norway : AIS Bokhjornet, Stortingsplass 7, Oslo.Peru : Libreria Internacional del Peru, S. A. Girón de la Union, Lima.Philippines : Philippine Education Co"Inc"Corner Tanduay and Vergara Streets,

Quiapo, Manila.Portugal : Uniao Portuguesa de Imprensa, 198 Rue de S. Bento, 3° Esq. Lisbon.Sweden : C. E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, Stockholm.3Switzerland : Europa Verlag, 5 Ramistrasse, Zurich.Union of South Africa : Van Schaik's Bookstore, Pty. Ltd., P. O. Box 724, Pretoria.United States of America : Columbia University Press, 2960 Broadway, New

York 27, N. Y.Uruguay : Centro de Cooperación Cientificc para Ie America Latina, Unesco, Bulevar

Ar'igas. 1320-24. Montevideo.*For France : Retail sales : Unesco Sales Service, 19. Avenue Kleber, Paris (l6').

movements of such tremendous scopethat they were not equalled againuntil the fifteenth century. What isbelieved to be the proto-Indian script,for instance, has been found as fareast as the Oceanic islands-a remark-able achievement of colonization forpeople with the most primitive sea-faring equipment.

MUSIC-A UNIVERSAL MEDIUM

But if artistic and linguistic studiestell of a universal inheritancefrom the past, how much more

universal a medium is music. InJanuary of this year, the InternationalMusic Council was formed underUnesco's auspices to co-ordinate thework of independent musical groups.At present, with the aid of such mem-ber organizations as the InternationalSociety for Contemporary Music andthe International Society for MusicalResearch, the Council is working ontwo Unesco projects, a world catalogueof recorded music, and the establish-ment of a universal musical pitch.

Even though we may never havestudied music and can hardly tell onepitch from another, we would realizethat something was wrong if we heardinstruments at a concert playing atdifferent pitches.

Before a concert, we hear one ins-trument, usually the oboe, sound anote, and the other instruments tuneto the same pitch. But the"A"ofParis is not quite the same as that ofLondon, and it is still slightly differ-ent in Vienna. An internationally-established pitch would not only easethe work of musicians playing withforeign orchestras, but would alsohelp instrument builders.

A CHANCE FOR YOUNG COMPOSERS

Each of the international musicalorganizations working withUnesco was originally founded to

bring together men in specializedfields of musical work. The Interna-tional Society of Musical Research isa group of musicologists, who special-ize in such studies as the history andtheory of composition, counterpointand harmony. Their bulletin, regu-larly published in the various langua-ges of the members, contains articlesand reviews of new books on music,and lists new musical publications.

Another group, the InternationalSociety for Contemporary Music wasformed in 1922,

Successful concerts have been givenin Salzburg, the birthplace of Mozart,and Vienna, Venice, Geneva and Ox-ford, where young composers conducttheir own music. This Society ismaking a choice of the works ofworth-while contemporary composersfor Unesco's projected record-library,which will give young composers,whose music is not yet played extensi-vely by large orchestras, the chance tobe heard.

The history of music and art is arecord of talent enriched and deve-loped through exchange of work andideas. These are the foundations onwhich the independent internationalorganizations contributing work fromtheir specialized fields to Unesco arebuilt.

RECENT UNESCO

PUBLICA TlONS

INDEX TRANSLATIONUM(International Bibliography of Trans-

lations 421 pages)Originally a quarterly publication

of the International Institute of In-tellectual Co-operation (1932-40)Index Translationum has now beenrevived by Unesco as an annual vo-lume.

The former Index began its exis-tence with bibliographies of transla-tions from 6 countries and endedwith 14. The Index just published,covering the year 1948, has beengreatly expanded, and contains thetitles of 8, 750 works published in 26countries.

Translations listed in the Index in-clude literary, scientific, educationaland cultural works which are arrang-ed, under each national heading, bycategories corresponding to the largedivisions of the Universal DecimalClassification system. It is complet-ed by cross-indexes of authors, trans-lators and publishers and by a statis-tical table presenting the total num-bers of works translated within eachcategory and country.

The Index will provide current in-formation about works which havebeen translated, indicate workswhose translation might usefully beundertaken and generally constitutea record of one of the most valuablemeans of cultural exchanges betweencountries.

Pre/ace, notes etc. in English andFrench.

Price : $ 3. 00-i8/M.-900 francs.

A HANDBOOK FOR THE IMPRO-VEMENT OF TEXTBOOKS ANDTEACHING MATERIALS AS AIDSTO INTERNATIONAL UNDER-

STANDING (172 pages)The improvement or revision of

textbooks, especially of history andgeography, has been an importantproblem since the first world war.This volume describes the historicalbackground to the problem and inparticular the efforts of the Leagueof Nations and of the InternationalInstitute of Intellectual Co-operation,in this field.

Part Two of the publication out-lines the development of Unesco'sprogramme and presents a mode)plan for the analysis and improve-ment of textbooks and the third partincludes recommendations for actionby teachers, authors, publishers, edu-cational organizations and publicauthorities. An extensive bibliogra-phy is also included. (172 pages.)

Price : $ 0. 45-2/6d.-i25/nMcs.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THETEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

(Towards World Understanding.Vol. VII.) (98 pages.)

This handbook is an adaptation inEnglish of a document prepared atUnesco's request by a small group ofFrench geographers to assist geogra-phy teachers in primary and secon-dary schools. Its aim Is to impresson teachers the part that geographycan play in general education, andto suggest specific ways in which itcan be used as an aid to betterunderstanding between peoples.

/'I'ice : $ 0. 40-2s.-100 francs.

Pace 3-UNESCO COURIER

w

* FTER four weeks of frequently heated discussions, the Fifth General/\ Conference has come to an end. If the debates of this Assemblyhave presented a new aspect,'it is this : Unesco finds that it must

face up to one of those contradictions of which our age gives so manyexamples. The tasks undertaken are in the interests of a more stablepeace, but they will on) v reach fruition during peace. It is a questionof long-therm projects : will there be sufficient time ? Will those threatswhich weigh so heavily on the world today allow, the forces of peaceenough time to become established and to triumph ?

However difficult the solution, the problem confronting the GeneralConference of Unesco, was neverthe-less very clear : \Vas its duty to conti-nue as if nothing was wrong, to confineitself to technical projects, unquestion-ably useful but producing results onlyin the distant future ? Or, on the con-trary, was its duty to accept the worldas it is, admit its division, its problems,and to take immediate steps to fightthose dangers imposed by the constantthreat of war ? The final decisions ofthe General Conference were inspiredby the need to reply to such questions ;questions indeed which constantly ab-sorbed the representatives of all the59 member states of the Organisation.

For this reason, though still continu-: its long term projects, Unesco hasat the same''me launched itself on anew path. The ConieÌ't0e has chargedthe Executive Council and the lJ ! rectorsGeneral to submit a certain number 0 :special projects which will attempt"more directly and in the frameworkof the United Nations and its partieutardepartment, to support and consolidatepeace".

Positive ActionFor World Stability

IT was foreseen that the importanceand scope of these projects wouldbe so great that the ordinary budget.

of Unesco would not be sufficient tofinance them. The Conference there-fore decided that they could be Jlnanced"by voluntary contributions 01'Titoneyfrom private and public sources or'Í/ !,'el'l'ices trom as many countries as pos-sidle". By such projects Unesco willtake positive steps toward immediaterelief for the world's present intellec-tual and moral instability, in propor-tion to the means put at its disposaland in the framework of its competence.

Two proposals (presented by the U. S.delegation) relating to matters such asthese, have been approved by the Con-ferenè". The first charges Unesco to or-ganise and put) mC eet a major pro-gramme"/Lith a view to aÙ' : : : cHlg 1/1-ternational understanding in German ? i".The other requests Unesco to set up re-

gional centres of scientific research thefirst of which will be in Western Eu-rope. These centres, established bymeans of funds collected by Unescooutside its normal budget, will help toremove that monopoly of scientific re-search which the present high cost ofmodern apparatus gives to countriesrich enough to afford its construction.

The moral and intellectual instabilitywhich Unesco is trying to remedy, par-tially originates in the differences thatbecome more and more apparent bet-ween industrial countries and less fa-vouredregionsof tile globe. Thelatterare becommg more impoverished everyd2y and their resources continually di-minisll ; the power of the former growsall the time and modern techniques en-sure a way of life that, becomes in-creasingly easier.

The United Nations'plan of tech-nical assistance to countries thatare insufficiently developed has beenconceived to answer this problem.In 1951, L'nesco will play an importantrole in putting this plan into effect. Inaddition, it will undertake specificworks of its own. in this field. Thus, aninternational conference on"The COII-quest of the desert"is going to meet inIsrael, in collaboration with the Inter-national Institute of the Arid Zone,which Unesco is at present setting up.

However, despite the great importanceof these matters, they do not representa full solution. many conflicts arisefrom the inequality of'man. Others re-sult ; ; ; : ! ! l different causes. There are,

"Wha't is not good for Humanity as a whole cannot be

good for any nation, race or individual"

Jaime Torres ßodt, t

Addressing the final session

of UNESCO's Fifth General

Conference, M. Jaime Torres

Bodet, Unesco's Director-

General, summed up his im-

pressions of results achiev-

ed. Below, we reproduce

the full text of his speech.M. Jaime Torres Bodet, Unesco's Director-General, speaking at a plenary session of the

Fifth General Conference. in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence.

MAY I say how pleased I am at the adoption of theresolution you have just passed unanimously. Inall sincerity, I believe that this is the perfectcomplement to that approved by the Programme

and Budget Commission yesterday evening on themotion of a number of Delegations and confirmed byyourselves this morning. Taken together, the tworesolutions. reveal a will to peace which does honour tothis Conference and testifies to the fidelity of all of usto Unesco's supreme ideal.

At this stage, when you are bringing your work to aclose, I feel it to be necessary to give you my absolutelyfrank opinion on the results achieved. I had hoped thatthis session of the Conference might mark a decisivestage in the development of our Organization. It wouldbe going too far to suggest that that hope has been fullysatisfied. The characteristic note of this Conference hasbeen less one of decision than of heart-searching and,in certain matters, of clarification. That, of course, isnot all that we could have wished, but it is a great deal.

As trees are judged

YOU have defined a basic programme which hadnever previously been explicitly stated. You havedefined a list of methods, which had not previously

been made. You have defined a policy of recc-mmend-ations and conventions which will, I am convinced, befruitful in the years to come. An excellent instance ofwhat we can secure by these means is the agreementon the free importation of educational, scientific andcultural material, whose ratification you are recom-mending to your governments. You have recorded yourintention of inceasing Unesco's resources and havep : omised to do it by trying to overcome the financialdifficulties arising from arrangements necessarily tem-porary, but which could not be better in view of thecriteria adopted regarding the establishment of a budgetceiling.

It would be premature to express any views as to thewo'th of these results. As trees are judged by their

fruit, so the resolutions of an international conferenceare judged by the action in which they issue. Whathappens in the year which lies before us will, in myview, be of vital importance to this Organization. Wemust be vigilant to ensure that the work of the Secre-tariat and the activities of Member States in matterswithin Unesco's sphere are more effectively integratedthan they have so far been. We must plan bo ! d amdsimple tasks, for the better service of peace througheducation, science and culture. We must secure actionwithin each Member State to spur rulers and privatebodies to augment the slender financial resources at ourdisposal.

All defiøitioD is difficult

FOR all this two things are essential : mutual trustand mutual understanding. But can we really doubtthat we shall find that spirit of trust and under-

standing ? We are met in a country which, in itsgreatest epoch, was governed by a sage, the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius, the author of the profoundepigram :"What is not good for the hive, cannot begood for the bee". Its application to our own age isobvious. What is not good for humanity as a wholecannot be good for any nation, race or individual. That,surely, is an exact definition of the intellectual andmoral solidarity of the peoples to which Unesco is dedi-cated.

This has been a difficult Conference, because alldefinition is difficult. Let us, then, pray that the diffi-culties may lead to a more conscious effort to see clearlyin the future so that we may all more effectively servethe noble aims of Unesco.

It is with that prayer in my heart that I thank youfor your work and offer to Italy, in the person of Sena-tor Jacini, our warmest gratitude for the generous hospi-tality she has afforded us.

. The texts of the two resctutions refen-ed to by theDtrector-GeTter'aZ will be sound on page 7 of this issue.

Îuï ëmple, conflicts, whose originremain ulJscuì'"vhich occur evenwithin a nation, between dlC :'"'sth-nic groups. Unesco, in pursuing en-quirks into various states of social ten-sion, is making a study of these obscurecausal factors. It is important to knownot only the obstacles which opposeharmonious relations betvveen differentgroups, but also the factors which havebrought about good relations in certainregions.

Unesco has decided to u ! Hlc'. lake, ; Üsyear an enquiry into economic, politi-cal, cultural and psychological factorswhich"aid or hinder harmonious rela-tions betu ; een races and ethnic groups",< ! o/ : f< t<t< ; <'e) t rac a ; t ef/t) tic roMps".This enquiry win be launched in Bra-zil, which country, to quote the Bra-zilian delegate at the General Confer-ence,"progresses in fraternity betweenits ever-increasing black, white andIndian population".

A Step Towards Universality

I XTEHXATIOXAL understanding, whichis one of the íixed aims of Unescoas stated in its Constitution, can only

be facilitated by works such as thesewhich, moreover, are directly allied toall the tasks undertaken by l'nesco-studies related to states of social ten-sion, dissemination of scientific datawith respect to racial problems, di1'lu-sion and promotion of the rights of man.

Even within the organisation a newstep has been taken towards that uni-versality which shouidbe the maincharacteristic of Unesco : the Confer-ence ! E, ! ! l ffect, charged the Direc-tao-General to study the jJû' : L : ! t ; cSor à. 1 : itting as associate members acertain number : T_'on-autonomous ter-ritories.

It is impossible to review all aspectsof the programme decided upon for1951 by the General Conference. It isequally impossible to draw up a balancesheet of endeavours which have alreadyborne fruit. Nevertheless, it must benoted that the General Conference of1950. marks an important date in thestruggle for the free circulation oflùeas"by words and images". TheConference has, in fact, unanimouslyapproved an International Conventionfor the free circulation of educationalmaterial. in lilt ; lè ! ü ! ! f gïêt ;-ment, the signatory governments wouldundertake to abolish customs duty onhooks, publications and documents andprovide currency for the importation ofbooks to public libraries. Moreover, allcustoms duties which have preventedthe importation of pictures, designs,sculpture, music and material for mu-seums, would also be lifted. Immediat-ely after the approval of this projectagreed upon by the Conference, theBritish delegation announced that itsgovernment intended to sign and pre-sent this document without delay forthe ratification of Parliament.

An Examination Of Conscience

W HETHEIl it was a question of exa-\\'mining its routine programme orspecially selected projects, the

General Conference was continually ab-sorhed with the problem of peace. Thecrises undergone and surmounted arosefrom this"examination of conscience"that the Conference had attempted, mthe words of M. Torres Bodet. Further-more, one of the most significant fea-tures of the Conference has been itsdesire to place particular emphasis onthe role of the member states in theexecution of Unesco's programme.L'nesco had at times been accused ofbeing a bureaucracy. This year eventhe language of its programme indicatesan effort to nullify this objection. Theresolutions which have been voted arenot all drawn up according to the tra-ditional formula :"The General Confer-ence instructs the Director-GeneraL."An increasing number begin with thesewords :"The General Conference invitesmember SMes..." One can perhaps land,in this new trend, signs of a happy,transformation. There is no cause forastonishment that attention to suchmatters is of such recent date. Unescois a young organism ; its means arelimited and its tasks immense. For liveyears it has had to work as quic'klyas possible ; to repair, with the meansat its disposal, the havoc of war ; todraw up a programme and a field ofaction.

Unesco, today, in taking stock of it-self, is passing through a kind of crisis.Its weakness, and at the same time itsstrength is being noted."L'nesco", asAt. Torres Bodet has said,"consists o/59 member states." : \leasured in termsof this idea of an assembly of states,the power of Unesco is immense. Andin order that this power can be fullyused, its programme and its effortsmust not be merely those of a team ofspecialists ; they must become the com-mon task of nations determined to safe-guard peace.

UNESCO COURtER-Pe 4

One 01 the most important decisions taken by Unesco's Fifth QensruiConference was to establish a long-range bc :. : ; i" programme for ther. ext several years as distsyisned from the work plan for 1951.

Tr'UE, Unesco's ol : > ! : : : ; ves for next year are part of a long-term plan,cov : : ; y itle policies and main lines of work of the Organization.

InclUded in the basic programme is a 10 point list of tasks fo ;Unesco. These are :

1. To eliminate illiteracy and encourage fundamental education :2. To obtain for each person an education conforming to his aptitudes

and to the needs of society, including technological training andhigher education :

3. To promote respect for human rights throughout all nations :4. To remove the obstacles to the free flow of persons, ideas and

knowledge between the countries of the world ;5. To promote the progress and utilization of science for mankind :6. To remove the causes of tensions that may lead to war ;7. To demonstrate world cultural interdependence ;8. To advance through the press, radio and motion pictures the cause

01 truth, freedom and peace ;9. To bring about better understanding among the peoples of the

world and to convince them of the necessity of co-operatingloyally with one another in the framework of the United Nations :

10 To render clearing-house and exchange services in all its fieldsof action, together with services in reconstruction and relief assis-tance.

The basic programme resolutions are grouped under seven differentheads : Education, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, Cultural Activities,Exchange of Persons, Mass Communications and Relief Services. As lackof space prevents publication of these resolutions in full, the Courier pre-sents on this page a summarized version of the basic programme.

B E'l7ER ethds of education 8 : wider diffusion of o ; ;- ; : : ácy arenot. end_ ; 1 themselves. The

fiji object must be to equip manlÁ> play his part harmoniously in themodern world. It is not enough forhim to know his own land and hisown people ; he lives in a network ofrelationships that go beyond frontiers.Today, all nations are interdependent,and they must learn to recognize it.

1. IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATIONTHROUGH THE EXCHANGE OFINFORMATION

More progress can be achieved, and; rakp .'a'1} J ! t : : ;."viû. tG.. if ine experi-

ments being made throughout theworld in education and psychology arebetter known. Unesco collects inform-ation about such experiments, ana-lyses it, and promotes its distribution,to help improve methods of teachingand to further the international pur-poses of Unesco.

2. EXTENSION OF EDUCATIONUnesco has the duty of helping

Member States to ensure for everybodywhose education has been neglected,interrupted or impeded, the chance toovercome his handicaps. Unesco mustpay special attention to fundamentaland adult education, and to the train-ing-of handicapped children.

3. EDUCATION FOR INTERNATION-AL UNDERSTANDINGConsciousness of the unity of man-

kind is still rudimentary. Teachers areonly beginning to discover suitablemethods ; textbooks need to be im-proved. Schoolchildren know littleabout the international organizationsof today and the services they canrender to world peace and prosperity.Unesco must therefore help to promoteeducation In world citizenship.

The natural and exact sciences,being objective and impartial,of offer a particularly suitable fieldfor action by Unesco.

Laboratories and research institutesinfluence the development of humancommunities. All men should benefitfrom discoveries that can raise stan-dards of living. Once men are in aposition to improve their living condi-tions, they are able as never beforeto grow in mutual understanding.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFICCOOPERATION

Scientific research benefits from awidespread exchange of information.Unesco must help international orga-nizations of scientists by encouragingthe meeting and movement of experts,to help in the co-ordination of inter-national scientific congresses, to pro-mote the classification and analysis ofspecialized publications and to over-come difficulties of language by stan-dardizing scientific terminology and byencouraging multilingual dictionaries.To ensure speedier exchanges betweenscientists, Unesco maintains Scientificcooperation offices in areas where thevare most needed.

2. AS$ISTANCE Tn nSEARCH FOR

"t"UVEMENT OF THE LIV-&.. ti CONDITIONS OF MANKIND.Unesco can render genuine service

by detecting gaps in the developmentof research and helping to fill them.Thus, for example, it encourages insti-tutes for the study of biological factorsin different climates or the develop-ment of certain wide areas, and it par-ticipates in the plans for creatingUnited Nations laboratories.

3. TEACHING AND POPULARIZ-ATION OF SCIENCEAll men need access to basic scien-

tific knowledge in order that they hiitybetter understand their world. Theyshould also know that such knowledgedepends in large measure on the resultof international cooperation. The ob-ject should be to develop an attitudeof mind and an understanding of theeffects of applying science to modernconditions and to the development ofhuman society.

No attempts to better the lot ofman can meet with success un-less they take account of his en-vironment. Unesco must there-

fore place social science in the fore-ground of its field of study. Inter-national cooperation is itself a pheno-menon deserving scientific study.

The major international organiz-ation established in the first half ofthe twentieth century are especiallyworth studying. In a world becomingmore complex, and more highly organ-ized, the study of international coo-peration may make it possible both toimprove that cooperation and to ex-tend it to new fields.

1. AID TO INTERNATIONAL SCIEN-TIFIC COOPERATIONThere are three ways in which

Unesco can help in the teaching anddevelopment of the social sciences.These are by meetings which may re-sult in new contacts and exchanges ofviews, through translation and docu-mentation services, and through thestandardization of technical termi-nology.

2. STUDIES OF SOCIAL TENSIONS

International Cooperation must bebrought to bear on particular studiesrelated to the purposes of Unesco-such as that of social tensions. Re-search results must be disseminatedas widely as possible to prevent orarrest the growth of mass mental atti-tudes that endanger peace.

3. STUDIES OF INTERNATIONALCOOPERATIONThe organs of international cooper-

ation have sufficiently developed tomake a study of them by the methodsof Social Science worth while.

UNESCO'S first task is to fosterinternational relations by ar-ranging for thinkers, writers,artists and their ideas to move

freely across national frontiers. Unes-

cn forms a meeting ground for thecultures of the world. It stimulatesnations to develop their literature, artand science and see them as parts ofa world heritage. It helps MemberStates to protect works of art fromneglect or violence and from the ra-vages of time, and it assists in bring-ing artists and writers before the world.It uses every means to ensure that allpeople shall have access to the bestworks of every land and every age.

1. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Gatherings of experts or of interna-tional associations of scholars, can doa great deal for cultural cooperation.Unesco accordingly aids and encou-rages such meetings, at the same timeassociating these experts and associ-ations with its own programme. Theexchange of specialized information de-pends largely on documentary andbibliographical services : here againUnesco can do much useful work.

2, PROTECTION OF CREATIVEWORK AND ITS AUTHORS

For the preservation of works of artand historical monuments every Stateis responsible both to its own peopleand to mankind. But international co-operation is also necessary to spreadwide the knowledge of method. Unescoencourages and helps this activity,offering technical assistance and, inexceptional cases, where resources areinadequate, aid in the raising of funds.

The creation of new : : úsophical,artistic or lite : ; work, should befoster,,"DY the assertion and defenceof the independence of the thinker,writer and artist. Unesco seeks topromote international cooperation inorder to ensure respect for this inde-pendence throughout the world. Unes-co is endeavouring to bring about theconclusion of a universal conventionthat will give equal consideration tothe interests of the authors, the in-dustry, the workers and the generalpublic.

3. DISSEMINATION OF CULTUREThe Universal Declaration of Human

Rights affirms that"everyone has theright freely to participate in the cultur-al life of the community". Unesco willassist Member States by providing in-formation, carrying out studies, mak-ing recommendations and, where ne-cessary, itself taking practical action todirect the education of both youth andadults towards a better understandingof the culture of mankind. Finally,means should be found for improvingthe quality of the reproduction andtranslation of artistic and literaryworks and for their wide dissemin-ation.

STUDY abroad not only gives in-sight into new discoveries andtechniques but also helps the in-habitants of one country to adapt

themselves to the ways of life andthought of another. Accordingly,Unesco encourages people with differ-ent national, social and cultural back-grounds to visit other countries eitherfor general education or for profess-ional training.

The world today suffers from ashortage of experts and technicians inalmost every field of activity. Unescois accordingly doing its best to multi-ply fellowships as well as facilities forshort periods of study. It is itself ableto award annually a limited numberof fellowships.

1. CLEARING-HOUSEThe Clearing-House makes inform-

ation available to Member States, go-vernmental and other organizations,institutions and persons concernedwith education in order to advise thosewishing to study abroad, to ensure acloser co-ordination of already existingactivities, and to stimulate new pro-grammes. In the publication of thevolume"Study Abroad"a methodicalattempt is made to list all facilities forstudy abroad available to students :

2. PROMOTIONTo encourage interr. ational exchange

of persons, Unesco seeks to increasefacilities for those requiring financialassistance and to promote broader andmore varied programmes. It also sug-gests how programmes of study abroadcan serve the cause of internationalunderstanding.

3. FELLOWSHIP ADMINISTRATIONThe award of fellowships enabling

qualified candidates to study abroadhelps Unesco to implement its ownprogramme, inasmuch as holders oftravel fellowship financed by Unescocan be associated with its projects andactivities. Unesco can also give helpand advice to institutions planninginternational fellowship programmes

and it furthermore organizes interne-ships for students

TRESS, radio and film can do muchto help international understand-ing. Understanding depends oninformation, and in a free world

the right to this is part of the right toeducation.

Unesco's first task is to make a sur-vey of the present resources for masscommunications, as the basis for im-prOVIng them. Unequal technical de-velopment in various countries hasoften led to such disparities that whatshould be normal for all is oftenin fact the privilege of the few.Unesco is therefore building up aclearing-house for the exchange ofdata on public information systems sothat all may benefit from one an-other's experience. Unesco must alsoencourage the scientific study of theproblems of mass communication andpromote professional training to meetmodern needs. Nor do knowledge ortraining solve all the problems, so longas ideas and technical materials can-not freely cross national frontiers.Unesco in its survey of present resour-ces also collects data about such obsta-cles to a free flow, and sePU o sur-mount them by International agree-ments or íl otlier ways.

according to its Constitution, Unescocollaborates"in the work of advancingmutual knowledge and understandingof peoples through all means of masscommunication". Throughout theworld, consequently, it stimulates theuses of press, film, radio and relatedmedia to promote social progress andinternational understanding and usesthem to enlighten the public about itsactivities and objectives.

1. IMPROVEMENT OF MEANS ANDTECHNIQUES OF INFORMAT10NUnesco has set up an information

clearing-house to deal with all pro-blems concerning mass communic-ations, including professional an\technical training and the techniquesand influence of the press, radio andaim. Exact information is collectedby field surveys.

2, REDUCTION OF OBSTACLES TOTHE FREE FLOW OF INFORM-ATIONProgress in the field of mass com-

munication requires the reduction and,if possible, the removal of certain ob-stacles. Means of overcoming themmust be investigated and adequatemeasures recommended to MemberStates, to whom appropriate inter-national conventions must be submittedfor ratification. The free flow, whichUnesco thus seeks to promote, shouldcover not only ideas and news of aninformative nature but all audio-visualmaterial serving educational, scientificand cultural purposes.

3. ACTION THROUGH PRESS, FILMAND RADIOWhile encouraging, within the scope

of its capacities and the limits of itsprogramme, the practical activities ofthe press, cinema and radio. Unescointends also to employ the facilitiesthey offer for the purposes laid downin its Constitution. It encourages di-rectors and producers through dis-cussion and the supply of material, totake due account of the services to berendered to international understand-ing in the fields of education, scienceand culture. It also keeps them in-formed of its own activities and sup-plies them with appropriate materialready for immediate use.

ALL those things we hold valuablein education, science and cultureare from time to time threatenedby disaster-whether natural or

at the hands of man. Help for thevictims of such misfortunes, if it is tobe really effective, must be co-ordinat-ed and directed where it is mostneeded. Unesco has undertaken, with-in the sphere of its competence, tocollect, analyse and distribute inform-ation about the nature and extent ofthe help required.

This documentary service providesa basis for three types of action : first-ly, Unesco gives direct aid to devastat-ed countries by gifts of material or bythe provision of services, drawing forthis purpose on a Relief Fund to whichit contributes from its own budget.

This direct aid is supplemented bycampaigns for voluntary aid in whichUnesco unites its efforts with those ofother organizations pursuing similaraims. These campaigns are capableof producing substantial results.

Lastly, Unesco encourages voluntarywork camps conducted in accordancewith the aims of Unesco and engagedin reconstruction tasks to becomecentres of international understanding.

Page 5-UNESCO COURIEft

, ,

EDUCATION

UNESCO during 1951 will stimulateshe movement for mass educa-tion in many parts of the world

chiefly by helpinq member statesto develop and improve their work insuch fields as fundamental and adulteducation. Unesco will therefore pre-pare teaching materials, organize se-minars and educational conferences,help to train teachers at regional cen-tres and develop educational co-opera-tion through missions and the exchan-ge of information.

Three educational missions will besent to member states and inquiriesinto language and science teachingwill be continued with the Internatio-nal Bureau of Education. The probiemof expanding and lengthening freeeducation and the effect of this onlabour and industry will be discussedwith the International Bureau of Edu-cation and the International LabourOffice.

Unesco will give advice and providetechnical facilities for the United Na-tions Technical Assistance Program-me. The pilot project, started in Hai-ti between 1948 and 1950, will befurther developed. The Governmentof India plans a pi10t project in as-sociation with Unesco. A seminar onfundamental and adult education isplanned for the Near East.

Unesco will continue a comparativestudy of curricula in use in the va-rious countries of the world in theteaching of history, geography and so-cial studies. It will issue a publica-tion on the teaching of history anda Teacher's Guide to the Declarationof Human Rights. Studies on historyand geography textbooks used in va-rious countries will be continued, andan international seminar on theteaching of history in primary andsecondary schools will be held.

To meet a request from the UnitedNations and its specialized agencies,Unesco will investigate measures toreduce illiteracy, to use native langua-ges in teaching, and to stimulate in-ternational action to break down bar-riers to the access of women to edu-cation.

Special efforts will be made to de-termine and encourage the applicationof the most effective ways of teachingchildren about the Universal Decla-ration of Human Rights and about theUnited Nations and its SpecializedAgencies.

NATURAL SCIENCES

THE 1951 activities of Unesco inthe field of Natural Sciences willparticularly concern the develop-

ment of international scientific co-operation, assistance to research forthe improvement of the living con-ditions of mankind, and the teachingand popularization of science.

Approval has been given to study aplan to set up regional research cen-tres, with funds to be obtained out-side Unesco's budget. One examplesuggested was for a centre of researchin physics and other sciences in

ON this and the following page, the Courier presents a sum-mary of the main Unesco projects for 1951 approved bythe Fifth Session of the General Conference. From this

programme, M. Jaime Torres Bodet, Unesco's Director-Generalhas been authorized to select immediate priority projects so asto carry out Unesco's work in the most effective and concen-trated manner.

The Unesco work plans for 1951 have been allocated a budgetof $8, 200, 000, but in addition to the regular annual budget, finan-cial resources may be increased through voluntary contributionsfrom member countries. These extra funds would be used tofinance special projects outside the ordinary programme, whichare to be worked out by the Director-General and the ExecutiveBoard.

Western Europe as an attempt to over-come difficulties arising out of thehigh cost of research into higher phy-sics.

Grants-in-aid and services will begiven to international organizations inthe fields of engineering, science, me-dicine, agriculture, biology and theprotection of nature. Discussions willbe promoted on scientific problems ofregional importance ; and action takento organize the exchange of scientificinformation, personnel and material.

Recognizing the value of Unesco'sField Science Co-operation Offices, theConference voted to increase the bud-get allotted to them. These officeswill help the execution of the Plan ofTechnical Assistance to under-deve-loped areas.

Unesco will also make a special ef-fort to encourage scientific and tech-nical research and development of aridand semi-arid areas, in co-operationwith the International Arid ZoneResearch Council and with the UnitedNations.

Unesco also aims to bring scienceinto the lives of ordinary men andwomen by fostering science clubs,scientific exhibitions, discussionsamong workers'groups about the ef-fect on their work of scientific pro-gress, and world-wide discussions onthemes related to the inter-action bet-ween Science and Society. The Orga-nization will help publishers to pro-duce cheap attractive books on science,and will distribute popular scientificarticles to newspapers and magazines,and filmstrips for use by lecturers tonon-scientific groups. It will help as-sociations for the advancement ofscience in war-devastated and otherneedy areas.

Finally, Unesco will promote closerinternational collaboration betweenscience teachers, particularly in scienceteaching methods and the develop-ment of a scientific attitude in pri-mary and secondary schools.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNESCO'S Social Sciences program-me has three main sections : aid

to international scientific colla-boration, studies of social tensions,and studies of international co-oper-ation.

The studies of social tensions will

include an investigation of race con-tacts in Brazil, to determine factorscontributing to harmonious race rela-tions.

Unesco plans a study of populationproblems in countries in process of in-dustrialization, win organize a studyof tensions resulting from over-popu-lation, and will continue the enquiryinto tensions resulting from shifts ofpopulation. Unesco will also arrangea"tensions"investigation among Ja-panese youth.

Unesco will encourage the develop-ment of international associations inthe branches of sociology, politicalscience, economics, comparative law,and international studies, and willentrust them with work correlated toits programme. It will publish a perio-dical for social scientists and will en-courage the development of socialsciences'documentation services.

Studies will be made in the field ofinternational co-operation. In one ofthese Unesco will seek to determinehow greater public support can be ob-tained for the United Nations.

Finally, Unesco will study the tech-nique of international conferencesbased upon exploratory surveys car-ried out during 1949-50, and will pu-hlish the'results.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

WITH the aid of the Internatio-nal Council of Philosophy andHumanistic Studies, UNESCO

will assist studies already in progresson the native cultures of America,Africa and other regions. Anotherplan to be carried out is the pre-paration by an international groupof experts of a history of the scien-tific and cultural development of hu-manity, showing the exchanges whichhave taken place throughout the agesbetween different peoples and culturesin science, technology, philosophy, thearts and other branches of culturallife.

In addition to assisting the develop-ment of modern cultural relations,UNESCO helps to preserve the cultu-ral heritage of the past through themaintenance of libraries and museumscontaining Books and works of artwhich constitute this heritage. Therights and the material and moral in-

terests of the authors of literary andartistic creation must be defended.UNESCO will also endeavour to bringthe most important works and expres-sions of world culture to all peoples.

UNESCO will continue its efforts toco-ordinate fiiò1iographical services onan international basis. Furthermore,it will study the problem of the mi-crophotographic reproduction of rareperiodicals anõ the practical aid to begiven to certain States for the repro-duction of important documents.

In the field of the visual arts,UNESCO will conduct an enquiry onthe place held by the arts in the edu-cational system of various countries.In order to famiIiarise the masseswith art, impulse will be given to thephotographic reproduction of theworks of art of all countries.

Under the auspices of the Interna-tional Council of Music, internationalmusic festivals will be held, scholar-ships and grants awarded, and music-al scores of special importance co-pied, reproduced, and lent from onecountry to another. The work of ca-taloguing recorded music will be con-tinued, and UNESCO will increase itby a collection of important musicalworks which have not yet been record-ed on a commercial scale. It willalso encourage the recording of folkmusic.

UNESCO will continue to collabo-rate with the International P. E. N.Club. It will also publish informationon the translations of foreign bookspublished in each country and in theIndex translationum, an internationalanalytic catalogue of translations.

The translation of the chief literaryand cultural works of every countryinto the greatest possible number oflanguages will be chiefly concerned, in1951, with Italian, Arabic and Latin-American literature.

UNESCO will also work for the esta-blishment of a Universal CopyrightConvention, and will prepare the con-vening of an inter-governmental con-ference to decide on the text of thisconvention.

EXCHANGE

OF PERSONS

UNESCO will continued an enquiryinto means of removing obsta-cles to the free movement of

persons. A new edition of a spe-cial supplement to"Study Abroad"onstudy opportunities during vacationswill be published. The basic work,"Study Abroad", of which successiveeditions were published in 1948, 1949and 1950 constitutes a general guide toexisting openings of study abroad. In-tended originally to provide a fun listof international fellowships, the con-tents have been progressively augment-ed to include other categories of ex-changes as, for example, industrialand agricultural workers, and youngpeople.

While assembling information fromMember States and from non-govern-

(Continued on page û)

Some of the delegates to Unesco's Fifth General Conference. Above (left) are members of the United States delegation. From left to right : Dr Howland H. Sargeant(Chairman of the Delegation) ; Mrs. Charles Reed (wife of the U. S. Consul General) ; Mr. Charles Reed, Miss Bernice Baxter. Dr. George D. Stoddard, Dr. L L Rabiand Dr George F. Zook. In the photo (above, right), are : H. E. Dr. Jose Pezet (Panama) Dr Riazuddin Siddiqui (Pakistan) ; Dr. J. C. Beaglehole (New Zealand) and

Mr. Hans Mohr (Norway).

UNESCO COURIER-PACE 6

UNESCO'S PROGRAMME FOR 1951

(. 0 N'I'1 N Ii t It.

(Continued tram page 5.)mental organizations on the grantingand administering of internationalstudy grants, and making this infor-mation available to individuals, groupsand governments, UNESCO will alsohelp to bring about adoption of com-mon methods and techniques in theadministration of scholarships andthe planning of new programmes.

As budgetary limitations preventUNESCO from allocating large sumsfor the creation and administration ofscholarships, the programme for 1951aims to encourage exchanges of per-sons by co-ordinating activities of or-ganizations which award fellowshipsand study grants.

Help to intellectual refugees is cov-ered by an International Student Ser-vice proposal sponsored by the Ne-therlands Conference delegation, pro-viding for the creation-with UNESCOhelp-of a fund for the use of refugeestudents.

UNESCO will itself during 1951grant 55 fellowships for citizens of itsMember States. These will allow spe-cialists to study activities related tothe UNESCO Programme. After thebeneficiaries have finished their workand returned to their home countries,UNESCO remains in close contact withthem so that the knowledge they haveacquired may be used in the applica-tion of UNESCO's programme.

MASS

COMMUNICATIONS

To bering about the widest possiblepublic participation in its pro-gramme and an understanding

of its aims by action through theworld's press, radio, films and othermedia of communications will be oneof the main Unesco tasks for 1951.

REPRESENTATIVES FROM THE FAR EAST THE MIDDLE EAST, LATIN AME.

RICA AND EUROPE AT UNESCO'S FIFTH GENERAL CONFERENCE

The aim will be to present theseactivities so as to focus them upon theUniversal Declaration of HumanRights and within this framework, tohighlight the right to education, thebenefits of scientific progress and in-formation. Emphasis will be put onmaterial illustrating : Fundamentaleducation for all people and educationfor international understanding ; theright of all peoples to enjoy the bene-fits of scientific progress and the rela-tionship of the work of scientists topeace and human welfare ; the strug-gle to resolve racial and other pro-blems, and the methods and achieve-ments oi international co-operation ;the part played by creative artists insuch co-operation ; freedom of infor-mation and the free exchange of ideas.

The organization will examine thepossibility of creating an Internatio-nal Institute of the Press and Infor-mation through consultations withnational and international organiza-tions.

The replies from these groups willbe discussed by an experts'committeeset up by Unesco. On the basis of thereplies, Unesco will be able to decidewhether a conference to create theInstitute should be called.

The General Conference also ap-proved a number of projects to helpUnesco's efforts to reduce obstacles to

the free flow of information. One ofthem is to secure from the contractingparties of the General Agreement onTariffs and Trade further reductionsof customs barriers to the internatio-nai circulation of educational, scienti-fic and cultural materials.

Unesco will also co-operate with theRegional Economic Commissions ofthe United Nations in the encourage-ment of the domestic production, thepromotion of the exchange, and thefacilitation of trade agreements in-volving educational, scientific and cul-tural materials. It will seek, in con-junction with these commissions, spe-cial dispensations for categories ofpersons engaged in educational activi-

ties with regard to visa and frontierformalities, labour permits and simi-lar facilities. Unesco will work forwider application of schemes initiatedby the Universal Postal Union to per-mit payment in national currenciesfor subscriptions to foreign newspa-pers, and for a 50 per cent reductionon postal charges for printed matter.

The preparation and disseminationof a study such as"World Press Co-verage of Educational, Scientific andCultural Information"will also be un-dertaken.

An international agreement reduc-ing or abolishing economic controls onthe movement of books, newspapers,works of art, documentary films and awide range of other educational mate-rials, was adopted by the Conference *

During 1951, Unesco will also carryout intensive work as a clearinghouse for the collection, analysis, diss-emination and exchange of informa-tion and experiences in the techniques,uses and effects of the press, film, ra-dio and allied media in the fields ofeducation, science and culture.

Expert aid missions will be underta-ken to advise and assist in the im-provement of mass communications inunder-developed or war devastatedcountries.

The world survey of technical faci-lities, already carried out in 52 coun-tries or territories, will be completedand extended to 33 other countriesand territories. The Member Stateswill be invited to set up within theframework of their National Commis-sions standing consultative commit-tees on technical and professionnalproblems.

Finally, Unesco will continue its ef-fort to bring about world unificationin Braille. A world Braille Councilwill be created and conferences will beheld for experts in Arabic and Spa-nish-Portuguese Braille.

. See page 7 of this issue for areport on this agreement.

RELIEF SERVICES

THE Relief Assistance Service ofUNESCO, set up five years agoas the Reconstruction Depart-

ment to help war-hit countries, hasnow extended its programme to meetthe needs of any country requiringrelief.

War damage is being repaired, butnew emergency situations requiringthe assistance of an international or-ganization such as UNESCO still arise.The wars in Palestine and Greece leftmany refugees to be cared for as didthe earthquakes in Ecuador last yearand in Peru this year, when numerousschools and buildings of great histo-ric and artistic value were destroyed

The General Conference consideredtwo such problems in particular : tñesituation of refugee children in Greeceand the Near East, which continues tobe extremely serious. As no really ef-fective help could be given fromUnesco's limited budget, the Confe-rence decided to appeal to the govern-ments of the 59 Member States tocontribute funds sufficient for effec-tive action.

Unesco's Relief Service will continueto assemble information on the needsof countries and use it to prepare forthe provision of direct assistance orthe organization of voluntary aid cam-paigns. It will also allocate creditsfrom the Relief Fund to needy coun-tries and will assist them to purchaseand transport equipment and help tosecure import and export licences andcustoms exemptions.

As UNESCO's funds are insufficientfor this work, the Service will workwith Member States to focus publicopinion and sympathy en the needs ofdevastated areas and organist cam-paigns for voluntary assistance. Fi-nally, it will aid co-ordination inter-nationally-and, through NationalCommissions, nationally-of the ef-forts of the voluntary associationsparticipating in UNESCO's relief work.

Pace 7-UNESCO COURIER

ON May 23rd, 1950. Director-General Jaime Torres Bodet asked

delegates to the Fifth Session of the Unesco General Conference

to act in the interest pf world peace-in the future and in our

times as well. On June 17. he described certain ultimate conclusions

of the delegates as expressive of"a will for peace"and testimony to

"the fidelity of all of us to Unesco's supreme ideal". In his sum-

mation, the Director-General referred particularly to two resolutions

passed by the conference-one of them proposed jointly by the

RESOLUTION

PRESENTED BY THE DELEGATIONS OF

BRAZIL, CANADA, ECUADOR, EGYPT,

FRANCE, INDIA, ITALY, UNITED KINGDOM,

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

THE GENERA. L CONFERENCE,

HA VING HEARD the statements of V01'ÍOUS delegations and ofthe Director-General,

NOTING that the programme of the Organization, as decided

upon by the present Conference, constitutes a m01'ie direct andimportant contribution to the cause of ace than the programmes'of previous years,,

CONSIDERING that all the activities of Unesco must, inaccordance with its Constitution, be directed towards the peaceand prosperity of mankind, within the framework of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights,

CONSIDERING that these activities, to be fully effective, must

postulate a truly and Sincerely universal outlook that shall eschewall thoughtlOf aggression and shall be based on recognition of the

principles of justice and freed01n on which the Constitution of theOrganization is based,

INSTRUCTS the Executive Board and the Director-General to

carry out the programme for 1951 in the most effective andconcentrated manner possible, b, earing prominently in mind the

guiding T ! rinâples laid down in the preamble to th basic pro-

qram, me,INSTRUCTS the Executive Board and the Director-General to

prepare, for the Sixth Session of the General Confierence, a draftprogramme in which the various activities involving internationalco-operation in the fields of education, science and culture shalltend more directly, within the framework of'the United Nationsand its other Specialized Agencies, towards the maintenance andconsolidation of peace,

REQUESTS the Executive Board and the Director-General tostudy, for that purpose, projects that can be financed apart ?'owtthe regular programme, by voluntary contributions of money ofwerviees from the greatest possible number of, countries,

INVITES Member States, with a view to tÞe successful exe-cution of a concentrated programme of this nature, to consider the

possibility of increasing in this way the resources of the Organiz-ation in the future.

A T its closing meeting on June 17th, the General Conference approveda resolution proposed by France to authorize Unesco's ExecutiveBoard to finance, by a transfer of funds from the 1950 budget, pre-

liminary studies in 1950 of special projects aimed at the maintenance andconsolidation of peace proposed for the 1951 programme.

delegations of Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, Egypt, France, India, Italy,

the United Kingdom and the United States of America ; the other by

the delegation of Belgium. These resolutions are reproduced on this

page. The Conference also approved proposals by Norway and by

France, aimed to define thy duties of member states in carrying out

their obligations under the Unesco Constitution and to provide funds

for the execution of priority projects.

RESOLUTION

SUBMITTED BY

THE BELGIAN DELEGATION

THE GENERAL CONFERENCE

REAFFIRMS ITS DECISION that Unesco, within the limits of

Üs competence, co-operate closely and actively in the programme

of peace of the United Nations ;

NOTING that, as one of the Specialized Agencies of the United

Nations, Unesco flufters from the effects of the difficulties which

ar>e compromising the harmonious workings of tl/, e system of the

United Nations and its Specialized Agencies,.

EXPRESSES the hope that these difficulties will be rapidly

solved,

AND CALLS ON Member States to make every efforts to this

effect in the framework of their action within the United Nations

and its Specialized Ag : encies,

RENEWS an urgent appeal to its Member States in order that

each, on thle national level, continues and intensifies its action in

thei'fields of. education, science and culture with a væw to

facilitating and developing understanding between the peoples,

AFFIRMS that Unesco's contribution to the cause of peace

consists in giving an example of toerance and mutual under-

standing'as well as freedom of exchange and fredom of expression

of ideas within the widest diversities of viewpoints,

INVITES all those in the world who arle devoted to education,

science and culture as well as those who dispose of means of mass

communication to assist in the development of this action,

INSTRUCTS the Director-General to bring this resolution to

attention of the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Norwegian proposal on Education}

Scientific and Cultural duties of the State

1-'HE following resolution, submitted by the delegation of Norway, wasunanimously adopted at the closing session of the General Confer-ence :

"The Director General is authorized to consider the constitution of acommittee charged with the preparation of a charter of the duties of theState in regard to education, science and culture for the purpose of ensur-ing a better understanding between peoples, and to prepare a report onthis subject for the next session of the General Conference."

GENERAL CONFERENCE ADOPTS V1/ORLD AGREEMENT

FOR DUTY-FREE IMPORT OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS

IN some countries books comingfrom abroad are taxed as much

as 300 per cent. Scientific equip-

ment needed in research laboratories,! is taxed with equal severity. Education

exhibitions, destined for schools and

museums, remain in customs'ware-

houses while their sponsors try to raise

the heavy bond often required by the

authorities.

These tariff and trade regulations

make it costly, difficult and sometimes

impossible for people in many coun-

tries to obtain the works of art, and

the scientific and educational materials

they need.

To remedy that situation, Unesco's

Fifth General Conference adopted

unanimously a new international

Agreement allowing a wide range of

educational, scientific and cultural ma-

terials to move across frontiers free of

duty. Governments adhering to this

Agreement will abolish duties on books,

newspapers, magazines, musical scores,

maps and charts. They will grant

import licences and foreign currency

for publications needed by public

libraries.

The Agreement will also permit the

free importation of paintings, drawings

and sculpture. Approved institutions,

such as museums, laboratories and

schools, will enjoy sweeping privileges

for the free importation of everything

from documentary films to scientific

apparatus. One provision, for exam-

pie, eliminates barriers to the move-ment of everything required for the

educational advancement of the blind.

"Free Trade"

in Culture

'\T'3W that the Agreement has beenunanimously adopted, it will be

opened shortly for signature at

Lake Success. The British Govern-

ment has announced that it will sign

the Agreement and submit it to Par-

liament for ratification. Many other

countries have also indicated that they

will seek quick legislative approval of

the pact. There is little doubt that it

will obtain, within a short delay, the

ten ratifications needed to bring it

into force.

This is the second international

Agreement to be sponsored by Unesco.The first is designed to abolish duties,

quotas and other trade barriers to themovement of films, recordings and

similar audio-visual aids to education.

It has been signed by 17 countries

and ratified by one, Norway.

When these Unesco Agreements

enter into force, bringing a"free

trade"in culture, people in each coun-

try will find it much easier to obtain

books, paintings, documentary films

and all types of educational materials

from other countries-a significant,

practical step towards international

understanding.

UNESCO COURIER-Page 8

THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR HUMAN UNITS

Unesco Publishes Declaration By World's Scientists

The following statement was published by Unesco on July y) 8 th.) t was prepared by the Unesco Committeeof Experts on Race Problems, at Unesco House in Paris, and was drafted by the following scientists : Ernest Beagle-hole, New Zealand ; Juan Comas, Mexico ; L. A. Costa Pinto, Brazil ; Franklin Frazier, United States ; MorrisGinsberg, United Kingdom ; Humayun Kabir, India ; Claude Levi-Strauss, France ; Ashley Montage, UnitedStates. The text was revises. by Professor Montagu after criticisms submitted by Professors Hadley Cantril, E. G. Conklin,Gunnar Dahlberg, Theodosius Dobzhansky, L. C. Dunn, Donald Hager, Julian S. Hux ! ey. Otto Klineberg, Wi ! bert Moore.H. J. Muller, Gunnar Myrdal, and Joseph Needham.

SCIENTISTS have reached generalagreement in recognising thatmankind is one : that all men belongto the same species, Homo sapiens.

It is further generally agreed amongscientists that all men are probablyderived from the same common stock ;and that such differences as exist betweendifferent groups of mankind are due tothe operation of evolutionary factors ofdifferentiation such as isolation, the driftand random fixation of the materialparticles which control heredity (thegenes), changes in the structure of the : eparticles, hybridization, and naturalselection. In these ways groups havearisen of varying stability and degree ofdifferentiation which have been classifiedin different ways for different purposes.

From the biological standpoint, thespecies Homo sapiens is made up of anumber of populations, each one of whichdiffers from the others in the frequencyof one or more genes. Such genes,responsible for the hereditary differencesbetween men, are aiways few when com-pared to the whole genetic constitutionof man and to the vast number of genescommon to all human beings regardless

choose to describe as a race. Thus, manynational, religious, geographic, linguisticor cultural groups have, in such looseusage, been called"races", when obviouslyAmericans are not a race, nor are En-glishmen, nor Frenchmen, nor any othernational group. Catholics, Protestants,Moslems, and Jews are not races, nor aregroups who speak English or any otherlanguage thereby definable as a race ;people who live in Iceland or England orIndia are not races ; nor are people whoare culturally Turkish or Chinese or thelike thereby describable as races.

National, religious, geographic, lin-guistic. and cultural groups do not ne-cessarily coincide with racial groups ; andthe cultural traits of such groups haveno demonstrated genetic connection withracial traits. Because serious errors ofthis kind are habitually committed whenthe term"race"is used in popular par-lance. it would be better when speakingof human races to drop the term"race"altogether and speak of ethnic groups.

Now what has the scientist to sayabout the groups of mankind which maybe recognized at the present time ? Hu-man races can be and have been dif-

RACIAL HARMONY-NEW ZEALAND In New Zealand the Maori population morethan doubled between 1896 and 1936 andtoday Maoris number about one twentieth 01 the total population. Not more than half ofthe Maoris are 01 pure Maori descent and the number 01 those of mixed blood appears tobe increasing rather more rapidly than those of unmixed race. Maoris made an importantcontribution to New Zealand's war effort and to-day are participating more and more inthe economic and political life of the country, one important development being the increas-

ing number entering the teaching profession.

of the population to which they belong.This means that the likenesses amongmen are far greater than their diffe-rences.

A race, from the biological standpoint,may therefore be defined as one of thegroup of populations constituting thespecies"Homo sapiens."These popul-ations are capable of interbreeding withone another but, by virtue of the isolat-ing barriers which in the past kept themmore or less separated, exhibit certainphysical differences as a result of theirsomewhat different biological histories.They represent variations, as it were, ona common theme.

In short, the term"race"designates agroup or population characterised bysome concentrations, relative as to fre-quency and distribution, of hereditaryparticles (genes) or physical characters,which appear, fluctuate, and often disap-pear in the course of time by reason ofgeographic and/or cultural isolation. Thevarying manifestations of these traits indifferent populations are perceived indifferent ways by each group. What isperceived is largely preconceived, so thatea h group arbitrarily tends to misinter-pret the variability which occurs as afundamental difference which separatestr> ! t g-roup from all others.

These are the scientific facts. Unfor-tunately, however, when most people usethe term"race"they do not do. so in thetense above defined. To most people, arace is any group of people whom they

ferently classified by different anthropo-logists, but at the present time mostanthropologists agree in classifying thegreater part of present-day mankind intothree major divisions, as follows :

i\longoloid, Negroid, CaucasoidThe biological processes which the clas-sifier has here embalmed, as it were, aredynamic, not static. These divisionswere not the same in the past as theyare at present, and there is every reasonto believe that they will change in thefuture.

Many sub-groups or ethnic groupswithin these divisions have been deserio-ed. There is no general agreement upontneir number, and in any event mostethnic groups have not yet been eitherstudied or described by the physicalanthropologist.

Whatever classification the anthro-pologist makes of man, he never includesmental characteristics as part of thoseclassifications. It is now generally reco-gnized that intelligence tests do nof inthemselves enable us to differentiatetafely between what is due to innatecapacity and what is the result of envi-ronmental influences, training and educ-ation. Wherever it has been possibleto make allowances for differences inenvironmental opportunities, the testshave shown essential similarity in men-tal characters among all human groups.In short, given similar degrees of cul-tural opportunity to realise their poten-tialities, the aVel'aj ; e achic\'ement,) f

the members of each ethnic group isabout the same. The scientific investig-ations of recent years fully support thedictum of Confucius (551-478 B. C.)"Men'snatures are alike ; it is their habits thatcarry them far apart".

The scientific material available to usat present does not justify the conclusionthat inherited genetic differences are amajor factor in producing the differencesbetween the cultures and culturalachievements of different peoples orgroups. It does indicate, however, thatthe history of the cultural experiencewhich each group has undergone is themajor facter in explaining such differ-ence. The one trait which above allothers has been at a premium in theevolution of men's mental characters hasbeen educability, plasticity. This is atrait which all human beings possess. Itis, ind'ed, a species character of"Homosapiens."

So far as temperament is concerned,there is no definite evidence that thereexist inborn differences between humangroups. There is evidence that whatevergroup differences of the kind there mightbe are greatly over-ridden by the indi-vidual differences, and by the differencesspringing from environmental factors.

As fer personality and character, thesemay be considered raceless. In everyhuman group a rich variety of personalityand character types will be found, andthere is no reason fer believing that anyhuman group is richer than any other inthese respects.

Biological Facts and Racial Myths

WITH respect to race-mixture, theevidence points unequivocally tothe fact that this has been going

on from the earliest times. Indeed, oneof the chief processes of race-formationand race-extinction or absorption is bymeans of hybridization between races orethnic groups. Furthermore, no con-vincing evidence has been adduced thatrace-mixture ef itself produces biolo-gically bad effects. Statements that hu-man hybrids frequently show undesirabletraits, both physically and mentally, phy-sical disharmonies and mental dege-neracies, are not supported by the facts.There is, therefore, no biological justi-fication for prohibiting intermarriagebetween persons of different ethnicgroups.

The biological fact of race and themyth of"race"should be distinguished.For all practical social purposes"race"is not so much a biological phenomenonas a social myth. The myth of"race"has created an enormous amount ofhuman and social damage. In recentyears it has taken a heavy toll in humanlives and caused untold suffering. Itstill prevents the normal development ofmillions of human beings and deprivescivilization of the effective co-operation ofproductive minds.

The biological differences betweenethnic groups should be disregarded fromthe standpoint of social acceptance andsccial action. The unity of mankindfrom both the biological and socialviewpoints is the main thing.

To recognize this and to act accordinglyis the first requirement of modern man.It is but to recognize what a greatbiologist wrote in 1875 :"As man advancesin civilization, and small tribes are unitedinto larger communities, the simplestreason would tell each individual that heought to extend his social iilstincts andsympathies to all the members of thesame nation, though personally unknown

to him. This point being once reached,there is only an artificial barrier toprevent his sympathies extending to the

men of all nations and races."These are the words of Charles Darwin

in"The Descent of Man" (2nd ed., 1875,pp. 187-188). And, indeed, the whole ofhuman history shows that a co-operativespirit is not only natural to men, butmore deeply rooted than any self-seekingtendencies. If this were not so we shouldnot see the growth of integration andorganization of his communities whichthe centuries and the millennia plainlyexhibit.

We now have to consider the bearingef these statements on the problem ofhuman equality. It must be assertedwith the utmost emphasis that equalityas an ethical principle in no way dependsupon the assertion that human beingsare in fact equal in endowment. Obvious-ly individuals in all ethnic groups varygreatly among themselves in endowment.Nevertheless the characteristics in whichhuman groups differ from one anotherare often exaggerated and used as a basisfor questioning the validity of equality inthe ethical sense. For this purpose wehave thought it worth while to set out ina formal manner what is at presentscientifically established concerning indiv-idual and group differences.

(The fmal conclusicns of the scienUstsare published on page 1.)

RACE AI

TOWARDS the end of the last century,a French anthropologist. Lapouge,declared that the day was drawingnear when men would slaughter

one another for a few millimetres'differ-ence in cranium size. What may thenhave seemed only a whimsical theory hassince become harsh reality with the per-petration of appalling massacres duringthe last decade in the name of racialsuperiority. Thus our age has been giventhe sorry privilege of verifying prophe-cies, which not long ago would have beenregarded as ludicrous.

Unfortunately the evils of racialdiscrimination have not disappeared withthe suppression of Nazi political power.Although not applied in such ruthlessfashion it still causes immeasurablesuffering every day and continues toaffect the lives and futures of millions ofpeople.

Racism is one of the most disturbingphenomena of the great revolution of themodern world. At the very time whenindustrial civilization is penetrating to allpoints of the globe and is uprooting menof every colour from their age-old tradi-tions, a doctrine, treacherously scientificin appearance, is invoked in order to robthese men of their full share in theadvantages of the civilization forced uponthem.

There exists in the structure of Westerncivilization a fatal contradiction. On theone hand it wishes and insists that cer-tain cultural values, to which it attributesthe highest virtues, be assimilated byother people. But, conversely, it will notadmit that two-thirds of humanity iscapable of attaining this standard whichit has set up. Ironically, the worstsufferers from racial dogma are usuallythe people whose intellect most forciblydemonstrates its falseness.

No"Pure"Races

FOR nearly a century, all genuinej'anthropologists have insisted on thepurely conventional character of the

features chosen to classify the human

Page 9-UNESCO COURIER

D CIVILIZATION

by Dr. Alfred METRAUX

species. They have reiterated that thereis no such thing as a pure race, thatracial differences are biological and pro-bably do not affect character and mentalfaculties, and that from the anthropolo-gical point of view the human species isone. But little attention has been paidby the majority to their words.

How many cultivated, intelligent andkindly people believe in all good faiththat Negroes inherit at birth an exu-berant and primitive nature and thatrhythm and dance are theirs from thecradle ? How many others, who believethemselves to be free from any taint ofracial prejudice, credit the Jews withintellectual qualities superior to those ofChistians ? Every day, all too manyattest to the belief that racial groupshave hereditary virtues and defects, abelief which is a commonly acceptederror, and which, if not discredited, comesto be accepted as the truth.

Race prejudice thrives on the inabilityof most people to make a clear distinctionbetween facts pertaining to civilizationand culture on the one hand and biolo-gical facts on the other. Men are dis.tinguished by their respective cultures,which is that"complex whole whichincludes knowledge, belief, art, morals,law, custom, and any other capabilitiesand habits acquired by man as a memberof society."As cultural differences arefrequently associated with. physicaldifferences, the latter have been regardedtoo often as the cause of the former.

Culture Confused With Instinct

SOCIAL prejudice will not diminishuntil it is generally rec8gnized thatthe real differences between human

societies are not due to biological here-dity but to cultural environment. Theinfluence of culture on the individual isat once so subtle ant strong, and it isexerted from such an early age, that it isapt to be confused with instinct.

The cultural factor plays a highlyimportant part in the workings of theintellect. A poor. isolated group whichdoes not receive much stimulus from theoutside world may easpy be taken to becongenitally inferior ; but another one inthe favourable atmosphere of a differentmoral and economic environment, may beregarded as a privileged specimen ofmankind.

Psychology and criminology havetaught us that delinquency is related tosocial conditions. If we are convinced ofthe importance of family and socialenvironment, why should we refuse torecognize the part played by culture ? Itis too easily forgotten that there aremany cultural specializations and manychoices open to every culture.

Take for example the Australian abori-gines. Their tools and economy arethose of our prehistoric ancestors. Likeseveral species of fauna in the countrythey seem to represent an early stage ofevolution. Nevertheless, these primitivepeople have developed a social organiz-ation and a system of relationship ofsuch complexity and refinement that itrequires an able brain and a degree ofmathematical ability to unravel all itsintricacies. In comparison, some of oursystems are simple, even crude. Examplesfrom other sccieties could be multiplied.

Doubts About The Nordics

ONE of the essential features of culturesis their malleability. They changerather rapidly and only remain static

in certain exceptional cases.

The racial composition of Europe hasprobably varied very little in the courseof the last two or three thousand years,but would anyone venture to affirm thatEuropean mentality has always been thesame ? Would Englishmen of todayfeel at home among the subjects ofEdward IlL ? In Japan the 19th centurysaw the tremendous cultural revolution ofa people whose racial type was in no waychanged, for it is obvious that, biologic-ally speaking, the Japanese of 1950 isthe same as his great-grandfather in thedays of Commodore Perry.

The United States of America providea very good example of the fact thatculture is more important than race.Who has not been impressed by the"typically American"mentality, gesturesand behaviour of persons springing fromthe most varied races ?

It is a gross error to believe historycan be explained by race. Westernindustrial culture does not owe its greatdevelopment and power to any innatesuperiority of the white race. The Gauls,as Julius Caesar describes them, werescarcely superior to Western Africantribes, whom some people glibly declareincapable of progress. Writers of theancient Mediterranean peoples frequentlyexpressed doubts about the capacities ofthe Nordics, some of whom are inclinedtoday to disdain other races.

There is nothing hereditary or evenspontaneous in the antipathy felt bymembers of one racial group for those ofanother. Observations on the behaviourof children show very clearly that theyexpress aversion for people of anothercolour only under the influence of thefamily milieu. The millions of half-castes in the world are witness thatdifferent races have in fact a particularattraction for one another. Relationsbetween races are generally determinedby cultural tradition. History is there toteach us that this tradition-has variedgreatly in the course of the centuries.

No Escape From Heredity

RACISM is a relatively new myth,dating back to only two or threecenturies ago. Before the colonial

expansion of the European powers, mendespised or hated one another for culturalor religious differences, but did not claimto be superior to one another because ofthe colour of their skin or the shape oftheir skull or their nose.

Morally, slavery was just as damagingto the whites as to the blacks. Thewhites made skin colour and other phy-sical characteristics indelible distinguish-ing marks. The Inquisition burnt theJews because they had crucified Christand because they were supposed to be theenemies of the faith ; the Nazis did thesame because the Jews were said to belongto a species which was inherently harm-ful. The difference is of little importanceto the victim, but it means much from

RACIAL OPPRESSION-GERMAN-OCCUPIED POLAND. ce : : patioo :"ol ndtNazis decided to herd all Jews together in special walled-off parts 01 Warsaw and other largecities. In Warsaw an eight loot wall (shown in this photo) topped with broken glass wasbuilt to define the limits 01 a revived mediaeval ghetto. By 1941. over 450. 000 people werecrowded into the area, many being forced to share a room with a dozen other people.

the point of view of history. It is pos-sible to change one's religious convictions ;but nobody can escape heredity.

There is in this concept of race some-thing implacable. The barbarity of ourtime is more ruthless and more absurdthan that of the so-called Dark Ages ; forracial prejudice is an un-intelligent andunattractive myth. Its fiourishing deve-lopment in the twentieth century will nodoubt in future ages be regarded as oneof the most shameful episodes in history.

Science versus Prejudice

RACIAL hatred and conflict feed onJ\. mistaken scientific notions and anti-rational dogma. To show up these

errors and lessen their harmful effect, wemust use the means supplied by science,culture and education. Unesco. betterthan any other institution in the world.is thus qualified to combat racial preju-dice.

Any campaign for an ideological object-ive must be based on a declaration ofprinciples. As regards race, what is

needed is not dogma or moral conviction.but scientific data, in view of the factthat the system of race discriminationclaims to derive from actual experienceand alleged biological laws. Beforemaking an appeal to common sense, tocharity, and even to the self-interest ofthe groups affected by this plague, it wasnecessary to ascertain the results ofscientific observation.

That is why a commission of anthro-pologists and sociologists met towardsthe end of last year at Unesco House forthe purpose of preparing a document inwhich the attitude of science to theracial problem would be clearly set forth.This declaration, reproduced elsewhere.leaves not a shadow of doubt, that thespecialists look upon racial dogma as amyth.

The fight against race discrimination,which figures in the Unesco Constitu-tion, will be long. To combat an emo-tional attitude as deep-seated and dan-gerous as racial prejudice is not easy. butby depriving it of. all scientific andrational justification a great step forwardwill have been made.

UNESCO COURIER-Pile 10

BALZAC

AND THE HUMAN COMEDY

FEW writers ha'Ye had such a great influence on the literature of all countries as Honoréde Balzac, who died in Paris, on August 18th, 1850.

Balzac's true literary career started in 1829 after ten years of trying and discourag-

ing apprenticeship. It had exactly twenty. one years to run, yet during this time Baltic,

working with a furious energy, produced an immense and'Yaried total of nO'Yels and phil-

osophical and analytical studies in which, using his gifts of obser'Yation and imaginationand on a scale ne'Yer achie'Yed by any other nO'Yelist, he portrayed the life of his time.

Balzac openly, publicly and proudly pursued fame and money. He affected at times

to hold mankind in contempt. Some critics have asserted that these attitudes were the

whole basis for his work. That work itself, howe'Yer, in its profundity and integrity, giyes

a sufficient answer to the lesser critics-and e'Yen to Balzac himself-for contending

that it could bave had so mean an origin.

In 1842, Balzac carried out the idea of building his work into one structure to which

he gave the name"La ComMie Humaine", and in a preface written for the first'Yolume

of this"Human Comedy", he ga'Ye his own interpretation of his books.As a tribute to Balzac on the centenary of his death, the Courier publishes on this

page extracts from the preface in which the nO'Yelist, explaining his title for the work,sets out to"state its purpose, relate its origin and gave some explanation of its plan."

HONORE DE BALZACA portrait by the French painter Court.

IN giving to a work, begun nearlythirteen years ago, the title of.. The Human Comedy", it is

necessary that I should state itspurpose, relate its origin, and givesome explanation of its plan ;endeavouring to do so as if I had nopersonal interest in the matter. Thisis not as difficult as the public mightimagine. The writing of a few booksmakes a man self-sufficient ; butmuch labour and hard toil bringhumility. This reflection explainsthe survey which Corneille, Moliere,and other great authors made oftheir writings. If it is impossible toequal them in the grandeur of theirconceptions, at least we may sharethe spirit with which they examinedthem.

The leading idea of this humancomedy came to me at first like adream ; like one of those impossiblevisions which we try to clasp as theyelude us ; a smiling fancy showingfor a moment a woman's face, as itspreads its wings and rises to theideal heavens. But soon this vision,this chimera, changed, after thefashion of chimeras, into a livingshape with compelling will andtyrannical power, to which I yieldedmyself up. The idea came from thestudy of human life in comparisonwith the life of animals.

It is a mistake to suppose that thecontroversy which in these latterdays has arisen between Cuvier andGeoffroy Saint-Hilaire rests upon a'scientific innovation. Synthetic unityfilled, under various definitions, thegreatest minds of the two precedingcenturies. In reading the strangebooks of those mystical writers whodrew science into their conceptionsof the infinite-such as Sweden-borg, Saint-Martin, and others ; alsothe writings of the great naturalists,Leibnitz, Buffon, Charles Bonnet,etc.-we find in the monads ofLeibnitz, in the organic molecules ofBuffon, in the vegetative force ofNeedham, in the encasement ofgerms of Charles Bonnet, who wasbold enough to write in 1760,"animal life vegetates like plantlife"-we find, I say, the rudimentsof that strong law of self-preservation upon which rests thetheory of synthetic unity.

Society Makes The Man

THERE ITS but one animal. TheCreator used one and the sameprinciple for all organized

being. An animal is an essencewhich takes external form, or, tospeak more correctly, takes thedifferences of its form from thecentres or conditions in which itcomes to its development. Allzoological species grow out of thesedifferences.

The announcement and pursuit ofthis theory, keeping it as he did inharmony with preconceived ideas ofthe Divine power, will be the lastingglory of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, theconqueror of Cuvier in this particularbranch of science-a fact recognizedby the great Goethe in the last wordswhich came from his pen.

Filled with these ideas, I had

perceived, long before this discussionarose, that Society in these respectsis like Nature. Society makes theman ; he develops according to thesocial centres in which he is placed :there are as many different men asthere are species in zoology.'rhedifferences between a soldier, aworkman, a governor, a lawyer, aman of leisure, a scholar, astatesman, a merchant, a sailor, apoet, a beggar, a priest, though moredifficult to decipher, are at least asmarked as those which separate thewolf, the lion, the ass, the crow, theshark, the seal, the lamb, etc. Therehave always been, and always willbe, social species just as there arezoological species. If Buffonachieved a great work when he puttogether in one book the wholescheme of zoology, is there not awork of the same kind to be donefor Society ?

Mankind's Complicated

Struggle

NATURE imposes upon the animalKingdom limitations which donot bind the social realm. When

Buffon had described a lion, hecould dismiss the lioness with aword ; but in the world of men,woman is far from being the femaleof the male. Two species ofmankind may exist in one household :the wife of a shopkeeper is some-times fit to be the wife of a prince ;often the wife of a prince isunworthy to be the companion of themeanest labourer. The Social king-dom has uncertainties and accidentswhich are not to be found in thenatural world, for it is itself Natureplus Society. Any description of thesocial species, consequently, doublesall description of the animal speciesin the matter of the sexes alone.

... Buffon found the life of animalsextremely simple. They have nobelongings, neither arts nor sciences ;while man, by a law still un-explained, feels the need to set thestamp of his habits, his thoughts, hisbeing, upon all that he collects tomeet his wants. Though Leuwen-h o e c, Swammerdam, Spallanzani,Réaumur, Charles Bonnet, Muller,Haller, and other patient zoologistsproclaim the interest which attachesto the habits of animals, yet to oureyes at least they remain perpetuallythe same ; whereas the habits,clothing, methods of speech, theabodes of princes, bankers, artists,citizens, priests, and paupers, are allwidely dissimilar, and change withthe whims of civilization.

For these reasons my ideal worktook on a triple form,-men,women, and things ; that is to say,persons and the material represent-ation which they gave to their being :in short, man and his life.

Portrait Of An Epoch

IT has been no light task topaint the three or four* * * thousand salient figures of an

epoch,-for that is about thenumber of types presented by thegeneration of which this human

that social antithesis-furnished thedata.

Some years after Balzac's death, the"Socié-té des Gens de Lettres" (The Frenchnuthors'Association) commissioned Rodin,the famous sculptor, to execute a statue ofthe novelist. Rodin carried out a great deal ofresearch, studied lithographs and engravingsand read Balzac's works for he aimed toportray the character of the novelist ratherthan his physical likeness. The final result(shown in the photograph above) was asynthesis of the two, but the French writersrefused to accept it. It was not until 1939that a bronze was cast and this now standsat the junction of two Paris streets while theoriginal work is preserved in the Muse

Rodin. in Paris.

comedy is the contemporary and theexponent. This number of figure,of characters, this multitude of por-traits needed frames, permit me evento say galleries. Out of this neces-sity grew the classification of mywork into Scenes-scenes fromprivate, provincial, Parisian, politi-cal, military, and country life. Underthese heads I have classed all thosestudies of manners and morals whichform the general history of Societyand of its"conduct of life and nobledeeds" (faits et gestes), to use thelanguage of our ancestors. Thesesix divisions follow a general idea ;each has its meaning and signific-ation, and represents a distinct phasein human life. The"Scenes fromprivate life"are those of childhoodand of youth, just as the.'Scenesfrom provincial life"represent theage of passions, calculations, self-interest, and ambition. The"Scenesfrom Parisian life"draw the pictureof tastes, fashions, sentiments, vices,and all those unbridled extravagan-ces excited by the life of great cities,where meet together the extremes ofgood and the extremes of evil. Eachof these three divisions has its localcolour. Paris and the provinces-

Society In Convulsion

AFTER drawing these threesections of Society, I wished

'''two show certain other

phases of life which unite theinterests of some or of all. and yetare partly aloof from the commonorder. Out of this desire came the"Scenes from political life", alsothe"Scenes from military life" ; inthe latter I have sought to showSociety in convulsion, carried out ofitself either for conquest or fordefence. Finally, the"Scenes fromcountry life"are, as it were, theevening of my long day's-work, if Imay so call this social drama. Inthis division will be found my purestcharacters ; also the application ofthe great principles of order, ofpatriotism, and of morality.

Such is the structure, teeming withlife, full of comedy and of tragedy,on which I base the,"PhilosophicalStudies"which form the second partof my work. In these I have shownthe keynote of that vast assemblageof all that strikes the eye, thatcaptivates the mind or touches theheart ; I have shown the havoc thathas followed thought, step ; by step,from emotion to emotion.

The Public Will Decide

ABoVE these again will bef 0 u n d the"Analytical

... Studies", of which I shall

say nothing, as only one of them hasbeen published. Later, I hope togive other works of the same class,- the., Pathology of Social life"the"Anatomy of Educating bodies", the"Monopraph of Virtue", etc.

Looking at the work still to bedone, perhaps my readers will joinmy publishers in saying,"May yourlife be prolonged !" may own prayeris that I may not be so tortured bymen and events as I have been inthe past, since the beginning of mygreat and terrible labour. Yet I havehad one support, for which I returnthanks to God. The highest talentof our day, the noblest characters, thetruest friends, have clasped my handand said to me,"Take courage !"

Why should I not ; own that suchproofs of affection, such testimonialsgiven now and then by strangers,have upheld me in my career in spiteof myself, in spite of unjust attacks,in spite of calumnies that havepursued me,-upheld me againstdisheartenment, and also against thattoo-vivid hope, the expression ofwhich has been mistaken for exces-sive conceit.

The extent of a plan which em-braces both the history and thecriticism of Society, which analyzesits evils and lays bare its hiddensprings, justifies me, I think, ingiving to my work the title underwhich it now appears,-"TheHuman Comedy". Is it ambitious ?Is it not just and legitimate ? Thepublic, when my work is done, willdecide.

POW E R-T HAT COM E S WIT H T H'E WIN D

MANY NATIONS

SEEK NEW USES

FOR"FREE FUEL"

WINDMILLS are going up again in various parts of the world.But not the classical friendly-looking Dutch type withwhich we are all familiar. The new mills are designedto capture the power from the wind and to translate it,

on a large scale, into electrical energy ! for use in homes andindustry. They are an expression of the fact that many countriesface increasing shortages of coal and oil and that wind powermay, in many cases. prove an admirable substitute for, or additionother forms of power.

Countries such as the U. S. A., Denmark, France, the Netherlandsand Britain already have teams of experts investigating how thewinds which blow over their countries can be captured to producemore electrical power.

The British have set up a WindPower Research Station in theOrkney Islands, where it is propos-ed to erect a 100 kwt. generatorwhich will be tied in with theelectricity supply servicing theislands. It is estimated that thewestern coastal districts or Britainare among the windi, est in theworld, and experts say that only afew hundred feet above the ground,millions of horse power in the formof wind cross the coasts on awindy day.

Free And Inexhaustible

A KEPORT issued two years agoby the British Electrical andAllied Industries Research

Association gave a tentative esti-mate that between 7. 75 and 7. 5 mil-lion kwt. hours of electricity mightbe generated yearly in Great Bri-

tain by wind power. This'wouldbe equivalent to a saving of from2 to 4 million tons of coal.

In these terms, wind power is of

distinct economic importance. Itssupply is free and inexhaustible.The British expert, Mr. E. W.Golding, points out that there are,however, two main disadvantageswhich must be met if it is to beused economically for electricitysupply : the low energy contentper unit of volume of air, and itsuncertain availability at any par-ticular time.

The first disadvantage is likelyto result in relatively high costsfor storage facilities which willpreserve the energy for use duringnon-windy periods. It is Mr. Gold-ing's opinion that storage shouldbe ruled out in large-scale opera-tions, and that wind power shouldbe used as and when it is available.The windmill must therefore beerected on very windy sites inclose proximity to local networksof electricity supply.

Mr. Golding calculates that, forBritain, wind power can beproduced at a cost of. 24d. to. 38d.per kilowatt-hour, which compares

"ENERGY IN THE SERVICE OFMAN", the theme which.UNESCO has chosen as a dis-

cussion topic for 1950-1951, was thesubject considered in its technical as-pects at the Fourth World Power Con-íerence in London during July.

The Chairman of the Conference,Sir Harold Hartley, was also chairmanof the committee of experts who metat Unesco House in Paris last Octoberand who advised on the aspects of"Energy in the Service of Man"to bewritten on in CI special series of sixbooklets. These are due to appearthis month and will provide basicmaterial which can be used for popu-larization and discussion. Authorsinclude Sir Alfred Egerton, Prof. F. E.Simon. U. K., Dr. M. S. Thacker, India,Prof. Gustcsv Eichelberg, Switzerland,and M. Pierre Ailleret, France.

Sir Harold Hartley is also Presidentof the British Association for the Ad-vancement of Science, whose annualmeeting will be held at BirminghamEngland on September 11. Refer-ring to this meeting,"Nature", theleading science journal recently wrote :"He has chosen the title'Man's Useof Energy', and it would be difficultto find a topic more appropriate to thetimes, or to the place of the Associa-tan's meeting.

"The Unesco discussion theme for theyear is'Energy in the Service of Man'

SIR HAROLD HARTLEY

which differs from Sir Harold's titlemainly by being easier to translateinto French. This same theme will bemade prominent during the meeting bydiscussions in several of the thirteensections. Civil applications of nuclearenergy, the harnpssing of chemicalenergy, the use of power by primitiveman, and gas turbines will come underreview by the physics, chemistry.anthropology and engineering sectionsrespectively.

"An exhibition illustrating this centraltopic of the meeting is being organized,and a series of five public lectures onits various aspects will be given inBirmingham by distinguished spea-kers."

The largest wind generator to be constructed so far (above) was an experimentalunit, built on a Vermont hill. in the United States. Its propellor swept a circle175 feet in diameter. Photo :'"Discovery".

favourably with the cost of fuelin a steam-driven power station,at an average figure of 4d.

Denmark's Power Problem

THE Danish government hasbeen experimenting in. windpower plants since the end

of the last century. Between1900 and 1910, several hundredwind power plants of 3 to 30 ikWcapacity were set up. These wereused partly to supply current tobig estates, and partly to supplyvillages. These wind power plantswere based on batteries, small sizepetroleum motors often being usedduring calm weather. They werein operation for 25 to 30 yearsuntil the high tension plantssuperseded them.

Now, as electricity has becomealmost the main source of powersupply in Denmark, it has becomenecessary to secure a steadysupply. This, in connection withhigh coal prices and the difficultyof importing fuel, is the reasonwhy the question of the rationalutilisation of wind power has againbeen taken up. Wind power is, infact, the only natural large-scalesource of power in Denmark.

For the past three years, theSouth East Zealand Electricity Cohas been doing researches in thisfield. A trial mill has been builtand a wind power plant will prob-ably be erected. These plantsIcill most profitably be set up onwestern coasts and, in adequatenumbers, will be able to yield 60 %to 70 % of the power supply neededat any time in Denmark.

In Italy, researches in this fieldbegan in 1940. The French haveinstalled more than 100 specialinstruments in France, NorthAfrica and in certain colonial ter-ritories. Preliminary results indic-ate that the best areas in Francefor wind power machines are onthe Mediterranean coast, alongthe northern half of the Spanishfrontier, near the mouth of theRhone, in Brittany, and along thecoast near the Belgian frontier.There is also an apparatus at thetop of the Eiffel Tower in Paristo collect data on wind velocity.

Main interest at the moment isin two types of windmills. In one,

instead of pumping water or opera-ting a millstone, the drive shaftturns an electric generator. Theother is : made up of'a hollow pro-pellor with three blades, which areopen at the tips. When the propel-lor rotates the air is expelled fromthe tips by centrifugal force, whichcreates a vacuum so that air issucked through the air turbine,which drives the generator. Theadvantage of this latter type ofwindmill is that the generators,weighing as much as 250 tons, arekept on the ground and not, as inother windmills, perched on top ofthe windmill tower.

FOOD AND

PEOPLE

BOOKLETS AID

EDUCATIONAL

DRIVE IN U. S.

TIMED with the publicationof the American editionof the Food and People

pamphlets, the United StatesNational Commission haslaunched a campaign topromote this Unesco discussiontheme.'The six titles of the Food

and People series in the U. S.edition are :"Food and theFamily"by Dr. MargaretMead ;"UN Sets the Table"by Peter Kihss ;"Food andSocial Progress"by AndreMayer ;"Distribution of theWorld's Food"by StefanKrolikowski ;"Are there TooMany Teople ?"by Alva Myr-dal, and"Food, Soil and Peo-pIe"by Charles E. Kellog.

NOTE : ALL the above pamphletsare published by the ManhattanPubishing Company, 225 La-fayette St., New York. They maybe obtained from th. e publisher aTfrom the Unesco sales agencieslisted on Page 2, The first fourpamphlets listed. are priced at25 cents each. ; the last two at50 cents each.

Page 11-UNESCO COURtER

UNESCO COURIER-Page 12

SWORDS INTO PLOUGHSHARES. At Ameland. 30 volunteers from 11countries worked hard to turn a German radar station into a summerholiday hostel. Toiling side by side with pick, shovel and paintbrush,they did a constructive job in the cause 01 peaceful international relations.They also left behind something symbolic 01 their work"A Song for

Ameland".

A THEME SONG FOR THE WORK CAMP. One night, Daniel, a Frenchvolunteer lay on his bunk and played a few notes of a folk melodyrecalled from his native Basque region. The other campers picked upthe song and by next day the camp triad a theme song to speed itswork along. Later, the villagers learned the song. Today, it stillreminds them of the young people who came to help from such far away

places as Indonesia and America.

A SONG FOR AME1AND

A MELAND, a little island off the Dutchcoast was marked on German staffmaps during the war as a strongpoint on the"Atlantic Wall", with a

radar station to give warning of the ap-proach of enemy planes and ships.

Although the steel and concrete defence, ;were demolished after the war, the metalframe and buildings of the radar stationwere still there in 1949 on the site wherethe Dutch Youth Hostel movement plannedto build a summer holiday camp.

Answering an appeal for help, issuedthrough the International Youth Hostel As-sociation, volunteers from many countriescame to the tiny island during the summerof 1949.

The way in which these young people,strangers to one another, formed a living,working community-doing a constructivjob and providing an example of interna-tional harmony-is the theme of a dramaticFrench film,"A Song for Ameland", whichis to be released shortly.

The film was made after Jean Leduc and

CREDITS

Title :"A Song for Ameland".Origin : French.Production : Bernard Maurice, Spartacus-

Film.Sorlpt : Jean Leduo and Pierre Mfgnot.Direction : Jean Leduc, assisted by Daniel

Wroneok !.Camera : André Dumaitre.Music : Dlno Castro.Commentator : Daniel Ce)) n.

Piei're Mignot, two young French filmmakers had been advised by Unesco to goand see what was being done in Ameland.They quickly wrote a script and assembleda production team which included as assis-tant director Daniel Wronecki, a young ci-nematographer, who had just completed aUnesco Fellowship.

A Youthful Army

THE actors are mostly anonymous. Inaddition to Daniel and Nicole, twoFrench volunteers, Jose, a Spaniard,

Bill, an'American and Pino, a Greek, theyinclude an Indonesian and Belgian, English,Danish, Norwegian ana Swedish youths andgirls-volunteers in a youthful army servingthe cause of international co-operation.

The 20-minute film shows that first con-tacts between them were not always easybecause of differences in customs, languagebarriers, a feeling of loneliness and home-sickness and, to some extent, the reserve ofthe local people.

Finally, it was a song, played on a mouthorgan one evening by Daniel, a youngFrenchman, sung in chorus the next day andeventually adopted by the villagers of Ame-land, that broke down all barriers of iso-lation and created a real community spirit.Using this simple story, the producers havemade an inspiring film distinguished bysome outstanding camera shots."A Songfor Ameland"has now been submitted inscenario to Lake Success for United Nationssponsership.

Unesco, through its Film Division and Re-construction Department, gave both encou-ragement and practical help to the filmmakers.

THE International Theatre Institute (ITI) is one of the specialized"non-governmental"organizations, set up within the frameworkof the United Nations. It was founded in 1948 under the auspices of

UNESCO after a series of consultations between UNESCO's Theatre Ser-vices and individuals prominent in the international theatre. The ITIis made up of National Centres representative of the theatrical life ofeach member country. Official delegates from these Centres constitutethe annual Congress, which is the governing body of the Institute.

The goal of the organization is toencourage and facilitate"inter-national exchange of knowledgeand practice in theatre arts"through exchange of information,by facilitating international circu-lation of theatre people and byhelping to arrange tours for youngmanagers, directors, authors, desi-gners, etc., desirous of completingtheir studies by a period of workabroad.

"sine theatrical art is a univer-sal expression of mankindand possesses the influence

and power to link large groups of theworld's peoples... we have decided toform an autonomous internationalorganization... whose purpose is topromote international exchange ofknowledge and practices in theatrearts..."

When the International TheatreInstitute (ITI) from whose charterthe above extracts are taken, wasfounded at Prague in 1948, eightnations signified their belief in itspurpose and worth, by signing theCharter,

Today, the ITI has 25 membercountries and to its Third AnnualCongress which ended in Paris onJune 29th, ten other nations sentobservers. But, equally important,is the progress made by the NationalCentres towards"promoting inter-national exchange of knowledge andpractices of theatre arts"therebyhelping international understanding.

Already this year many centresorganized an International TheatreWeek-in the United States the"Week"became a Theatre Month in48 states-and it is planned toextend these celebrations to manymore countries during the firstquarter of 1951.

Under one of the plans adopted bythe Paris Congress, to give a moreuniversal tone to next year's TheatreWeek, the ITI will choose an author,probably from Norway, where the1951 Congress is to be held, and willdistribute a list of his plays to all

"c AN we in 1950 he satisfiedwith a theatre reservedfor a tiny fraction of the

world's population ? Can welimit our efforts to defendingand giving lustre to the theatreon the stages, official orotherwise, of the great cities ofEurope, America and Asia ? Thetheatre has been described asthe most effective instrument cfculture, the living element ofeducation and one of the surestways to international under-standing"

"... What then is the situationof the enormous rural masses,the industrial populations thesuburbs and the innumerabievillages which have been solong neglected by even the mostenterprising theatrical touringcompanies ? What is to becomeof the vast regions where thetheatre dies before it has evenevolved from its most primitiveform ? These are tremendousproblems, but ones which yourInstitute cannot ignore."

Jaime Torres Bodet.Director-General of

Unesco, in a message to theThird Congress of the Interna-tional Theatre Institute.

member countries. One of theseplans, having a universal idea pro-moting international understanding,will be suggested for productionduring the Theatre Week.

A proposal by Yugoslavia forpresentation in 1951 of a series ofplays stressing the ideals of peacewas also adopted.

The Congress asked nationalcentres to form"ITI Clubs"whose

members would help publicize themovement, assist visiting foreignplayers, and arrange internationalTheatre Weeks and Festivals.

The Congress also proposed thatthe term"`work of art"be defined bylegal authorities working on Interna-tional Cultural Agreements to inclu-de all items of theatrical equipment,decors, drapes, curtains, properties,costumes, musical instruments andall electrical equipment, It was sug-gested that exemption from taxes bediscussed by countries which havesigned cultural agreements, with aview to including such exemptionsQn a reciprocal basis. Non-profit per-formances for school-children wouldbe exempt from national and localtaxes.

Among other projects approved bythe Third Congress were : fullsupport for Unesco's efforts indrawing up a new Universal Copy-right Convention ; assistance in thepublication of a glossary of technicaltheatrical terms in five languages ;

a study of children's theatresthroughout the work by the nextCongress ; an enquiry into the possi-bility of creating an InternationalTheatre in Paris and the provisionof grants in aid for the exchange oftheatre professionals between ITICentres.

Before the opening of the Congressby Dr. Emile Oprecht (Switzerland),a former ITI chairman, a Conferenceof Experts on Modern TheatreArchitecture, was held from June19th to 21st.

For the first time, a group of Ger-man experts took part in this confer-ence on modern theatre architecturealong with the member states. Thedebates of the technicians and artistswere illustrated by an Exhibitionwhich proved a great success withmembers of the public. This exhi-bition will be taken over by certaincentres and the German techniciansare presenting it tin Berlin whenthey hold their annual meeting thisyear.

EG't :'"PT

* A company has been founded forshowing 16 mm. films in Egyptianvillages, particularly in those wherethe inhabitants have never seenmoving pictures before. The pro-grammes include educational anddocumentary as well as featurefilm.* Armand Roux, the co-inventor,with his brother, of a new colourfilm process, will make'if documen-tary film about the Cairo Museum,using this technique.

FRANCE

* Nicole Védrès has completed afeature-length film :"Life beings to-morrow". Some of those whoappear in the sequences are : An-dré Labarthe, a well-known Frenchjournalist and Jean-Pierre Aumont,the French actor as"The man in thestreet", in the sequence where Jean-Paut. Sartre emphasises the personalresponsibility of everyone in world

events everywhere ; Jean Rostandlooks into the future developments ofbiology, and Le Corbusier presents apreview of the house of the future.As the film concludes, André La-barthe poses the question facingmankind to-day ; will atomic energycreate a better world or bring aboutits destruction ?

INDIA

* An open-air cinema for education-awl films has been opened in Bombayby"Educational Films of India".Entry to the cinema, which holds1500 people, is free.

IEXICO

* In 1949, Mexico produced 107films for general release, A fundfor financing the cinema industry upto a total of $ 4, 500, 000 has beenplaced under the direction ofGeneral Abelardo Rodriguez, formerPresident of the Republic.

Page 13-UNESCO COURIER

Refugee Musical

"ambassadors

Tour

Western Europe

To draw attention to the plight of over 650qualified musicians and singers still livingin International Refugee Organization

(IRO) camps in Germany, Austria and Italy, fiverefugee musicians made a concert tour under IROsponsorship to several Western European capitalsduring July.

These five musicians-violinists Elise Cser-

falvi, 22, and Arpad Gerecz, 25, both of Budapest ;pianists Charles Reiner, 26, of Budapest, andBoris Maximowicz, 44, of Kiev ; and 26 years oldbasso Ladislas Pudis, of Czechoslovakia-wereselected at a competition by a jury of Geneva

Conservatory professors.

Together with accompanist Siegfried Oehl-giesser, also a stateless refugee, these artistsgave performances in Geneva, Zurich, Amster-dam, Paris and London.

The concert tour was organized by the IRO toawaken world attention to the problem of refugeeintellectuals and artists who, five years after thewar's end, are still waiting for a chance to leavethe displaced persons camps of Central Europe.

In January 1950, there were still 38, 000

refugees registered with IRO who were pro-fessional and managerial workers, or members oftheir families.

The Director General of IRO, Mr. Donald

Kingsley, has appealed to the governments ofthe world to find new homes for this"forgottenelite"before this U. N. specialised agency closesdown on March 31st next year.

g1 lwppJlJ1Jld

in 9uhJ...

FREEDOM had waited through the centuries forevents which took place in Philadelphia, in theAmerican colony of Pennsylvania, on the 4th of

July 1776. and in Paris, France, on the 14th of July 1'789.These events did not concern only the. Americans andthe French, but all men, everywhere. They did notconcern only the men of the late 18th century, but allwho have lived since that time, and those who will live,during the foreseeable future.

The American Declaration of Independence, drawingits words and thoughts from the whole history of thestruggle for human rights, declared :

"We hold these truths to be self evident, that all menare created equal, that they are endowed by theirCreator with certain unalienable rights, that amongthese are Litre, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

Thirteen years and ten days later, in the name ofLiberty, Equality and Fraternity, the people of Francesmashed the gates of the Bastille, and dealt a blowto the concept of absolute monarchy which echoedacross the world.

PAUL BROCATwenty years before his sudden death on July 9th 1880.

this famous surgeon, carrying out research into thenerve centres of the brain, identified the centre thatgoverns speech-the third frontal convolution,generally referred to since then as"Broca's convo-lotion". At the time he was a professor at the Universityof Paris, and his discovery established him as a masterof comparative anatomy and a pioneer in the domainof anthropology. Broca died before completing hisstudy on cerebral morphology.

FABRE D'EGLANTINE

During a period of twelve years, from 1793 to 1805,Frenchmen dated their letters"ler Floréal"or"16 Fri-maire", held celebrations in honour of Virtue, Labour orPublic Opinion, and dedicated the different days of theyear to the Grape, the Chestnut, the Vat and so forth.instead of to the saints. The man responsible for thiswas a middle-class citizen of Carcassone born on the28th of July 1750 with the very ordinary name of Fabre.He added the rest after winning the prize of a goldeneglantine for an ode he submitted to the Jeux Florauxof Toulouse. Fabre d'Eglantine began his career as amediocre playwright, then became a revolutionary,followed Danton faithfully through every phase of hiscareer-and went to the guillotine in the same tumbrilas his leader. But he will be remembered for hiscalendar, with its charming headings, and by a few

Van Gogh, the painter, who diedon the 29th of July, 1890, was agreat artist even before he left hisnative Holland and settled in Pro-vence. But it was there that, touse his own words, he"foundsalvation", there that he found theE : 1chantment he had sought for solong. As his Dutch biographer,Julius Meier-Graefe, says."he hadto penetrate more deeply thananyone else had done before him.His eyes bit into every object, into

trees and soU I1ke an axe... l1e kneaded the ephemeralair into a solid mass... As everything was yel10w behad painted yellow but so that you could taste, hear,smell and touch it. He painted till he made stonetalk..."

THE MOST PRECOCIOUS POET OF INDIA...... and very probably of the world, was Pillamarri

Pinavirabhadrich, born near Madras some time in July1450, He died at the age of thirty, having, it is said,undermined his constitution by every k'nd of excess.But he had time to bestow upon his nation thosewonderful poems, the"Jaimini Bahratha"and the"Sringara Sakunthala". At the age of ten he wasalready famous. And one story reia'es how an oldwriter, who had just published a book, came one dayto ask his opinion of it. He had to hunt tor the youngcritic among his li'tle playmates, and after listening toa judgment that was both severe and brief, went sadlyaway while PiIlamarri returned to his game.

songs. Although a hundred and sixty years have goneby, children still love to sing"11 pleut, il pleut. ber-gere".

JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACHJohann Sebastian Bach died two hundred years ago

on the 28th 01 July 1750... It is interesting", writesAlbert Schweizer,"to compare his life and that 01 Kant.Both 01 them lived a simple, middle-class life, but keptin close touch with outside events. Neither had anygreat doubt as to the path he should follow, nor anygreat difficulty in winning appreciation from his contem-poraries. Both wrote a great deal, but not too much.Both were greater and happier than certain other men01 genius, because the ideal towards which they strovewas in complete harmony with their daily occupations..."

VINCENT VAN GOGH

UNESCO COURtER-Pe) 14

1950 UNESCO SEMINARS MARIA WAY

TO WORLD UNDERSTANDING THROUGH

IMPROVED EDUCATIONAL TECHNIQUES

UNESCO has developed a special form of international study meeting or.. seminar", where educators from many countries are brought togetherto make extensive studies of specific educational problems, to draw up

plans and suggestions for action in their respective countries, to prepare materialsfor national and international use.

The most important feature of each Seminar is the s"T1all, informal study groupin which information is exchanged, ideas and methods are discussed and solutionsto problems are suggested. The usual techniques of conferences, with commiSteesand formal voting, are not employed. The Seminar is a working party of practicalpeople who pool their resources for the solution of common problems, and theparticipants come as individuals, not as delegates representing an institution ora particular point of view. They are workers in a common field, whereeverybody's contribution is valuable and the results will be the productof everybody's thinking.

Unesco's seminar on the improvement of textbooks is being held in the Cite UniversitairePaul Héger (above), which forms part of the Université Libre. in Brussels. The Cite Uni-versitaire provides board and lodging, at exceptionally low rates, tor foreign students andfor Belgian students whose homes are far from Brussels. The Université Libre de Bruxellesis one of Belgium's four Universities, the three others being the University of Louvain (a

Catholic foundation), and two State Universities (Liege and Ghent).

Over fifty librarians and experts in adult education met in the Malmö City Library, (above)at the end 01 luly, for the Unesco seminar on the role 01 libraries in adult education. Maims,Sweden's third city. was chosen as the seminar site because 01 the excellence 01 its library

facilities and their rural extensions.

ON the afternoon of July 12theducators from 24 countriesgathered at the Cité Universitaireof the Université Libre in

Brussels. Six hours later and some3, 000 miles away in Canada, a similargroup of about 50 educators began toassemble at Macdonald College-partof McGill University-near Montreal.

The men and women in both groups- participants in two internationaleducational seminars organized byUnesco-had travelled to Canada andto Belgium to spend six rweekstogether, to study two closely relatedaspects of the same problem-howto make the most effective use ofeducation in developing internationalunderstanding.

While members of the BrusselsSeminar discuss practical means forimproving textbooks, particularlyhistory books, their colleagues inCanada are examining ways in whichgeography teaching can help todevelop international understanding.Both seminars will end on August23rd.

. International'National History

Books

SINCE 1946 Unesco has worked forgreater mutual tolerance, har-mony and understanding between

the peoples of different nations by seek-ing to improve textbooks and teach-ing materials. In the Brussels Seminar,educators are going beyond purelytheoretical study to examine practicalclassroom problems, concerning theevaluation and use of textbooks, whichface their colleagues in all countries.In its study of methods for analys-ing and improving textbooks, theS e m i n a r is applying Unesco's

"Model Plan"to sample material.This plan, prepared by Dr. I. JamesQuillen, of Stanford University,provides many practical proposals for"testing"books and encouraginghigher standards of writing andselection.

By dividing themselves into fourworking groups, members of theSeminar are able to pool theirspecialized knowledge, skill andexperience to solve technical andprofessional problems of textbookwriters as well as teachers, and to

Macdonald College, where the Unesco Seminar on Geography teaching as a Means ofDeveloping International Understanding opened on July l2th, houses the Faculty 01 Agri-culture 01 McGill University, with which is included the School 01 Household Science.Accommodation is also provided for the School for Teachers where young men and womenare prepared for the teaching profession in the elementary and intermediate schools 01 theProvince 01 Quebec. This aerial photo, showing part 01 the College, includes (1) The Men'sResidence (2) Day School (3) Chemistry-Physics building (4) Main building. where Unesco's

Seminar is being held (5) Biology building (6) Women's residence (7) Men's campus.

deal with the varied educational andpsychological problems involved inattempts to improve internationalunderstanding.

One group is dealing with the ques-tion of generally raising the level ofall textbooks, while the second groupdiscusses the best ways of using booksin classrooms.

The third group is seeking answersto such questions as"Can nationalhistory textbooks be written from aninternational viewpoint ?"

World history textbooks will bedealt with by the fourth group whosework includes a comparative study ofthe terms of national, general anduniversal history and the history ofcivilization in relation to internationalunderstanding.

An important objective for theSeminar, whose director is M. A : Wei-ler, headmaster of the ExperimentalSecondary School at Montgeron,France, is to produce studies, biblio-graphies and other materials for usin future textbook improvementcampaigns.

Geography Creates CommunitySpirit

GEOGRAPHY, when well taught.can make a child realize that heis a member of a great human

community, in which he has bothprivileges and obligations. Geographyteaching can and should help toincrease respect for others, and aboveall, the sense of community onregional, national and internationallevels. For the experts meeting atUnesco's seminar in Canada, theproblem is therefore to definemethods which can be used ingeography teaching to encourageworld-mindedness and internationalunderstanding.

To do this they will make compar-ative studies of geography teachingin the schools of the various countriesrepresented at the Seminar, par-ticularly in primary and secondaryschools, explore the possibilities forimproving the professional andtechnical training of teachers and alsosuggest specific ways in whichgeography can lead towards intern-ational understanding.

Four of the five study groups aredealing with these factors in relationto the needs of children and studentsin different age groups. For theyoungest children, particular attentionwill be paid to the use of films, radio,books, folk tales and other methods,to broaden the children's interestbeyond their immediate environment

Dr. Elsayed Mahmoud Zaki. Egyptian delegate to the Unesco International Seminar on Methodsand Techniques of Adult Education. (fifth from left on this photo) explains the methods usedby organizations in his country, to a group working at Kreuzstein. At the daily groupmeetings, participants benefited from the experiences of their colleagues in other lands.

- and to show more of the relationof their home towns to towns andcities in other parts of the world.

Another group, dealing with theneeds of students from 12 to 15, isexamining special teaching methodsand psychological approaches mostsuitable for them.

During the course of the Seminar,plenary sessions are held, at whichgroup leaders report on the workcarried out, so that other groupmembers get an overall picture ofprogress made and also join indiscussions of the problems which areoutlined.

The reports and studies produced bythe Seminar are to be published byUnesco as guides to educationalauthorities and teachers in all partsof the world.

Libraries Serving Adult Education

T TWELVE days after the opening ofthe two Unesco seminars oneducation for international un-

derstanding, about fifty professionallibrarians and experts in adulteducation met in Maims, Sweden'sthird largest city, to study the roleof libraries in adult education.

Although a library seminar-Unesco's second-the Malmö"workshop"is a direct outcome ofrecommendations made at the Elsinoreconference on adult education lastsummer, and is closely linked with theseminar on adult education techni-ques, just concluded near Salzburg,Austria.

The experts brought to Malmöreports on library adult educationtechniques, methods, policies andprogrammes in their own countries.These reports, together with thebooklet,'''Adult Education Activitiesfor Public Libraries", just publishedby Unesco, give a broad picture ofwhat libraries are doing in the serviceof adult education.

. Mankind Is On The March'

-UNESCO'S fourth 1950 Seminar, unmethods and techniques of adulteducation, took place at Kreutz-

stein, about 25 miles from Salzburg.Austria, from June 18th to July 29th.Over 70 men and women from 20countries constituted a temporaryinternational community, living andworking in a lakeside hotel, exchange-ina their experiences-both successesand failures-in adult education, toprovide a full picture of its presentstate in various parts of the world,and a basis for future action.

Dr. Lionel Elvin, recently appointedhead of Unesco's Education Depart-ment, was present at the opening ofthe Seminar, when delegates werrwelcomed by Dr. Hurdes, AustrianMinister of Education. Dr. Elvinread Ii message from M. Jaime TorresBodet, Unesco's Director-General, inwhich the latter stressed"the un-challengeable evidence that in adulteducation mankind is on the march"

Director of the Kreutzstein Seminarwas Dr. Sven Bjorklund. Dean andtounder of the Stockholm PeoplesUniversity and one of the outstandingfigures in the Scandinavian adulteducation movement.

Under the direction of M. JacquesBrunet. of Unesco's Film Division, oneseminar group prepared a film on themethods and techniques of adulteducation as applied at the Seminar.Other successful seminar projectswere a radio programme, a bi-weeklynewspaper, a mural journal, and a fullreport of the Seminar's work to serveas a guide to adult education groups.

These and other aspects of theSeminar's work are already being putto practical use in hundreds ofneighborhood clubs, union halls, ruralcentres, schools, colleges, etc. in allparts of the world.

Page 5-UNESCO COURIER

BACH-THE GENIUS

WHO SERVED TRUTH

by Georges FRADIER

BACH continues to grow in statÙl'e. On. the 28th July, 1750, only a handfu,of discerning musicians and lovers of music, including the King of

Prussia, to whom the old master had recently dedicated his,"Musika-lisches Opfer", mourned the end of a r are virtuoso. Outside his family and afew pupils, the compositions which had piled up in his cupboards over a periodof fifty years, were scarcely known.

A century later, Bach'sgenius received somewhatwider recognition but that

recognition was still limit-ed. A group of intellec-tuals in Germany, under-took an up-to-date editionof his works, or of whatremained of them. Bachhad become the mysteriousmaster of World-famedmusicians : Mendelssohnhad revived"The Passion

according to St. Matthew ;to the younger musicians,Schumann offered the"Well-Tempered Clavier",with the advice :"make it

YOIII'daily hrcad". \\Tag-

to celebrate the bi-centen-ary of Bach, in order totake on the air of a capi-tal city, for a few hours orweeks. The massive figureof Johann Sebastian Bach,father of Music, continuesand will continue to domi-nate the'world.

He Lived So Simply

IT would be impossibleto find in the historyof art, a nobler or pur-

er mind. lIe lived so sim-

ply that even legend hasnot coloured such simpleimages as the"cantor"at

made famous and whici)he modestly called"tlJf'old style"vas now aban-doned."A1't has beeomimueh highe1''', he said.'''she old musical slyle no

longel'pleases our moderNcan."

But in the twentieth cen-tury, the art of Johann Se-bastian is ageless ; it is nomore"old"than a Cretinfresco or a mediaeval ca-thedral. For Bach believedhimself to be neither aprophet nor an innovator :he simply placed his ge-nius so much in the serviceof truth, that this truth to-

JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. Portrait by an unknown painter.

day seems immortal andmore than one person whoseeks'a refuge in the con-fusion of the middle of the

20th century, can still findit in this temple of orderand peace-the musicof Johann Sebastian Bach.

The original manuscript of Bach's Sonata in G minorfor solo violin.

ner, then Brahms, avowedtheir allegiance to the"pa-triarch who had precededthem".

In 1050, two hundredyears after his death, Bachtruly came into his own.There have been innumer-able Bach festivals, specialdays devoted to Bach, Bachconcerts, gramophone re-cords and programmes onthe radio, consecrated sol-ely to Bach.

Father Of Music

o honor the greatestof heir musicians, Ger-many organized a se-

ries of festivals in both theEast and the Western zo-nes, arranged by a centralcommittee. The New BachSociety held a festival atGöttingen, west of theElbe, from 23-30 July, andat Leipzig on the east from2G-30 July. From if-20

July, the German Societyof Musicology organized aGeneral Congress on Musi-

cology in Luneburg, whereBach studied, and from 23-2G July the Society held aBach Seminar in Leipzig.

Today a town only has

the organ of St.Thomas, the wor-thy family manof middle-class

parentage, sur-rounded by histwenty children...It would indeed beeven uni rust tois 0 I ate Johann.Sebastian fromhis enormousfamily. All themembers of theBach family weredevoted to music,so much so, thatat Erfurt when amusician wasimplied, one saids imp 1 y"Bach".Towards themiddle of the 18thcentury, at theirannual familyreunions, theyused to form anorchestra of 120parts.

Toward the endof his life Bachwatched'with thecalm serenity ofa great master,the beginning ofthe reign of the

symphony. Thestyle that he had

NESCO PUBLISHING

FIRST FULL LIST

OF BACH S WORKS

To commemorate the Bi-ccntenar ?} o {

. his death, Unesco is publishing the

first complete list 0/the u'orks ofBach. indicating all those that hare

been i'ecorded since the developmenl o {the gramophone record industl'Y, Thisvolume, entitled"The works 0/J. S.Bach", lcill be the second in the Unescoseries"AI'ehives of Recorded lIIusic", the

first volume ofU'hich was dcrolcd to theICOl'ks of Frederic Chopin.

91 lzappJUlJlfi

in f1. tupl. M...

"It was just a year ago to-day... It was tenyears ago... This is our Golden Jubilee... This isthe centeTtary... Just about a thousand yearsage..."

The birthdays of a child, events in the livesof individual men and women, commemorationof the births and deaths ot men any womenwho have lit torches along the road of history,red-letter days marking the advance ot mankind- these are dates traditionally noted in the arbi-trary system of reckoning which we call thecalendar,

Not forgetting the unknown and unsung per-sons and events, perhaps ot equal greatness,making no claim at completeness, here are somenote-'Worthy dates in August, eighth month ofthe Gregorian calendar.

WACLAW SIEROSZEWSKISieroszewski was born on August 1st, 1860.

At the age of 15 he was an orphan, a lock-smith's apprentice and had become a socialist.He began his writing career while exiled in Sibe-ria in the 1880's-a time when many Polish wri-ters were developing their talents as exiles inthis part, of Russia.

For trying to escape from Siberia, Sieroszew-ski was sent to Yakutsk where he began to workboth as a novelist and a sociologist. When hepublished his"Twelve Years in the Country ofthe Yakutsk", the Geographical Academy orSt. Petersburg awarded him a prize andobtained for him the right to return to Poland.From then on his life was divided betweenwriting, scientific expeditions and politicalactivities.

GUY DE MAUPASSANTDULU ULl'l1. UgUIi Din,

1850. de Maupassant grewup in solitude, became asoldier then a govern-ment official and finally,a famous novelist whosestyle short story writersa) l over the world conti-nue to imitate. Europeand America eagerlyawaited the publicationof each of his books. Hewas lionised by society,yet his life was markedby loneliness. De Maupas-sant had admirable ]>0-wers of observation and--L---. L .,,took an impersoJ ; 1al interest in the madness

which gradually clouded his brain.He died in an asylum in his forty-fourth year.

BARTOLOMEO RASTRELLIOf all the architects-German, Dutch. French

and Italian-who contributed to the beauty ofSt. Petersburg, the most original was undoub-tedly Rastrelli, born on August 7th, 1700. andcalled by his contemporaries,"Rastrelli theMagnificent."His memory is perpetuated insuch buildings as the'Winter Palace and theSmolny Institute and also in the Church ofSt. Andrew of Kiev. Rastrelli became the realsuperintendent of imperial architecture, hiswork being inspired by the French classical, theAùstrian"baroque"and the old Muscovite styles.

the latter country he abolished slavery with astroke of the pen. In 1822 he left America forFrance where he died, almost forgotten by hisgeneration, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, on August17th, 1850.BALZAC

Honoré de Balzac died in Paris on August18th, 1850.

(See page 10 of this issue for an article com-memorating the centenary of Balzac)

NICOLAS LENAUWhen this Austrian poet wrote an epic on

Savonarola it ways much less with the aim ofevoking a specific historical period than todefend the idea of liberty. Again, in his famouspoem on the Albigensians, he stressed twothemes-tolerance and democracy. Lenauyearned for a free life in the vast spaces of theNew World, but after spending an Autumn inBaltimore and a winter in Ohio, he returned toEurope. Lenau,', vhose work remains as an actof faith in liberty, died near Vienna on August22nd 1850, aged 48.

NIETZSCHEOn August 25th 1900 the death occurred of

Wilhelm Friedrich Nietzsche, the German philos-opher. For a long time he had beendespondent and felt that his work had beenuseless. But, in his last writings were theseprophetic words :"People will understand meafter the next European war."He had pre-dicted the terrible war-clouded days that wereto come and ascribed a cause :"the corruptionof nationalism, the slow poisoning that causesnations to draw away from other nations. *

He had hoped, with almost dangerousobstinacy, for a renaissance. Sometimes enthu-siastically, sometimes fearfully, he asked him-self :"Is the ennoblement of mankind possible ?'

THE FIRST MEXICAN NEWSPAPERMexico's first newspaper-El Mercurio Volante

(the Flying Mercury)-appeared in 1680.The founder was Carlos de Siguenza y Gon-

gora. born at Puebla. in 1645.Geographer, historian and philosopher and

friend of the famous woman poet, Sister JuanaInez de la Cruz. the founder of"EI MercunoVolante"was also the author of the first mapof the Gulf of Mexico.

Born on the banks ofthe Uruguay and educ-ated in Madrid, San Mar-tin became a soldier inthe Spanish Army fight-ing against Napoleon.His life's work, however,was devoted to the youngrepublics of the Plata andthe Andes. For ten yearshe carried on in SouthAmerica an unrelentingstruggle against oppres-sion and colonialism. Hisgoal was reached whenindependence was wonfor Chile and Peru. In

JOSE DE SAN MARTIN

UNESCO COURIER-Page 16

lOW SALERNO IIGITED

A PI TI TIROUGI TIE

"DARK AGES"

by Dr. Riccardo LUZZATO

WHEN the Provinces of the Western Empire wereoverfiooded by primitive warrior tribes in the fifthcentury, the great wealth of scientific knowledge

created and accumulated by the Romans, Greeks and theolder eastern civilizations seemed irretrievably lost toEurope. Yet, during the troubled centuries of the earlyMiddle Ages there was established an internationalscientific organization which was to flourish for morethan 500 years, in the face of all the violent prejudice

At the start 01 the ninth century, Salerno was simply a little coastaltown to whose hospital came many sick people from Rome. Gradually,more doctors arrived in Salerno and they were followed by studentsof both sexes (as is shown in the above engraving) from many Medi-terranean and Western European countries. The medical school ofSalerno-"the most celebrated of all those formed in the West afterthe fall of the Roman Empire"came into being. It ofücially ceasedto exist in 1811, but already for some time past had only existed inname. Today, not a stone remains of the famous"Hippocratic City"where generations of doctors from many countries worked for the

advancement of medical science.

then prevailing in the Christianworld.

Sometime during the ninthcentury, in the lovely seasidetown of Salerno in SouthernItaly, a school was foundedwhich was to renew andpreserve medical knowledge forthe \World and provide aneverlasting example of thepracticality and importance ofintercultural co-operation.

The masters oj Salerno stimulated enthusiasmfor scientific experiment throughout Europefor many years. Such experiments includedthat made by a sixteenth century Venetiandoctor named Sanctorius. who invented abalance to help him determine the amounland weight 01 perspiration given oij by thehuman body in relation to the effects 01lood and drink. The above engraving showsSanctorius sitting in the balance he invented.The Venetian doctor calculated that for every8 lbs. oj food and drink consumed in a day,5 Ibs. were lost through the pores oj theskin. The importance oj this knowledge, heheld. was that"most illnesses are causedthrough an excels or a lack oj perspiration".

History at that time did notyet reach the remarkablestandards of medical science,and records are incompleteabout the early days of theCivitas Hippocratica, as theschool was called in honour ofthe greatest physician of An-cient Greece. Modern histo-rians generally agree however,in ascribing its foundations tofour scholars : Master Adela,

an Arab, Master He-linus, a Jew, MasterPcntus, a Greek-andMaster Salernus, anItalian. Each taughtin his language, whichmeant Latin for Saler-nus and Hebrew forHelinus.

The next news wehave states that in 904a Salernitan physi-cian was in residenceat the court of theKing of France. In984, Alberon, Bishop ofVerdun, came to seekthe advice of theSalernitan physicians.At a later period manyother princes of theChurch and secularrulers had recourse totheir aid.

The internationalcharacter of the insti-tution is illustratedby the fact that thenationality of many ofits famous teacherswas hardly known. Atthe Civitas Hippo-cratica, they werejust teachers, and thethousands of studentswho came from Arabia,Africa, Spain, Britain,Palestine, Northern

France and other countriesknew and cared little aboutthe origins of their professors.This applies, for instance, toGabriopontus who died aboutlíJ50. Some historians think hewas a Greek, others that hewas a Lombard, others againthat he was a Salernitan.

Works Of"Dame Trot"

OKIE of his best knownsuccessors, ConstantinusAfricanus, was born in Car-thage and made long journeysto Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia andIndia, to bring the latestachievements of Easternscience to Salerno.

The passion for science atSalerno was strong enough toovercome more than one formof prejudice. A prominent fi-gure of the early period wasthe woman physician Trotula,about whose personality littleis known, although she left anumber of medical treatiseswhich were used as textbooksup to the sixteenth centuryand were first printed byAldus in Venice in 1547. Otherwomen too were admitted tothe lectures and to study.

Woman doctor Tr otul aacquired such a wide fame,that she gained a certainpopularity in old English liter-ature under the name of"Dame Trot"and became

Madame Trotte in the thirt-eenth century medical trou-vère Rutebceuf (Le Dex deI'Erberle).

More potent evidence of

THE FOUR HUMAN TEMPERAMENTSQUATUOR HUMORES HUMANO CORPORE CONSTANT : SANGUIS CUMCHOLERA. MELANCHOLIA QUOQUE, PHLEGMA. According to theSalerno School :"Those of sanguine temperament, servants of Venusand favourites of Bacchus, have a jovial humour... the choleric manhas a bold heart but a lean body, slender and sickly.... The melan-cholic person, of a sombre and sometimes crabbed humour, is diligenlin his studies, but sleeps badly and broods over his plan. withstubborn concentration.... As for the phlegmatic person, he is shortof stature, broad and thick-set and frigidly resists all forms of agitation..."

Written records of the Sa-lerno school show the influenceupon it of the great Arabianschools of the Orient andMohammedan Spain. The Per-sian physicians Rhazes (865-925) and Avicenna (980-1037) ;and the Spanish ArabiansAvenzoar (1113-1162) andAverroes (1126-1198), as wellas the great Maimonides, aSpanish Jew (1135-1204), wereintensively studied at Salerno.Two of the most celebratedJewish physicians, the urolo-gist Isaac Judaeus (9th or lOthcentury) and the oculist Ben-venutus Grassus (born inJerusale ! n in the lith or 12th

tVmth century manuscnpt trom tne bajerno Medical Schoot(British Museum)

universality of science, evenin the so-called Dark Ages,was the long-continued colla-boration of Christians, Mos-lems and Jews, during thewhole of European history's"crusading season". To theaverage European of the MiddleAges, whoever did not belongto the orthodox ChristianChurch, whether he was a Jew,a Moslem, a Hindu, a pagan-or worst of all a heretic-washardly considered as a humanbeing.

century) had studied andtaught at the Salerno school.

From Salerno and Mont-pellier came also the famousFrench physician Pierre Gillesde Corbeil, who later taughtin Paris and became courtphysician to King PhilippeAuguste. The Emperor Fred-erick II, son of a NormanItalian mother and a Germanfather, followed the recom-mendations of the school ofSalerno. At his brilliant courtat Palermo the dignitaries

were chosen from among greatthinkers, regardless of theirancestry or creed, and Arabicwas almost as largely used asItalian and Latin. As Jatf' :'I. S1413 King Ladislaus of Hun-gary gave special privileges toSalerno teachers.

The school made one. par-ticularly memorable literarycontribution, in the poem"Regimen Sanitatis Salernita-num", probably dedicated toRobert, eldest son of Williamthe Conqueror and pretenderto the throne of England. Itwas re-edited over 300 timesand translated into many lan-guages. From Arnold of Vil-lanova's edition in 1553 may bequoted the following verses :"The Salerne School doth bythese lines impart All healthto England's King and dothaduise, From care his head tokeepe, from wrath his heart...Use three Physicians still :first Doctor Quiet, Next DoctorMerry-Man and Doctor Dyet"and to on for 362 stanzas.

A Scientific Renaissance

SALERNO re-awakened ascientific spirit, indepen-dent of dogmatic doctrines :

, revived ancient texts, andinspired its students to a calmand critical appraisal of factsas they found them. Thus,Salerno paved the way for thegreaF achievements of the uni-versities of the Renaissance.Its outstanding accomplish-ments and its lasting influencewere possible because, rightfrom the beginning, it over-came the towering barriers ofreligious and national preju-dice and aimed to make know-ledge available to the greatestpossible number of people 01all countries of the. thenknown world.

The Latin text above is reproduced from the first pages of an editionof"Regimen Sanitatis Salernilalum"published in Venice in 1567.