WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF

OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS

A

Dissertation

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of the

California School of Professional Psychology

Alliant International University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Psychology

by

Anne-Marisa Stinson

Irvine, 2007

Abstract of Dissertation

WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES

THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS

by

Anne-Marisa Stinson

Alliant International University

Committee Chairperson: Darryl Freeland, Ph.D.

This theoretical study examines the current literature on the self from a

psychological and a spiritual perspective, using the theory of Psychosynthesis as a bridge

for Western and Eastern theories. The theory of this dissertation is built upon systemic

principles that see the self as a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal

dynamics with the emphasis on interpersonal dynamics.

This study includes an examination of the nature of self, the experience of self,

and the loss of self and is based on three principles: (a) the self is comprised of two

levels: the lower self or personality and the Higher Self or Soul; (b) the lower self and

the Higher Self are experienced through mindfully balancing the pairs of opposites; and

(c) the loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological,

results from identification, caused by attachment, with one of the pairs of opposites.

Since many of the concepts in this study are highly complex and even esoteric to

some extent, in order to show the practical usage of this study, there will be a

confessional statement in chapter 3. This will serve as a defense to the practical

application and practice of this theory in the life of this researcher. This confessional

statement addresses such questions as the following: the nature of self, the experience of

the self, and the loss of self.

This study seeks to provide a new integrative perspective of the self and the loss

of self. The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the

current understanding of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this

theory of the self will potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the

practice of therapy as well.

WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF

OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS

A

Dissertation

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of the

California School of Professional Psychology

Alliant International University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Psychology

by

Anne-Marisa Stinson

Irvine, 2007

! 2007

ANNE-MARISA STINSON

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF

OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS

A

Dissertation

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of

California School of Professional Psychology

Alliant International University

by

Anne-Marisa Stinson

Approved by: ______________________________ ______________________________

Darryl Freeland, Ph.D. Date Chairperson

_____________________________ ______________________________ Robin Bullette, Psy.D. Scott R. Woolley

Program Director ___________________________

Matthew McCann, Ph.D.

7

DEDICATION

To my husband Andrew who lovingly endured my dissertation process during the

first year of our marriage. Your love and support have been and continue to be a source

of inspiration in my life.

8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to convey my deep sense of gratitude to my committee chair Dr.

Darryl Freeland who encouraged and supported me to follow my own path through out

my years in graduate school and with out whom I would not have had the courage to

write this dissertation.

I would also like to extend a special thanks to my other committee members Dr.

Robin Bullette and Dr. Matt McCann who offered their time, support, and consult

through out this process.

To my family, Mom, Dad, and Lizzie thank you for all of your love and support

through out the years as I struggled to find my way.

Finally, to Uta Hoehne words cannot express my gratitude to you for your endless

support, guidance, and presence. I would not be where I am today had our paths not

crossed.

9

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 An Integrative Theory of Self ...................................................................... 2

Lower Self and Higher Self .................................................................. 3

Balancing the Pairs of Opposites .......................................................... 5

Identification and Repression ............................................................... 6

Background of the Problem ......................................................................... 7

Concept of Self ..................................................................................... 8

Experience of Self................................................................................. 9

Loss of self.......................................................................................... 10

Statement of the Problem........................................................................... 12

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................. 12 Importance of the Study............................................................................. 13

Theoretical Foundation .............................................................................. 14

Conceptual Framework.............................................................................. 15

Limitations of the Study ............................................................................ 16

Definition of Key Terms............................................................................ 17

Summary.................................................................................................... 19 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 20

The Concept of Self ................................................................................... 20

10

Chapter Page

Western Psychological Concept of Self............................................. 21

Murray Bowen .............................................................................. 24

William James............................................................................... 27

Psychoanalysis .............................................................................. 29

Carl Jung ....................................................................................... 31

Self-Psychology ............................................................................ 33 Humanistic Psychology ................................................................ 37

Psychosynthesis .............................................................................. 39

Eastern Spiritual Concept of Self....................................................... 45

Psychosynthesis ............................................................................ 46

Alice Bailey.................................................................................. 47

Bhagavad Gita .............................................................................. 48

Summary ...................................................................................... 49

3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................................. 51 Experience of the Self................................................................................ 51 Mirroring and the Role of the Therapist ............................................. 53

Mindfulness ........................................................................................ 54 Balancing the Pairs of Opposites ........................................................ 56

Background.................................................................................. 56

Horizontal and Vertical Polarities................................................ 58

Four-Step Process for Balancing the Pairs of Opposites ............. 63

11

Chapter Page

Meditation........................................................................................... 70

The Loss of Self ...................................................................................... 73 Western Psychological Concept ......................................................... 76

Identification................................................................................. 76 Subpersonalities ........................................................................ 77

Repression..................................................................................... 77

Defense Mechanisms ................................................................ 78

Shadow...................................................................................... 81

Projection/Projective Identification .............................................. 81

Fusional Complex ......................................................................... 84

Eastern Spiritual Perspective .............................................................. 85

Glamour/Illusion........................................................................... 87

Summary.................................................................................................... 88

4. CONFESSIONAL STATEMENT............................................................................ 90 Background................................................................................................ 90 Personal Origins With Loss of Self .................................................... 91

Systemic Interactions (Interpersonal Influences) ......................... 91

Repression and Identification (Intrapersonal Influences) ............. 92

Spiritual Bypass (Transpersonal Influences) ................................ 93 Finding Myself in Therapy/Balancing the Pairs of Opposites............ 94

Defining Loss of Self in Personal Terms............................................ 96

What Happens................................................................................ 96

12

Chapter Page

Why Loss of Self Occurs ................................................................. 98

Regaining a Sense of Self .............................................................. 98

Practical Example ................................................................ 99

5. DISCUSSION......................................................................................................... 105 Conclusions.............................................................................................. 108 Implication of Findings............................................................................ 112 Therapist’s Role ....................................................................................... 113

Further Research ...................................................................................... 115 REFERENCES CITED................................................................................................. 116

13

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Few ideas are both as weighty and as slippery as the notion of the self. By “self” we commonly mean the particular being any person is, whatever it is about each of us that distinguishes you and me from others, draws the parts of our existence together, persists through changes, or opens the way to knowing who we might or should be. From knowledge of what the self truly is people have hoped to gain greater happiness, deeper fulfillment . . . Selfhood thus matters to us both as individuals and as social creatures, shaping our personal existence and our relations with those whose lives we somehow share. (Seigel, 2005, p. 3) The self, which is influenced by individual (intrapersonal), relational

(interpersonal), as well as spiritual (transpersonal) dynamics, is an elusive concept that

has been written about extensively from both the Western psychological perspective and

the Eastern spiritual perspective (Blackman, 1996; Dennett, 1974; Mruk, 2006). The

Western concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the lower self,

which emphasizes the intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics of the self, with little or

no recognition of the Eastern concept of self as Higher Self or soul (these terms are used

interchangeably), which emphasizes the transpersonal dynamic of the self. The Eastern

concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the Higher Self with little

understanding of the lower self (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The perspectives of West and

East, and the ideas of lower self and Higher Self have for the most part remained distinct

(Watts, 1961). Although attempts to integrate Western and Eastern perspectives occur in

various theories, this paper focuses on the integration of both perspectives as seen in the

works of Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973) in his theory of Psychosynthesis.

14

This model of the self is based on the premise that to understand an individual,

including his or her sense of self, experience of self, and loss of self, one must look

through a broader lens than simply the individual’s experience to include the context of

his or her environment and interactions with others. This theory is founded on a

phenomenological systemic view based on ecosystemic principles that view the self as a

subsystem of the larger interpersonal system: “The organism reacts to the field as it is

experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is, for the individual, ‘reality’ . . . . The

organism reacts as an organized whole of this phenomenal field” (Rogers, 1951, p. 484).

An individual’s behavior and sense of self is thus influenced by his or her inner

conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to what is happening) and outer

evaluation (Tyler, 1994). The processing of this information forms a feedback loop that

informs the individual of how he or she is to behave. This loop is both recursive in that it

is ever-repeating and reciprocal in that one part acts in response to another, which then

acts in response (Jackson, 1959). Thus the formation, experience, and loss of self are all

the result of interactions within the system, which is consistent with the relational

emphasis in Marriage and Family therapy (MFT) and family systems thought and

practice (Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Nichols & Schwartz, 2004; Satir, 1991).

An Integrative Theory of Self

This study seeks to formulate an integrative theory of the self in order to answer

the following questions: What is the self? How is the self experienced? Why is the self

lost? Using the theory of Psychosynthesis to blend Western and Eastern perspectives, the

theory of this study is based on three premises, which are the products of the integration

of ideas from various Western and Eastern theories: (a) The self is comprised of two

15

levels: the lower self and the Higher Self, which are both influenced by dynamics

occurring on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993;

Assagioli, 1960, 1965; Bailey, 1951; Firman, 1991). (b) The lower self and the Higher

Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the tension between pairs of

opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels

(Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1972, 1973; Bailey, 1951). (c) The loss of self, which is

considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as polarities on the

intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through

identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950,

1951, 1962).

Lower Self and Higher Self

This theory is based on the assumption that there is a self, which is composed of

two parts, the lower self and the Higher Self. The lower self and Higher Self are not two

different entities. They are parts of the same continuum with the I or lower self merely

reflecting the essence of the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Crampton, 1977; Firman

& Russell, 1992). This model of the self is based on the belief that the integration of the

lower self and the Higher Self is the goal of psychotherapy as found in Psychosynthesis,

which has included Eastern theory (Assagioli, 1965, 1969, 1976; Crampton, 1977). The

lower self, represented by Western psychology, is seen as an internal construct influenced

by both intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics (Bowen, 1985; Buber, 1970; Freud,

1936; Jung, 1933; Kohut, 1977; Meade, 1934) that encompass all feelings and thoughts

(Assagioli, 1973; James, 1910).

16

In Western and Eastern literature, the lower self is referred to in many ways,

depending on the theory, which can be confusing. For example, in the Western theory of

Psychosynthesis there is a clear differentiation between the lower self and the personality,

with the personality being organized around a center of the lower self (Assagioli, 1973).

Whereas, in Eastern literature the concepts of lower self and personality are used

interchangeably (Bailey, 1950, 1951). For purposes of clarity, this study uses the terms

lower self, center, I, or integrated personality interchangeably to refer to the Western

concept of self and the terms lower self and personality are used interchangeably to refer

to the Eastern concept of lower self.

The lower self is influenced by intrapersonal, meaning intrapsychic, and

interpersonal, meaning between the individual and society, dynamics (Mruk, 2006). This

results in the self being constantly shaped by the feedback loop created through the

interplay between the polarity of inner and outer (Jackson, 1959; Tyler, 1994). For

example, inner thoughts, feelings, and sensations, which manifest as intrapersonal

polarities, are constantly influenced by outer reactions, evaluations, and expectations,

which manifest as interpersonal polarities. An individual’s behavior and sense of self is

thus influenced by his or her inner conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to

what is happening) and outer evaluation (Tyler, 1994). This lower self, consisting of the

physical, emotional, and mental levels must be integrated into a harmonious personality

through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of the levels (Assagioli, 1958, 1973).

Once the lower self is integrated, using this newly integrated center as his or her

foundation, the individual can then consciously seek to fuse with the Higher Self or soul

17

through a specific five-step process of meditation (see chapter 3) (Assagioli, 1965, 1973;

Hodgson, 2004). The Higher Self, also known as soul or the Transpersonal Self, is

thought to be the all-knowing “vibrating center of energy” inherent within every

individual (Abraham, 1993). It is from this experience of connection with the Higher

Self that one realizes that they are not only the individual self, but that they are also a part

of a larger interconnected Transpersonal Self (transpersonal dynamics) (Bailey, 1944,

1951, 1962; Firman & Russell, 1992; Strohl, n.d.). Figure 1.1 depicts the relationship of

the three levels of the lower self to the higher self.

Using the lower self as a foundation, the Higher Self

can be contacted. Figure 1. Lower self and Higher Self (researcher generated). All three levels of the lower self must be balanced starting with the physical, then the emotional, and finally the mental. Once all three levels are balanced, they will automatically begin to integrate themselves into the lower self.

Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

The lower self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing

or holding the tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and transpersonal levels. Pairs of opposites manifest as elements of non-

self, a concept found in Psychosynthesis, which refers to anything that is not one’s

essence, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings existing on the physical, emotional,

Higher Self

Lower Integrated Self 3. Mental Level 2. Emotional Level 1. Physical Level

18

mental, personality, interindividual, and soul levels (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961;

Jung, 1933). Pairs of opposites, which manifest as the relationship between two elements

that are in reality two sides of the same coin or differing degrees of the same element,

exist within all of creation (Hawkins, 2006).

In order to balance or hold the tension between the polarities, the individual must

first be able recognize each of the polarities by bringing them into conscious awareness.

Bringing polarities to consciousness is greatly aided by a relationship with another,

whereby the individual receives empathy, understanding, and accurate mirroring.

Although this relationship can occur with anyone, this study addresses the impact of the

therapeutic relationship on identifying the pairs of opposites within the individual. Once

both polarities are identified, the individual can disidentify from each of them through

mindfully shifting his or her awareness from the polarities to the conscious observer

through a process of disidentification. When the individual is able to disidentify from

both of the polarities and observe them, he or she can hold the tension between the two

contradictory elements, such as fusion/distance and order/chaos without repressing or

identifying with either (Schwartz-Salant, 2007). Assagioli (1972, 1973) outlined a

technique for balancing the pairs of opposites that is described in chapter 3. Balancing

the pairs of opposites is an ongoing process of intention, meaning the balancing of the

two poles is a goal toward which one strives and is a never-ending process.

Identification and Repression

The loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not

pathological, results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal

19

levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression of one of the

poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Identification results from an

attachment to one of the poles, which is often prompted by desires or expectations about

a certain external situation. For example, one might become identified with the

intrapersonal mental polarities of good/bad or favorable/unfavorable; the intrapersonal

emotional polarities of like/dislike or chaos/order; or the interpersonal polarities of

fusion/distance or victim/victimizer. Identification can be in response to some outer

circumstance as in a business venture, for example, thinking that the closure of a certain

business deal would be good for the company and becoming happy at the thought of it

closing and sad at the thought of it not closing (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1965, 1972).

The act of identification is not a pathological occurrence, rather identification refers to

“taking on the perspective of that with which one identifies, in effect becoming that other,

as in identifying with a subpersonality, a feeling, or a mode of thinking” (Firman, 1996,

p. 18).

As the individual becomes identified/attached with one of the poles, the lower self

becomes disintegrated, and one loses touch with his or her center or I. As one identifies

with the personality on the physical, emotional, or mental levels, in addition to losing

connection with the lower self, the connection with the Higher Self is lost as well, if there

was a connection, as the attention is shifted back to the lower self (Assagioli, 1965;

Bailey, 1950). It is the identification or attachment with one of the pairs of opposites and

not the polarities themselves that causes the loss of self (Taylor, 1989).

20

Background of the Problem

The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the self results from a lack of

integration of Western and Eastern theories. This lack of understanding manifests in

three areas of contention: the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self.

Concept of Self

Theories about what the self is are as diverse as the words that have been created

to describe the self (Kanter, Parker, & Kohlenberg, 2001). Although the complexities

resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self are undeniable, this study

proposes that the self is a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal

dynamics, which are all represented in Western and Eastern literature. Much of

psychology in particular (with the exception of systems theory), “focuses largely on the

individual, intrapsychic developmental processes, the role of the individual in the

creation of the self through decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those

that involve success, mastery, and achievement” (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). Contrary to

psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors in the creation of

the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological

emphasis on intrapersonal factors and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors

are correct and are needed in the search for a definition of the self. He also added that in

addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, transpersonal factors need to be taken

into account in the search for a definition of the self.

Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in

Eastern thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, also emphasizes

them (Assagioli, 1973; Campbell, 1999; Wilber, 2000). According to Psychosynthesis,

21

“the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects of the

personality, such as body, feelings, and mind” (Russell, 1982, p. 2). The self is

recognized on two levels: the personal self or lower self, similar to the self recognized in

other psychological theories; and the Transpersonal Self or Higher Self, which is

analogous to the Eastern concept of self as soul. Originating from Hindu thought, the

Eastern concept of self as soul or Higher Self is almost universal, with very little

variation compared to the Western psychological perspective. The self as soul, seen as

transcending the individual, has emerged as one of the main tenets of Eastern thought and

has been written about extensively for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003).

Experience of Self

Western psychology has focused primarily on the concept of lower self, which

serves to define the self rather than to shed light on the actual experience of the self. The

self is often described as an entity rather than as an experience (Mahoney, 1994).

Contrary to Western theory, in Eastern theory there is much written on the experience of

self as the Higher Self. Contacting and maintaining a connection with the Higher Self is

considered to be the goal of existence according to the Hindu scripture the Bhagavad

Gita (Besant, 1947).

The self is experienced on two levels--first the lower self and then the Higher

Self. According to Eastern theory, the Higher Self or soul is experienced as the

personality is integrated through balancing the pairs of opposites on the physical,

emotional, and mental levels (intrapersonal polarities) and then between the personality

and soul (transpersonal polarities) (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1951). According to Western

theory, the lower self is experienced as the personality is integrated through balancing

22

and harmonizing the physical, emotional, and mental levels. This can be accomplished

through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of these levels as well as balancing

polarities on the interpersonal level that affect the physical, emotional, and mental levels

(Assagioli, 1965, 1972, 1973). Therefore, this study is based on the principle that the

lower self and Higher Self are experienced by balancing or holding the tension between

pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal

levels.

Pairs of opposites are balanced by shifting the point of attention away from each

of the poles to the conscious observer, through the process of mindful disidentification.

As the pairs of opposites are balanced on the physical, emotional, and mental levels, the

personality is integrated around a conscious center or I--the lower self (Assagioli, 1972;

Bailey, 1951). When the lower self is experienced and maintained, the Higher Self can

then be contacted through a five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,

contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal

communication, June 5, 2006). The Higher Self is then maintained by holding the

tension between the Higher Self and the integrated personality or lower self (Bailey,

1951). Balancing the pairs of opposites on all levels is an ongoing, moment-to-moment

activity that requires mindfulness and persistence.

Loss of Self

The loss of self results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and

transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression

of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Loss of self as it

is referred to in this study is not a pathological occurrence, rather it is an everyday

23

occurrence experienced by all individuals and is considered problematic only when it

affects an individual’s sense of identity and functioning. Loss of self is an indication that

one or more polarities have become unbalanced on one of the various levels. Both

Western and Eastern perspectives state that the loss of self results from identification

with something that is non-self, which refers to anything that is not one’s essence,

including thoughts, sensations, and feelings (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933).

Loss of self resulting from a failure to balance the pairs of opposites, can be seen in the

dynamics of identification, repression, projection, projective identification, and the

fusional complex, all of which contribute to the development of defense mechanisms,

false selves, and shadow sides (Freud, 1934; Horney, 1984; Jung, 1933; Winnicott,

1958).

Eastern spiritual teachings emphasize that attachment or identification with

anything that is not the self, whether it is on the physical, emotional, or mental level, is

the cause of all suffering or loss of self, as seen in the first and second noble truths of

Buddha, which state that (a) life is suffering, and (b) all suffering is caused by attachment

(Bahm, 1958). According to Alice Bailey, whose writings merge the teachings of

Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, the loss of self results from identifying with the

personality, which is caused by a failure to balance the pairs of opposites. According to

Bailey, identification manifests differently on the various levels of the personality. On

the mental level identification manifests as illusion and is “the misunderstanding of ideas

or thoughtforms” (Bailey, 1950, p. 21). When desire is added to illusion, it then becomes

glamour, which manifests on the emotional level, and according to Bailey, is much more

prevalent today than is illusion because of the emotional polarization of most people.

24

This study focuses on the concept of glamour and how this concept affects an

individual’s sense of self and loss of self.

Statement of the Problem

The literature on the topic of the self is divided into two distinct branches of

thought: the Western psychological view and the Eastern philosophical, spiritual view

(Miovic, 2004; Page & Berkow, 1991). The problem is that among these perspectives

there is little integration of theories, which results in a comprehensive lack of

understanding of the self, including what the self is, how the self is experienced, and why

the self is lost. Many individuals who find the theoretical understanding of the self to be

lacking turn to personal therapy to explain their questions surrounding their experience of

self and loss of self. Although this may provide some answers, unfortunately, the same

inadequacies exist, as therapy is led by theory. The lack of understanding, seemingly

emanating from all angles indicating a therapy not led by sufficient theory, points to the

need for a new theoretical explanation for the perplexities of the self. Clues to the

questions and problems of the self lay dispersed throughout Western psychological

theory and Eastern spiritual doctrines. The problem of this study is whether one can

extract the elements of Western psychological theory and Eastern spiritual theory from

their origins and bring them together through the bridge of Psychosynthesis to form an

integrative theory of the self.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to provide an expanded examination of the self in

order to gain an understanding of what the self is, how the self is experienced, and how

the self is lost. As evidenced by the lack of literature on the subject, there needs to be a

25

more in-depth understanding of the self. This study seeks to integrate Western

psychological and Eastern spiritual theories through Psychosynthesis to provide an

integrative and comprehensive theory of the self.

Through the integration of psychological and spiritual perspectives, the goal of

this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the current understanding

of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this theory of the self will

potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the practice of therapy as well.

This study is theoretical in nature and intends to build upon existing literature on the

topic in order to create a theory base for future research that affects practice.

Importance of the Study

The importance of this study is the building of a theory, which has both personal

and clinical applications. A primary function of research is theory building. Theory then

gives rise to additional theory, which should then inform practice. Therefore, the

question must be asked: Of what practical use is this study? Since many of the concepts

in this study are highly complex and to some extent even esoteric, in order to show the

practical usage of this study, a confessional statement is included in chapter 4.

Confessional statements in psychology and philosophy date back to the work of St.

Augustine’s Confessions (386-430 A.D.), which “may provide the most penetrating

spiritual and psychological self-analysis of any work ever written” (Samples, 2001).

Consistent with the apologetics in philosophy and theology, which serve to give an

intellectual defense of one's faith (Depoe, 2006), the confessional statement in chapter 4

serves as a defense to the practical application and practice of this theory as experienced

in the life of this researcher.

26

Theoretical Foundation

The purpose of a theoretical dissertation is to review the current theories on a

specific topic in the existing literature in order to build upon the current theories and

develop a new perspective. The topic of self, including the concept of self, the

experience of self, and the loss of self from Western and Eastern perspectives, is too

broad to include a review of all the existing literature on the topic. For this reason,

specific literature from Western psychology and Eastern spiritual teachings has been

selected to support and bring substance to the central principle that the concept of self,

the experience self, and the loss of self are the products of intrapersonal, interpersonal,

and transpersonal dynamics and the polarities manifesting on these levels.

From the Western perspective, this study begins with the systemic perspective of

the self and then follows the theoretical progression of the self through the field of

psychology from (a) defining the self as the result of unconscious drives

(psychoanalysis); (b) emphasizing the internalization of self objects (self psychology);

(c) valuing the self (humanistic psychology); and (d) realizing the potential to transcend

the self (transpersonal psychology).

It is as if psychology’s progression through successive stages emphasizing instincts and unconscious drives (psychoanalysis), environmental influences (behaviorism), self-determination and free choice (humanism), and transcendence and spirituality (transpersonalism) resembles the stages of psychological growth and development a healthy person encounters. The study of the “self” has progressed from concentrating on controlling and regulating the self (psychoanalysis and behaviorism), to valuing the self (humanism), and ultimately to knowing the full possibilities and transcendence of the self through direct experiencing. (Strohl, n.d., p. 12) Western psychology provides the full progression of the self, beginning with

psychoanalysis and the examination of unconscious drives, and ending with

27

transpersonalism and the transcendence of the self. Transpersonal psychology,

specifically Psychosynthesis, bridges the gap between Western psychology and the

integration of the lower self, and the fusion with the Eastern concept of the Higher Self

(Assagioli, 1964; Besmer, 1973; Crampton, 1977).

Similar to the abundance of literature on the lower self in Western psychology,

Eastern spiritual teachings abound with literature on the Higher Self. In this dissertation,

Eastern spiritual literature on the self focuses on the teachings of Hinduism, represented

in the Bhagavad Gita, and the writings of Alice Bailey, who has written numerous books

on Eastern spirituality. Both of these resources have been chosen based on the emphasis

they lend to the organizing principle of this study--balancing the pairs of opposites.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework in a theoretical study states the conceptual variables,

referring to those concepts discussed in chapters 2 and 3. Those variables include but are

not limited to the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self as found in

select Western and Eastern literature. The variable of the concept of self is based on the

concepts of the lower self and Higher Self, as they are the products of intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. These concepts are found in Western

literature in the theories of psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, self-psychology,

humanistic psychology, and Psychosynthesis and include the works of William James

(1890, 1910), Sigmund Freud (1934), Heinz Hartman (1944), Carl Jung (1933, 1955),

Heinz Kohut (1971, 1977), Carl Rogers (1980, 1989), Virginia Satir (1972, 1975),

Murray Bowen (1985), and Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973). In Eastern literature the

concepts are found in the teachings of Hinduism, represented by the Bhagavad Gita, and

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the works of Alice Bailey (1932, 1944). The variable of the experience of self is based

on the concepts of mirroring, mindfulness, balancing the pairs of opposites, the conscious

observer, and meditation. The variable of the loss of self is based on the concepts of

identification, repression, projection, projective identification, shadow side, fusional

complex, glamour, and illusion. The conceptual framework in this study goes beyond

conceptual variables that occur in the literature. This study also goes beyond those

concepts to ways that the theory has been experienced by the writer of this dissertation as

found in the confessional statement in chapter 4.

Limitations of the Study

This study is a theoretical review of the current literature on the nature of self, the

experience of self, and the loss of self. Therefore, it is limited in that it is not an

empirical study nor is it based on quantitative measures. Although this may be

interpreted as a weakness, it is also a strength. Theoretical studies provide deeper, more

comprehensive background examinations of the material, allowing for greater integration

and new-theory formulation. As Walsh (1988) noted “all psychologies, including

Western ones, are dependent on, and are subsets of, philosophies and cosmologies.”

Indeed “psychology always presupposes cosmology” (p. 544). All of psychology is

based on prior ideas pertaining to the nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. Thus

theory builds upon theory to produce new theory, which should then inform practice.

Definitions of Key Terms

Many of the following terms have multiple definitions, depending on the source.

The following definitions are the result of an integrative process to formulate a working

definition, which serves the context of this study.

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Detachment. Considered to be the result of mindful disidentification. It is an

active process where one consciously holds the tension between the pairs of opposites by

acknowledging each pole and yet not identifying with either (Abraham, 1993).

Glamour. A concept originated from Alice Bailey in her book Glamour: A World

Problem, where she states that “the problem of glamour is found when the mental illusion

is intensified with desire.” Being emotional in nature, a glamour refers to anything which

one has an emotional reaction to and which pulls him or her away from his or her center,

or self, due to identification with one of the polar opposites (Bailey, 1950).

Higher Self or Soul. “A vibrating center of energy found within appearance or

form. From its very nature, the Soul is conscious or aware in three directions: it is God-

conscious; it is group conscious; and it is self-conscious” (Bailey, 1944).

Holding the tension. Refers to the process whereby the pairs of opposites are

balanced. Jung (1954) stated that inherent in all things and all situations are pairs of

opposites, which must be balanced in order that they may be transcended to something

higher. The self is maintained through holding the tension between the pairs of

opposites.

Integrated personality. Derived from transpersonal psychology and refers to the

physical, emotional, and mental levels of the personality all functioning together as a

whole. This is achieved through holding the tension between the pairs of opposites,

which leads to maintaining the horizontal point of tension (Assagioli, 1973).

Loss of self. Occurs when an individual is no longer connected to the self. This

loss is experienced as feelings of confusion, numbness, chaos, and turmoil, and is caused

by identification with either the physical, emotional, or mental levels.

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Mindfulness. “A state of consciousness which involves consciously attending to

one’s moment-to-moment experiences” (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006).

Non-self. Refers to anything that is not the self or the essence of an individual.

This includes all thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations (Jung, 1933; Crampton,

1977).

Pairs of opposites. Inherent in nature, everything has its shadow or opposite.

These pairs of opposites represent two poles, which must be held together by tension. In

holding the tension between the two poles, the two will merge into one (Abraham, 1993).

Self. Referred to in terms of the lower self or personality and Higher Self or Soul

(see those definitions). Although self is regarded on these two levels, they are not two

separate entities. Rather the lower self is a reflection of the essence of the Higher Self

(Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1991).

Spiritual. Used by Psychosynthesis to include many religious experiences as well

as a “range of ethical, aesthetic, and humanistic values” (Clinebell, 1981).

Will. Regarded in Psychosynthesis as “the capacity for decision, planning, and

purpose, and is regarded as a key resource in all phases” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). Like a

muscle it can be developed by specific exercises (Assagioli, 1973).

Summary

This chapter has presented the introduction, background of the problem,

statement of the problem, purpose of the study, theoretical foundation and conceptual

framework of the study, limitations of the study, importance of the study, and definitions

of key terms. Chapter 2 presents a review of select literature on the concept of self, thus

defining the self from Western and Eastern perspectives and establishing the theoretical

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foundation from which concepts and ideas are elaborated on in the remaining chapters.

Chapter 3 is a continuation of the literature review as it applies specifically to the

organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites. This concept is found in the

theories presented in chapter 2 and applies to the experience of self and the loss of self.

Chapter 4 consists of a personal confessional statement and serves as a defense for the

practical application of this theory. This study ends with the discussion in chapter 5,

which includes conclusions, implications of the findings, therapist’s role, and further

research.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This literature review consists of an examination of the concept of self found in

select Western and Eastern literature. This review also examines the similarities and

differences of Western and Eastern perspectives of the self and outlines the integration of

the two as seen in the literature of Psychosynthesis. Psychosynthesis serves as a bridge

between the first, second, third, and fourth forces of psychology and Eastern spiritual

traditions, all of which are assumable in a family systems orientation.

Concept of Self

The origins of the concept of self can be traced back to Eastern literature with the

Upanishads in India in as early as 600 B.C.E, the Tao to Ching in China (circa 500

B.C.E.), and the writings of Buddha (circa 563-483 B.C.E.). Much of what has been

written about in these Eastern writings on the self, referred to as Higher Self or soul,

including ideas on identity, consciousness, and reflection, is very alive in the modern

debate on the self. It is surprising that it was only until relatively recently that

psychology began to introduce and discuss such ideas that have been around for

thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 4). The concept of self has been explored

from a Western psychological perspective as well as an Eastern spiritual perspective

(Mahoney, 1991). Among these two perspectives are differences and similarities. Both

concepts of self are necessary, and it is the integration of the two that will provide the

ultimate understanding of the self.

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Western Psychological Concept of Self

“The nature and meaning of selfhood have been recurring questions, implicitly or

explicitly, in practically every known human time and place. Nowhere has the debate

been more full-blown or more intense than in the modern West” (Seigel, 2005, p. 3).

The Western concept of self, referenced in general terms as the lower self, has evolved

over time. Tracing the psychological concept of self through history shows that it is an

evolving construct, which continues to have many definitions, depending on who is

defining it. As a result, “anyone approaching a psychology of ‘the self’ with some

seriousness immediately encounters a perplexing multitude of issues” (Mahoney, 1991).

Although the complexities resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self

are undeniable, this study proposes that the self is shaped by intrapersonal, interpersonal,

and transpersonal dynamics.

Webster’s Dictionary (2003) defines self as “a person's essential being that

distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or

reflexive action; a person's particular nature or personality; the qualities that make a

person individual or unique; and one's own interests or pleasure.” This mainstream

definition of the self as the essence of one’s being found primarily through introspection

complements the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy’s definition of the self as “the elusive

‘I’ that shows alarming tendency to disappear when we try to introspect it” (Blackman,

1996, p. 344). Both the mainstream and the philosophical definitions view the self from

the perspective of the individual/intrapersonal experience with less acknowledgment of

the influences of others or the interpersonal influences in the formation of the self.

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Much of psychology in particular “focuses largely on the individual, intrapsychic

developmental processes, the role of the individual in the creation of the self through

decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those that involve success, mastery,

and achievement” (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). According to this view, the self has been defined

as a construct of the ego (Freud, 1923); I or me (Freud, A., 1936; James, 1910; Winnicott,

1958); a composite of one’s subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them

(Hartman, 1944); and according to Jung, “the unifying principle within the human

psyche” (Samuels, Shorter, & Plaut, 1986, p. 135) or an archetype which is an inborn

form of the intuition (Jung, 1976). Although much of psychology has been criticized for

its seemingly myopic concentration on intrapersonal influences, most of the theories do

acknowledge interpersonal influences as well. Interpersonal influences in the creation of

the self are specifically focused on in the systemic and relational theories found in MFT

(Bowen, 1985).

Contrary to psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors

in the creation of the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). The self is viewed as the product

of “how others react to us, how we react to their reactions, and how those processes lead

to the development of self and one’s worth or value in a social context” (Mruk, 2006, p.

33). This notion of the self maintains that “the self is a product of imitation,

internalization, and inferences prompted by (what we believe are) other people’s

perceptions and evaluations of us” (Mahoney, 1991, p. 217). Sociology’s view has

encountered criticism as well for the belief that the self is the product of mainly

interpersonal dynamics and does not adequately account for the I (or intrapersonal

elements) in personal experience (Broughton, 1986).

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Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological emphasis on intrapersonal factors

and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors are correct and are needed in the

search for a definition of the self. Many psychological theories have integrated

interpersonal influences into their definitions of the self. Kohut believed that the self is a

psychological configuration, resulting from both intrapersonal and interpersonal

influences around which the personality is formed (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982).

Similarly, according to Rogers (1959), the self is an “organized, consistent conceptual

gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ and the

perceptions of the relationship of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various aspects of life”

(p. 200). Mruk later added that in addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences,

he believed that the creation of the self is also influenced by transpersonal influences.

Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in Eastern

thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, strongly emphasizes them

(Assagioli, 1973; Firman & Russell, 1992; Russell, 1981).

In Western psychology there are many definitions of the self, all of which are

composed of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics. Multiple

definitions result mainly from the diversity of theories within the field. This review of

the Western literature on the self focuses on select theories, which view the self as a

product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics, including family

systems theory, psychoanalysis, self-psychology, humanistic psychology, and

Psychosynthesis. This includes but is not limited to the works of Murray Bowen (1985),

Virginia Satir (1982), William James (1890), Sigmund Freud (1934),

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Donald Winnicott (1958), Heinz Hartman (1944), Heinz Kohut (1978, 1984), Carl Jung

(1953), Carl Rogers (1942, 1957, 1961) and Roberto Assagioli (1964, 1973).

This study is based on systemic principles, which state that in order to observe

and understand the self, one must look past the individual to include the system of which

one is a part. This literature review begins with the systemic theory of Murray Bowen.

Following his theory are theories and theorists who follow a theoretical progression of

the self through the field of psychology. Finally, the theory of Psychosynthesis is

presented, serving as a bridge to the Eastern concept of self.

Murray Bowen

According to Bowen, the self is not a concept, rather the self is a “dynamic reality

capable of maturation” (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 144). Bowen stated:

The “self” is composed of constitutional, physical, physiological, biological, genetic and cellular reactivity factors, as they move in unison with psychological factors. On a simple level, it is composed of the confluence of more fixed personality factors as they move in unison with rapidly moving psychological states. Each factor influences the other and is influenced by the others. The psychological is the easiest to be influenced by the individual. (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 342)

Bowen (1985) believed that the individual’s self is influenced by the emotional system,

formally referred to as the undifferentiated ego mass in which the individual is located.

The emotional system refers to the nuclear family, which includes “processes shaped by

evolution that form an innate or instinctive guidance system for an organism” (Papero,

1990, p. 11). The idea of the emotional system suggests that “the way constituent

particles function is not necessarily according to their own nature alone, but often is due

to their position within force fields that encompass them” (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 146).

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Functioning as a system, members of a family are encouraged to give up self and to fuse

with the family unit (Bowen, 1985; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Gilbert, 2004).

Bowen believed that there are two parts of the self: (a) the basic or solid self, and

(b) the pseudo-self or functioning self. Although the basic self may be changed from

within on the basis of experience or new knowledge, the basic self is not negotiable in the

relationship system. The basic self is “not changed by coercion or pressure, or to gain

approval, or enhance one’s stand with others” (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). In contrast to the

stability of the basic or solid self, the pseudo-self is “made up of a mass of heterogeneous

facts, beliefs, and principles acquired through the relationship system in the prevailing

emotion . . . and is negotiable in the relationship system” (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). It is the

pseudo-self that is susceptible to fusing with the emotional family system.

Bowen referred to the self in terms of levels of differentiation from the emotional

system. Differentiation refers to the individual’s ability to distinguish between his or her

feeling and intellectual processes, rather than having his or her behavior driven by

automatic emotions (Papero, 1990; Goldenberg, I. & Goldenberg, H., 2000). In addition

to the emotional system, Bowen believed that there exists a feelings system and an

intellectual system. He thought that the feelings system acts as a bridge from the

emotional system, which is not usually felt by the intellectual system. Differentiation

refers to a process rather than an ultimate destination and requires that one learn how to

lower anxiety when confronted with the anxiety of others. For example, to say “I” when

others are requiring “we;” to take responsibility for one’s own emotional well-being; to

exist as both an individual and as part of a group; and to avoid becoming polarized.

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Differentiation does not refer to the process of individuation and is not concerned with an

individual’s behavior, as is the latter, but rather with an individual’s emotional being.

Bowen’s differentiation of self-scale positions people on a scale of 1 to100,

depending on their level of differentiation or undifferentiation. People low on the scale

live in a feeling-controlled world where they are continually flooded by emotion in which

there is little or no objective reasoning. Low-scale people have little sense of themselves,

are highly susceptible to fusion with others, and are more susceptible to developing

symptoms. The primary goals of undifferentiated individuals are “oriented around love,

happiness, comfort, and security; these goals come closest to fulfillment when

relationships with others are in equilibrium” (Bowen, 1985, p. 474). Low-scale people

“either have to avoid relationships lest they slip automatically into an uncomfortable

fusion, or have no choice but continued pursuit of a close relationship for gratification of

emotional ‘needs’” (Bowen, 1985, p. 475).

In contrast to low-scale people, high-scale people are able to distinguish between

their emotional and intellectual functioning. They give less energy to relationships and

thus have more energy for self-directed activities. These individuals are able to tolerate

both closeness and distance in relationships, and thus their relationships are characterized

by a high degree of flexibility. They are responsible for themselves and are able to remain

an I in stressful situations which demand a we focus. In order to differentiate from the

field, one must first make himself or herself aware of the field and the effect that the field

has. Not only does the field affect the individual, but the individual also affects the field.

An individual’s sense of self is influenced by layers of multi-generational

transmissions in which past thoughts, feelings, emotions, and associations of family

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members press down upon him or her. Individuals are consistently faced with the

opposing forces of individuality or self and togetherness or group/family.

Anxiety, which Bowen believed is present in all individual’s and is passed down from

generation to generation, plays a part in the individual’s sense of self. When there is little

anxiety present, individuals are able differentiate themselves from others, but as their

anxiety rises, individuals are more susceptible to lose their sense of self and become

reactive to the world around them (Gilbert, 1992).

William James

Around the turn of the century, William James (1890, 1910), who is considered

by many to have pioneered certain concepts on the self from the Western psychological

perspective, began examining the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal nature of

the self. James specifically distinguished between two different aspects of the self: the

I-self (subject) and the me-self (object) (Burns, 1979; Redfearn, 1983; Leary & Tangney,

2003). James observed the unique capacity of the self to be reflexive; the self has the

“ability to somehow turn around and take itself as the object of its own view. Thus the

self has both a ‘process’ aspect--the self as the knower of things--and a ‘content’ aspect--

the self as that which is known” (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 179).

The self as I is the knower, the “active subject engaged in human experience” and

is thought to have four components as outlined by Leary and Tangney (2003): (1) self-

awareness of one’s inner states, feelings, and emotions; (2) self-agency experienced as a

sense of being the creator of one’s thoughts and actions; (3) self-continuity experienced

as a feeling of security that “one remains the same person over time” (p. 612); and (4)

self-coherence evidenced by a feeling of stability with in the self. The self as subject or I

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brings to awareness that one is a unique individual, existing distinctly from others (Ross,

1992). This I is thought to remain constant and unchanging over time and is the center

from which one perceives the world (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The I “encompasses

personal identity, cohesiveness and stability” (Lovlie, 1982).

James found the self as I to be very illusive and thus focused most of his attention

on the self as me (Leary & Tangney, 2003). James considered the me-self to be an

empirical aggregate of all things, which are objectively known (Meade, 1934). The self

as object or me is the object of one’s own experience and is influenced by the I-self.

When individuals are operating from the self as object, they are aware of themselves as

they appear to be. This knowledge is gained over time through interactions with others

(interpersonal dynamics) (Ross, 1992). James believed that there are three parts to the

me-self (Burns, 1979; Lovlie, 1982; Redfearn, 1983; Mahoney, 1991). (a) The material

self, includes the body, family, and personal property; (b) The social self consists of

interpersonal interactions. The social self is the me that is reflected back to the individual

by others. A person has many social selves, some of which may be in conflict with one

another. (c) The spiritual self consists of one’s psychic faculties, one’s inner subjective

experiences, and one’s sense of being. The spiritual self encompasses all thoughts and

feelings and is the “centre around which all other aspects of the empirical self cluster; it is

the source of interest, effort, attention, will and choice, a composite of all one’s

intellectual, religious, and moral aspirations” (Burns, 1979, p. 7). The I-self must

precede the me-self, as one must know that they exist before they can know who they are

(Ross, 1992).

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James defined the self in terms of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal

dynamics. The four components of the I-self (self-awareness, self-agency, self-

continuity, and self-coherence) are all intrapersonal dynamics. The construct of the me-

self is defined by interpersonal dynamics on the material and social levels, and

transpersonal dynamics on the spiritual level (Burns, 1979; Mahoney, 1991).

Psychoanalysis

Whereas James’ view of the self was focused in the conscious, Freud brought to

light the unconscious aspect of the self, which is primarily the product of intrapersonal

dynamics (Levin, 1992).

Freud’s great contribution to the understanding of the self lies in his unparalleled depiction of the self as a house divided, torn by conflict, the sources of which are largely unconscious--or outside of our awareness. Bringing them into consciousness is beyond our ordinary ability. For Freud, that which we experience as self, or better, as ourself, is but the tip of the iceberg, the vast bulk of which lies out of sight and beneath the waterline. (p. 85)

There is little mention of the self in Freud’s work, as he “did not think that an

independent construct of the self was necessary” (Gammelgaard, 2003, p. 96). The self is

seen as a structure existing in the mind and is thought to be “a by-product of ego

development” and not an agency in and of itself (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). Freud used the

terms ego and self interchangeably as his term for ego, das Ich, translates to self or I,

although this is debatable among psychoanalytic theorists (Mahoney, 1991).

In his work, Freud focused primarily on intrapersonal dynamics, mainly the ego,

and paid less attention to the interpersonal dynamics between individuals (Friedman,

1985). Freud’s concept of the ego, the closest concept to the self, progressed through

time and still remains somewhat ambiguous (Gammelgaard, 2003). Freud placed the

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ego, which consists of all that is rational and sane, in the center of the system and

believed the ego to be “the core of the personality that controls impulses and drives from

the id and superego in conformity with the requirements of reality” (Burns, 1979, p. 18).

Freud (1923) introduced his three-part model of the mind, which he believed is composed

of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud saw the id as the unconscious part of the

mind, which he believed to be the impulsive and irrational part that houses instinctual

energy. Above the id, he placed the ego at the center as the conductor of the conflicting

impulses of the id (Levin, 1992; Burns, 1979). At the top, he placed the super-ego or ego

ideal, which he believed is the “witnessing and evaluating component comprised of the

conscious and ‘ego ideal’” (Mahoney, 1991, p. 220).

Many believe that Freud put too much emphasis on the id at the expense of the

ego, which led to the self-concept never being fully explained (Burns, 1979). Although

there is much debate among theorists about what Freud meant by his term ego as it

applies to the concept of self, many theorists use the terms ego and self interchangeably

with the ego/self being “a set of processes such as perceiving, and thinking; it determines

the content of the consciousness, and distinguishes between reality and imagination . . .

the totality of psychological processes which control the speed and direction of the flow

of consciousness” (Burns, 1979, p. 18).

Following Freud’s development of the concept of the ego, others that have

continued to adapt its definition and apply the concept of ego to the concept of self

include Hartman (1944). The concept of self on a theoretical level was introduced to

psychoanalysis in 1950 by Hartman. Moving away from Freud’s model of the self with

its emphasis on the ego and continuing with the intrapersonal focus of the self, Hartman

43

distinguished the self from the ego, believing that the self is a composite of one’s

subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them, which in turn makes the self

the “object of one’s self-esteem, self-awareness, self-value, etc.” (Gammelgaard, 2003).

The self is distinguished from the ego, which he believed is “a system of adaptive and

integrative functions hierarchically arranged” with no experience of I or subjective

references (Redfearn, 1983, p. 97).

Carl Jung

Jung departed from Freud on his ideas of the inner world of an individual.

Whereas Freud was concerned with the contents of the mind as they were derived from

experiences, Jung believed that the mind is endowed with archetypes, which transcend

experience (Urban, 1992). According to Jung, archetypes, which are inborn forms of the

intuition are the essence of the psyche and form the self (Jung, 1976). Jung believed the

self to be the primary structure from which the ego develops, which is the reverse of

Freud’s belief. Jung also believed that the self is a process of the psyche and is thought

of as an agency rather than a thing (Coleman, 2000). Jung referred to the self as “the

totality of the psyche altogether, i.e., conscious and unconscious,” (Jung, 1955, p. 389)

which “embraces the bodily sphere as well as the psyche” (Jung 1963, p. 503).

Jung referred to two parts of the self: the familiar self or ego personality and the

self or Greater Personality. The latter he believed is ultimately unknowable and can be

compared to cosmic consciousness or God. Jung emphasized the importance of keeping

the union between the two parts of the self, the ego and the self (Schmidt, 2005).

According to Edinger (1972) we are born in a state of union between the self and the ego.

However, as time goes by, the ego becomes inflated and separates from the self. To

44

maintain the personality’s integrity, the ego and the self must come together, with the ego

eventually surrendering to the self. Although the inflated ego must at some point

surrender to the self, it does not disappear and is still integrated in the overall structure.

The merging and separating of the ego and the self is an ongoing, life-long process of

blending and fusing the pairs of opposites (Schmidt, 2005). These two parts of the self

are similar to the two levels of self found in Psychosynthesis, which is described later.

Jung’s concept of the self embodies the idea of individuation, “a process of self

realization, the discovery and experience of meaning and purpose in life; the means by

which one finds oneself and becomes who one really is” (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). This

process can be seen as “the drive of the Self to consciousness” (Schmidt, 2005, p. 604).

Individuation, Jung believed, depends on blending the tensions of the opposite poles,

such as the conscious and unconscious; divine and human; personal and collective; and

self and ego. Jung paid particular attention to the interplay between the personal and

collective in the formation of self. “The aim of individuation is nothing less than to

divest the self of the false wrappings of the persona on the one hand, and the suggestive

power of primordial images on the other” (Jung 1976, para. 269).

A balance must be struck between the individual (introversion), and the collective

(extroversion) so that one maintains the self while remaining relational, which is the

essence of the self. Jung stated, “The self is relatedness . . . The self only exists inasmuch

as you appear. Not that you are, but that you do the self. The self appears in your deeds

and deeds always mean relationship” (Jung, 1976, p. 73). From this process of

individuation comes what Jung termed the “ultimate.” Jung’s idea of the ultimate is

defined as “that a class of images, expressing totality, symbolizes the self, defined as the

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total personality, conscious and unconscious” (Fordham, 1976, p. 11) and “the

individuated self experienced as a unity that transcends the multiplicity of object

relationships” (Urban, 2005, p. 582).

Jung’s belief that the self has two parts, the familiar self and the Self, continues

the Western psychological definition of the lower self and to it adds his concept Self,

analogous to the Eastern concept of Higher Self. These two parts of the self are similar to

the two levels of the self found in Psychosynthesis.

Self Psychology

Similar to Jung, Kohut believed that the self is separate from the ego. According

to Kohut, “the self is separate from the ego and should not be conceived of as an agency

of the mind like the ego, id, or super ego. Instead, the self is a structure in the mind,

similar to an object representation, containing differing and even contradictory qualities”

(Siegel, 1996, p. 65). Kohut (1978) believed that the self is a psychological

configuration, which is influenced by intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics around

which the personality is formed (Patton & Robbins, 1982; Patton, Conner, & Scott,

1982). Kohut’s primary goal in therapy was to strengthen the structure of the self by

bringing the constituents of the self to maturity through a process of transmuting

internalization. Kohut proposed that the self has three constituents, which when brought

to maturity, constitute healthy development. These constituents or sectors are (a) the

grandiose exhibitionistic sector; (b) the idealizing sector; and (c) the twinship or alter-

ego sector. These constituents are brought to maturity through the process of transmuting

internalization, which is a growth-producing interpersonal process whereby individuals

are able to reinternalize the missing parts of themselves from other self-objects

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(Kohut, 1971, 1978, 1984). Kohut considered self-objects to be empathetic others who

mirror and validate the individual’s self. According to Kohut, a self-object is another

person who is able to shore up the individual’s sense of self and hold it for them until

they are ready to reinternalize it (Kahn, 1985; Kohut, 1977, 1984).

Similar to early development when the other is indistinguishable from the self, in

adulthood, a self-object holds similar control over the mind of another (Kohut, 1971).

These feelings for the self-object are reawakened feelings toward the parents in infancy

when there is no differentiation between the parents and the child (Kahn, 1985). Kohut

thought that “when the adult experiences the self-sustaining effects of a maturely chosen

self-object, the self-object experiences of all the preceding stages of his life reverberate

unconsciously” (Kohut, 1984, pp. 49-50). Self-objects exist from childhood into

adulthood and are a necessary ingredient for the development of a secure self. Each

encounter with an empathetic self-object produces “gradual increments of self-

structuralization” (Kahn, 1985, p. 897) as they mirror and validate, through the process of

transmuting internalization, whichever constituent of the individual’s self needs support

in order for it to become more mature.

In this process of transmuting internalization, the self-object is incorporated into

the self’s internal structure (Susske, n.d., p. 3) through a two-step process (Kohut, 1984).

(a) Empathy is developed between the individual and the self-object. (b) Non-traumatic

empathetic failures occur between the individual and the self-object whereby the

individual is frustrated. These “phase-appropriate frustrations of the needs for mirroring

and idealization promote for the growing child a manageable breakup of the infantile self

and it’s self-objects, and a gradual build-up of new conceptions that include increasingly

47

realistic representations of self and other” (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982, p. 270). These

empathetic failures require that the self internalize and take over the functions that had

been relegated to the self-object.

The process of transmuting internalization seeks to bring to maturity the three self

constituents or sectors. Kohut believed that at the age of two, the self is unified around

the nucleus of the bipolar self, which is composed of the constituents of the infantile

grandiose self and the idealized parental image. Kohut proposed that the constituent of

the grandiose self, which “functions to maintain the child’s sense of cohesion in space

and time and its grandiose form of self-esteem,” is the first stage of development (Kohut,

1978; Patton & Wampold, 1982, p. 269). At this stage, the child’s self has age-

appropriate exhibitionistic tendencies and seeks merger with its parents. Parental

empathy, admiration, and mirroring encourage the cohesion of the self. As the grandiose

self is validated by the self-objects, the child’s parents, the child begins to internalize this

praise and validation, which causes an increase in self-esteem, self-assertion, and

ambition. As time passes, if there is accurate and sufficient empathy on the part of the

parents, the constituent of the grandiose exhibitionist will be brought to maturity. The

narcissism of the child will transform into the ambitions of the adult, who is no longer

dependent on the need for the constant mirroring from others and is the independent

center of initiative (Kohut, 1984; Patton & Robbins, 1982).

The second constituent forming the nuclear self and subsequent parallel line of

development is the idealized parental imago. During this stage of development the

individual will admire, idealize, and seek comfort from the self-object, the parents, as the

individual seeks to become one with them. As parents empathize and validate this

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idealization and desire for merger, the child begins to internalize this sense of comfort

and provide it for himself or herself, which leads to the development of admiration and

acceptance for his or her parents. According to Kohut, the development of admiration

and acceptance leads to the formation of ideals, values, and goals (Siegel, 1996; Patton &

Wampold, 1982). Kohut (1984) added the third constituent in his last book, which

involved the alter-ego. Although less has been written about this constituent, he

classified the twinship or alter-ego sector as the part of the self that needs to be like

everyone else. Kohut believed that when the child is able to gain this human closeness

with self-objects, he or she will develop talents and skills (see Figure 2.1).

Maturation Maturation of the self of the self

Figure 2.1. A Diagrammatical Representation of Healthy Development (Kahn, 1985, p. 898).

Cohesive Self

Alter-ego or twinship needs

Grandiose and exhibitionistic needs

Talents and skills optimally utilized

Healthy self-esteem, ambitions, and assertiveness

Healthy ideals, values and principles, self-soothing capacity

Human closeness

Mirroring, Empathetic self-object

“gleam in the mothers eye”

Strong, soothing self-object who allows

idealization

Idealizing needs

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If these three constituents are met by an empathetic self-object, the projections of

each of the constituents will be reinternalized over time and the structure of the self

strengthened. When these three constituents are brought to maturity, through the process

of transmuting internalization whereby the individual reinternalizes parts of himself or

herself, healthy development of the self will result. This newly formed self will then be

the center around which the personality is formed (Kohut, 1978, 1984; Siegel, 1996).

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is built on a foundation that supports the concept that

individuals have within themselves all that is necessary for growth and change. Humans

are born with an innate self-enhancing, self-actualizing quality that emerges when the

environment has certain conditions. Rogers believed that the conditions necessary to

provide this optimum environment are empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive

regard for the client (Rogers, 1942, 1951, 1989). When these conditions are present, a

“safe space” can be created for clients, where they can work to identify their inner

resources and regain their sense of self (Rogers, 1961, 1980).

The basis of Rogers’ theory of the self is founded on a phenomenological

approach based on intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics, which are centered on the

idea that “man lives essentially in his own personal subjective world” (Rogers, 1959, p.

194). Rogers’ concept of self, which progressed through the years, began by

conceptualizing the self as “a basic factor in the formation of personality and in the

determination of behavior” (Burns, 1979, p. 37). This definition evolved into Rogers’

most detailed formulation of the self, where he stated that the self is an “organized,

consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or

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‘me’ and the perceptions of the relationship of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various

aspects of life, together with the value attached to these perceptions” (Rogers, 1959, p.

200). This definition of the self as a conceptual gestalt suggests that the self is “a pattern

of related perceptions, rather than an aggregate of unrelated parts. Despite its fluid and

changing character it retains its coherent, integrated, and organized qualities” (Burns,

1979, p. 39). The self is thus created from the individual’s inner perceptions

(intrapersonal factors) and the outer reactions of others (interpersonal factors). To this

definition Rogers added the ideal self, which is “the self-concept which the individual

would most like to possess, upon which he places the highest value for himself” (Rogers,

1959, p. 200).

Rogers’ goal in therapy was to integrate the different parts of the self that had

become fragmented over the years in order to create greater congruence within the

individual. Similar to the psychoanalytic approach, Rogers believed that part of the

process of reintegration includes making the individual aware of parts of himself or

herself that he or she is unaware of by creating a supportive environment where the

individual feels safe to explore all parts of himself or herself (Rogers, 1963, 1980, 1986,

1992).

Psychosynthesis

Psychosynthesis is a growth-oriented model, which is spiritual in nature.

Drawing heavily from psychoanalytic, behavioral, and humanistic psychologies,

transpersonal psychology blends these three theories, with the emphasis on intrapersonal

and interpersonal dynamics, and adds the additional element of transpersonalism, the

transcending of consciousness beyond the self, to include the Higher Self and an

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interconnection with all living things (Strohl, n.d.; Russell, 1981). According to

Psychosynthesis, the self is recognized on two levels: the personal self, centered self, or I,

which corresponds to the lower self (these terms are used interchangeably); and the

Transpersonal Self, which corresponds to the Higher Self (these terms are used

interchangeably) (Assagioli, 1965; Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1981). In order to

understand Assagioli’s concept of the self, it is helpful to examine his model of the

human consciousness, which includes the lower self and Higher Self (Assagioli, 1964,

Taylor, 1967).

Assagioli divided the unconscious into four levels: the lower, middle, higher, and

collective (Clinebell, 1981; Assagioli, 1965; Firman & Russell, 1992). He believed that

the lower unconscious is comprised of material that is actively held out of awareness. He

also believed, similar to Freud, that this information is held out of awareness by a

repression barrier, which serves to protect individuals from painful or overwhelming

experiences or feelings in which they experience themselves “not as intrinsically valuable

human persons, but instead as non-persons or objects” (Firman & Russell, 1992). The

middle unconscious, similar to Freud’s preconscious, contains contents the individual is

currently unaware of but can be made easily aware of. Assagioli believed that

subpersonalities, the roles an individual plays, for example, mother, victim, comic,

martyr, etc., exist in the middle unconscious (Russell, 1982). These subpersonalities, or

contents of the middle unconscious, are “simple discrete patterns of feeling, thought, and

behavior which often operate out of awareness--in the middle unconscious--and break

into awareness when triggered by different life situations” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p.

9). According to Assagioli, the higher unconscious or Superconscious is also hidden

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from awareness. The higher unconscious region holds the moments of peak experiences

and is the region from which “we receive our higher intuitions and inspirations”

(Assagioli, 1965, pp. 17-18). Moments of peak experiences refer to Maslow’s term for

“the best moments of the human being, for the happiest moments of life, for the

experiences of ecstasy, rapture, bliss, and greatest joy” (Maslow, 1971, p. 105).

In addition to the three levels of consciousness, Assagioli included the field of

consciousness, the conscious self, the Transpersonal Self, and the collective unconscious

in his diagram of the personality (see Figure 2.2). The field of consciousness is the part of

the personality that one is consciously aware of, including “the incessant flow of

sensations, images, thoughts, feelings, desires, and, impulses which we observe, analyze,

and judge” (Assagioli, 1965, p. 18). The field of consciousness includes the conscious

self, personal self, or I, which is analogous to the lower self. According to

Psychosynthesis, “the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects

of the personality, such as body, feelings, and mind” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 8). The

Transpersonal Self, also called the Self or Higher Self, resides in the higher unconscious

and is thought to be one’s “creative center and essence” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). The

collective unconscious refers to the space that holds the consciousness of all beings and

the psychic environment in which the process of psychological osmosis occurs. Assagioli

(1967) takes Jung’s (1955) concept of the collective conscious a step further and divides

the collective unconscious into the levels of lower and higher (Firman & Russell, 1992).

53

Figure 2.2. Assagioli’s Egg Diagram

The goal of Psychosynthesis, which is similar to Jung’s goal, is to shift the

unifying center from the personal self to the Higher Self, so that the lower self and

personality can work as a vehicle of expression for the Higher Self. Shifting the center of

awareness from the lower self to the Higher Self is accomplished through a two-step

process that includes (a) personal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in the

personal self; and (b) transpersonal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in

the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965; Russell, 1982; Firman and Russell, 1992).

54

The potential goal (which may not be achieved in many individuals but at least is a potential) is not only a personal Psychosynthesis, which is an effective integration of a personality, but also a spiritual Psychosynthesis; i.e., an integration of the personality with a spiritual center, of which the integrated personality then becomes an instrument of expression in this world. (Gerard, 1961, p. 2)

This two-step process does not proceed in a direct manner, but rather is more of a back

and forth parallel process (Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961; Clinebell, 1981; Russell,

1982).

Personal synthesis. The lower self, referred to as the personal self in

Psychosynthesis, emerges through a process of personal or intrapersonal synthesis

brought about through a conscious act of mental centering (Assagioli, 1968; Russell,

1982). During the stage of personal synthesis, the personality, including the physical,

emotional, and mental levels, as well as all subpersonalities, is integrated “around the

conscious self or ego” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 4). Integration of the personality around the

self is “achieved by learning centering, gaining the ability to disidentify from ego

patterns, roles or personality contents, and to identify with the centered self within--the

integrating force in the personality” (Russell, 1981, p. 9). Thus integration of the

personality is characterized by stabilizing the physical level; overcoming the emotions

and desires through disidentifying with and integrating all the subpersonalities; and

centering in the mind (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Keen, 1974; Russell, 1982). As the

personality becomes integrated, the lower self or I emerges as the subjective center of

identity around which the personality is built. This subjective center or lower self is not

the personality, for it transcends the personality (Russell, 1982). The lower self is the

center of self-awareness, which is stable, immutable, permanent and is a living center of

awareness (Assagioli, n.d.)

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The personal self has two major functions that are in constant change--awareness

or consciousness and the will (Russell, 1982; Clinebell, 1981). Consciousness is the

ability to be aware of oneself and one’s surroundings with the goal of being able to

detach and consciously, objectively observe what is seen. The field of consciousness is

the part of the personality that individuals are consciously aware of, including “the

incessant flow of sensations, images, thoughts, feelings, desires, and, impulses which we

observe, analyze, and judge” (Assagioli, 1965, p. 18). The lower self is “distinct,

although not separate, from all these contents of consciousness” (Firman & Russell,

1992, p. 20). This newly formed center or I is aware and acts as the observer of the

contents of consciousness. As the observer, the I is both dynamic as well as receptive. “I

has the ability to affect the contents of awareness itself, by choosing to focus on

awareness, expand it, or contract it” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 18).

The second function of the lower self is the will, which aids the self in achieving

more awareness. The will allows the I to disidentify from parts of itself in order to be

more objective and aids the individual in expanding his or her awareness to include the

Transpersonal or Higher Self. The will is the “gentle inner freedom to act from a place

which is not completely conditioned by any part of oneself. Will allows “‘I’ to

disidentify from any single perspective, and thereby to be open to all the varied aspects of

the personality” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 19). Assagioli placed great emphasis on the

aspect of will, which he believed is the closest psychological function to the self. The

will is the most direct expression of the self because once it is developed, it is used by the

self to regulate all other functions of the personality: the emotions, imagination, thoughts,

and intuition (Assagioli, 1973). “Thru realizing the will of the Self, we gain freedom of

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choice, personal responsibility, the power of decision over our actions, and the ability to

actively regulate and direct the many personality functions. In this way we are freed

from helpless reaction to unwanted inner impulses” (p. 63).

The I or lower self is not one’s true identity. The lower self is merely the

reflection of one’s true Higher Self. Transferring the unifying center from the lower

conscious self to the Higher Self is the goal of Psychosynthesis (Clinebell, 1981). Once

the personality is integrated, one must consciously seek to identify with the lower self

and use its different functions, especially the will, in order to keep the inner integration so

that one can then merge with the Higher Self.

The personal self is an evolving self. It is always at the center of the personality; and since the personality is growing into ever-more inclusive wholes, the center shifts accordingly. At the center of an expanded personality is a self with broader awareness and a greater range of choices that those of the previous self. There is always a next higher level of the centered self within the personality as evolution proceeds. (Russell, 1982, p. 15) Transpersonal Psychosynthesis. The Higher Self, also known as the

Transpersonal Self or Spiritual Self emerges through a process of spiritual transpersonal

synthesis, which shifts the point of integration from the lower self to the Higher Self by a

process of fusing the two through concentration and meditation (Russell, 1981). As the

lower self fuses with the Higher Self through the conscious use of the will, “the

personality functions as a vehicle for expression of higher consciousness” (Russell, 1982,

p. 11). The integration around the Higher Self, which results in the ability to contact the

higher spiritual realms, serves as a platform for the individual to become a wiser, more

inclusive, more creative, and loving force in aiding the growth of humanity (Firman &

Russell, 1992). Transpersonal synthesis aims at getting the individual in touch with others

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and the world as a whole as the individual now “expresses a natural spirit of cooperation,

participating in group activities to create a better world for all” (Russell, 1982, p. 16).

This process of transpersonal synthesis, which merges the lower self and the Higher Self,

serves as a bridge from the Western concept of the lower self to the Eastern concept of

the Higher Self, as the Higher Self represented in Psychosynthesis is analogous to the

Higher Self represented in Eastern literature.

Eastern Spiritual Concept of Self

Originating from the Upanishads (600 B.C.E.) in Hindu thought, the Eastern

concept of self as Higher Self or soul is almost universal with very little variation

compared to the Western psychological perspective. Eastern teachings, found in the

Bhagavad Gita and the writings of Alice Bailey, recognize the lower self, also referred to

as personality or lower nature, and to it add the Higher Self, also referred to as soul or

ego, which must discipline the lower self so that the lower self comes under the control or

service of the soul. The Higher Self as soul, seen as transcending the individual, has

emerged as one of the main tenets of Eastern thought and has been written about

extensively for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The writings of Buddha

and the Hindu text the Bhagavad Gita, written by Sri Krishna, are considered by many to

be the premier Eastern spiritual teachings on the concept of the Higher Self (Coukoulis,

1976). This study focuses primarily on the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita.

This examination of the self from the Eastern perspective begins with an

examination of the Eastern concept of the Higher Self from the perspective of the

Western theory of Psychosynthesis. Psychosynthesis, with its integration of the Western

concept of the lower self and the Eastern concept of Higher Self, serves as a bridge

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between the Western concept of self and the Eastern concept of self. The review of the

Eastern concept of self focuses on selected literature as found in the Bhagavad Gita and

the writings of Alice Bailey, who mergers the teachings of Buddha, Krishna, and Christ

to form a comprehensive Eastern theory of the self (Bailey, 1944, 1950, 1951).

Psychosynthesis

The Higher Self is a permanent center existing above or beyond the lower self and

is unaffected by the flow of consciousness in the mind, the emotions, or the sensations of

the body (Assagioli, 1965). The Higher Self is “stable, firm, permanent--to use the

philosophical word ‘ontological.’ It is Pure Being” (Assagioli, n.d. p. 3). Although one

is not always aware of it, the Higher Self is always present and pervades all areas of

consciousness. The Self is a “living, conscious, willing, Being…not something, but

someone. Self is a ‘Thou’ to whom one may meaningfully relate” (Firman & Russell,

1992, p. 24). It is believed that the Higher Self is realized by the individual through

maintaining a connection to his or her own soul. This is done through balancing and

integrating the personality and fusing it with the Higher Self through a five-step

mediation process (see chapter 3) (Bailey, 1944, 1950, 1951; Bahm, 1958; Besant, 1947).

The Higher Self is considered to be the all-knowing spark of divine reflection,

which exists in every individual (Abraham, 1993). When one is connected to his or her

Higher Self, he or she is open to intuitive impressions, creativity, wisdom, love, and

compassion (Crampton, 1977; Firman & Russell, 1992). The Higher Self is associated

with purpose and direction in life; has an all-knowing awareness of the individual, which

includes the past, present, and future; and gives the individual a deep sense of connection

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and feelings of unconditional love for all of humanity (Russell, 1982; Firman & Russell,

1992). When one is connected to his or her Higher Self, the individual has the sense that

he or she is much more than just the individual and is in fact part of a much larger whole.

In Psychosythesis the concept of the Higher Self is identical to the Eastern concept of

Higher Self, as found in the writings of Alice Bailey.

Alice Bailey

Alice Bailey, who mergers the teachings of Buddha and Krishna with the

teachings of Christ, has written extensively about the concept of the Higher Self or soul.

Specifically, her writings merge the love taught by Christ, the wisdom taught by Buddha,

and the detachment taught by both Buddha and Krishna, which together provide an

integrative theory of the self. Although some of her writings may be considered esoteric

in some circles, many of her concepts are helpful to shed light on the self and loss of self.

The Higher Self Bailey referred to is identical to the Higher Self referred to in

Psychosynthesis. The Higher Self or soul is “the quality which every form manifests. It

is that subtle something which distinguishes one element from another . . . . The soul is

the form-building aspect, and is that attractive factor in every form . . . . which drives all

God’s creatures forward along the path of evolution . . . . towards an eventual goal and a

glorious consummation” (Bailey, 1951, p. 33-35). Bailey believed that the goal of

existence is to integrate the personality so that one can fuse with the Higher Self through

meditation. When aligned with the Higher Self, the individual is no longer identified

with personal pursuits, selfishness, or I consciousness and is able to instead identify with

humanity as a whole. Personal ambition is replaced with the desire to be of service to

one’s fellow man as one sees the interconnectedness of all beings.

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Bhagavad Gita

The Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita, which is a chapter out of the Hindu

poem the Mahabharata, is a synthesis of the ancient teachings on the self found in the

earlier Hindu text, the Upanishads. The Bhagavad Gita, which depicts the epic struggle

of the self on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, is composed of 18 discourses between Lord

Krishna, the Christ-like spiritual teacher, and the warrior Arjuna relating to obtaining

union with the Higher Self. The story begins as Arjuna, the warrior prince, is standing

with Krishna, on the battlefield looking out at the opposing army, which includes many

of his friends and family. As Arjuna looks upon the battlefield he is struck with sadness

and wrestles with whether or not to fight. This inner dilemma represents the inherent

duality of the pairs of opposites that exists in all creation that must be balanced. This

dilemma is the subject for the discourses between Arjuna and Krishna (Abraham, 1993;

Rajagopalachari, 1999; Hawley, 2001).

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna refers to the two selves of the individual, the lower

self, lower nature, or personality, and the Higher Self or soul. These two selves represent

the two sides of the battle that the individual must confront, with the Higher Self or soul

ultimately triumphing over the lower self. “The higher self, the soul, is already in a state

of peace, that is, of equilibrium, of right relationship, of whole consciousness. Outer

events--the battle--can be more directly affected by the Self once the drama of personality

is offset through, as one technique, the balancing process” (Abraham, 1993, p. 21). To

offset the effects of the personality, the individual must bring his or her desires and

thoughts under control and realize that he or she is ultimately the Higher Self.

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Summary

This literature review has examined select Western and Eastern texts in order to

provide a comprehensive definition of the self. From the Western perspective the

examination began with the systems perspective and then followed the progression of the

self through the psychology of William James, psychoanalysis, Jung, self psychology,

humanistic psychology, and finally ending with transpersonal psychology, as seen in

Psychosynthesis. From the Eastern perspective the examination began with

Psychosynthesis’ perspective on the Higher Self and then followed the progression of the

self through the teachings Alice Bailey and the Bhagavad Gita. The next chapter is a

continuance of the literature review as it applies to the organizing principle of balancing

the pairs of opposites, as this concept manifests in the experience of self and the loss of

self. Selected concepts are taken from theories in this chapter to support and bring

substance to this organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites.

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CHAPTER 3

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In the previous chapter on the concept of self, specific Western and Eastern

theories were outlined, which defined the self as being a product of intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. This chapter on the experience of self and

loss of self builds upon specific concepts and ideas from theories outlined in the previous

chapter. These concepts support the organizing principle of balancing the pairs of

opposites as this principle applies to the experience and loss of self.

Experience of Self

The theory presented in this dissertation is based on the idea that the self is

experienced on two levels, the lower self and the Higher Self. For the most part, the

lower self has been written about from a Western Psychological perspective, whereas the

Higher Self has been described from an Eastern Spiritual perspective. Western

psychology has focused primarily on the concept of self, which serves to define the self

rather than to shed light on the actual experience of the self. The self is often described

as an entity rather than as an experience (Mahoney, 1991). When the experience of the

self is mentioned, it is associated with concepts and characteristics such as consciousness

(Freud, 1934), the experience of meaning or cosmic consciousness (Jung, 1933), and the

ability to validate and sooth oneself (Kohut, 1971). These psychodynamic descriptions

do little to provide an understanding of the actual experience of self. Within Eastern

theory there is much written on the experience of self. Contacting and maintaining a

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connection with the Higher Self is considered to be the goal of existence in the Hindu

scripture the Bhagavad Gita (Besant, 1947). This examination of the experience of self

focuses on select Western and Eastern literature, which attempts to shed light on the

experience of both the lower self and the Higher Self through the concepts of mirroring,

mindfulness, the conscious observer, balancing the pairs of opposites, and meditation.

The experience of self cannot be defined nor can the experience of self be fully

understood unless one has in fact experienced the self. The experience of self is

experiential in nature and therefore is unique to each individual. Although techniques

that can facilitate the experience of self are outlined in this study, ultimately the

experience of self cannot be described through techniques or even personal accounts;

rather the experience of self must come from the individual having a unique, tangible

experience of his or her own essence.

The lower self is experienced as the physical, emotional, and mental levels are

balanced and merged into one integrated center through balancing the pairs of opposites

on the physical, emotional, mental (intrapersonal polarities), and interpersonal levels

(interpersonal polarities). Pairs of opposites are balanced by shifting the point of

awareness away from each of the poles to the conscious observer through the process of

mindful disidentification. This study is based on the belief that experiencing the self

through balancing the pairs of opposites is aided by receiving accurate empathy and

mirroring from another, which facilitates the individual in being able to identify, accept,

and balance the polarities which exist on all levels (Assagioli, 1965; Rogers, 1980, 1992;

Schwartz-Salant, 2007). When the lower self is experienced and maintained, the Higher

Self can then be contacted through a five-step meditation process of concentration,

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meditation, contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; Hoehne,

personal communication, April, 20, 2006). Once the Higher Self is contacted, this contact

is maintained through balancing transpersonal polarities between the Higher Self and the

lower self or personality. Although realization of and integration with the Higher Self is

the goal, this integration is not appropriate for everyone. Individuals are at different

stages in their emotional and spiritual growth, which needs to be recognized without

judgment of one stage being better than another. Some individual, in fact, may work only

on the plane of the lower self (Assagioli, 1965; Crampton, 1977).

Mirroring and the Role of the Therapist

According to Kohut (1977, 1978), Rogers (1980, 1992), Assagioli (1965),

Satir (1982), and Schwartz-Salant (2007) the experience of self is contingent on positive

interactions with others where the individual is listened to, empathized with, and

provided with accurate mirroring. Although these interactions can be with any other

individual, this study examines the impact of the interaction between the individual and

his or her therapist in terms of the individual’s experience of self. Kohut (1977) referred

to the need to have empathetic self-objects who will hold pieces of the individual’s self

until he or she is ready to reinternalize these pieces. Similarly, according to Rogers:

As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude toward themselves. As persons are empathetically heard, it becomes possible for them to listen more accurately to the flow of inner experiences. But as a person understands and prizes the self, the self becomes more congruent with experiences. The person thus becomes more real, more genuine. These tendencies, the reciprocal of the therapist’s attitudes, enable the person to be a more effective growth-enhancer for himself or herself. (pp. 116-117)

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Rogers believed that the most powerful intervention used by therapists is their ability to

listen in an active, accurate, non-judgmental manner, and then provide accurate empathy

and mirroring (Rogers, 1980).

According to Schwartz-Salant, in interactions with a client, “what helps most is a

witness who feels his or her own limits of understanding, and who can be compassionate

in the face of the person’s suffering, but who also has faith in a process through which the

self is trying to incarnate” (p. 13). As individuals are listened to and provided with

accurate mirroring, the pairs of opposites existing between their conscious and

unconscious, and between them and others begin to emerge into consciousness, and they

can begin to work on balancing and disidentifying from these polarities. Through having

a container, the relationship or field/space between the individual and another (in this

case the therapist), in which to explore all parts of himself or herself and receive

feedback, the individual is able to recognize, acknowledge, and accept all the different

parts himself or herself as these parts manifest as polarities on various levels. As the

therapist is present and attentive to the client’s process, the client becomes able to be

present and mindful with himself or herself and is able to begin to hold the tension

between the pairs of opposites, leading to an experience of the lower self.

Mindfulness

When you stop ruminating on the past and planning for the future, when you let go of preconceived notions and simply notice what is happening from moment to moment, you’re exercising mindfulness. It’s easier said than done, of course, because the human ego relentlessly tries to defend its self-serving theories . . . The alternative involves a willingness to see the world as it is, while imagining fresh ways of relating to an ever emerging, more richly nuanced vision of reality. Of course, you will at times, remember the past (as opposed to obsessing on it) and plan for the future (without becoming overly attached to one particular scheme). (Kohanov, personal communication, August, 31, 2007)

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In order to experience both the lower self and the Higher Self, one must remain

mindful. Experiencing the self through mindfulness is a “matter of the moment-to-

moment, here and now relationship to one’s deepest sense of truth” (Firman & Russell,

1992, p. 33). Mindfulness allows one to disidentify with thoughts and feelings and focus

on going inside and contacting the self (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freeman, 2006).

Mindfulness has been defined as a state of consciousness where one is “consciously

attending to one’s moment-to-moment experience” (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freeman,

2006, p. 374). Shapiro et al. (2006) suggested that mindfulness has three axioms: (a) one

pays attention on purpose, suggesting intention; (b) one in fact pays attention; and (c) one

pays attention in a certain way or with a certain attitude. Intention sets the stage for one’s

being mindful. One sets the intention to become mindful and “develop with deepening

practice, awareness and insight” (p. 376). By paying attention, one observes both internal

and external experiences moment-to-moment by “suspending all the ways of interpreting

experience and attending to experience itself, as it presents itself in the here and now” (p.

376). When paying attention, it is important to do so with a certain attitude of openness

and non-judgment.

Mindfulness, resulting from intentionality and attention with an open, non-

judgmental attitude, leads to a significant shift in perspective, which has been termed

reperceiving. Through the process of reperceiving, “one is able to disidentify from the

contents of consciousness (i.e., one’s thoughts) and view his or her moment-to-moment

experience with greater clarity and objectivity” (p. 377). The process of reperceiving is

similar to becoming the conscious observer or the observing self (Deikman, 1982). As

this happens, identity begins to shift from the contents of awareness to awareness itself,

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or from the non-self to the self. Shifting the point of awareness away from the non-self

(the polarities) is a necessary step in balancing the pairs of opposites.

Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

The concept of balancing the pairs of opposites, which pertains to the nature of

duality, can be traced back to the Chinese concept of Tao and the idea of “the union of

opposites through the middle path” (Abraham, 1993, p. 3).

Background

Eastern literature abounds with information about “the interplay of the

opposites . . . . is the underlying theme of the entire creative and evolutionary process”

(Bailey, 1951, p. 391). Eastern literature reveals that the Higher Self or soul is

experienced as the pairs of opposites are balanced.

The object for which life takes form and the purpose of manifested being is the unfoldment of consciousness, or the revelation of the soul. This might be called the Theory of the Evolution of Light. When it is realized that even the modern scientist is saying that light and matter are synonymous terms, thus echoing the teaching of the East, it becomes apparent that through the interplay of the poles, and through the friction of the pairs of opposites light flashes forth. (Bailey, 1951, p. 9)

In this quote, light refers to soul, thus, soul is realized through holding the tension

between the opposites. From this Eastern premise that the Higher Self is experienced

through balancing the pairs of opposites, Western Psychology has been explored to find

similar references to experiencing the lower self through balancing the pairs of opposites.

There is less written about the importance of the polarities in Western

psychological writings. Jung realized this lack of awareness and stated (as quoted by

Abraham), “unfortunately our Western mind, lacking all culture in this respect, has never

yet devised a concept, nor even a name, for the union of opposites through the middle

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path, that most fundamental item of inward experience” (Abraham, 1993, p. 3). Jung

made multiple references to the pairs of opposites and the need to maintain the tension

between them. Jung believed that for every item present and accounted for in the

conscious mind, the opposite of this item exists in the unconscious mind or shadow. He

further proposed that growth is only possible through bringing the polarities in the

unconscious to consciousness so that the tension can be held between the opposites (Jung,

1955). Kurt Abraham (1993) thoroughly examined the concept of balancing the pairs of

opposites, which he believed is primarily a psychological process.

Quite possibly, one of the most practical and illuminating things we could do from a psychological perspective is to get a clear working knowledge of the particular set of polarities that are predominately influencing us at any given time, so that we may facilitate a growth through the polarities. (p. 4)

Horizontal and Vertical Polarities

According to Abraham (1993), polarities manifest horizontally and vertically.

Horizontal polarities refer to polarities that manifest on the physical, emotional, mental,

personality (a combination of the physical, emotional, and mental), and soul levels.

Whereas, vertical polarities refer to polarities that exist between the levels, especially

between the personality and soul levels.

Horizontal polarities exist on the physical level in the form of concrete

characteristics, including overweight/underweight, too much exercise/not enough

exercise, chemical balances/chemical imbalances, and the poles of positive/negative,

which manifest as male/female and attraction/repulsion (Abraham, 1993). On the

emotional level these polarities exist in the form of emotions, such as pleasure/pain,

like/dislike, happy/sad, and passive/aggressive. Both Western and Eastern literature

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point to the fact that polarities manifest in a large proportion on the emotional level.

These emotional polarities, which manifest in response to desire, attachment, or

judgment, cause many psychological problems and “a person, in a sense, becomes a

psychological prisoner of the pendulum swing between likes and dislikes on the

emotional plane” (Abraham, 1993, p. 5). On the mental level, the polarities exist in the

form of conflicting ideas, such as right/wrong and good/evil, and in the duality of the

concrete mind/abstract mind. On the personality level “the polarities have to do with

matters as they relate to the sum total of one’s personal identity, self-expression,

uniqueness as an individual, characteristics of the persona, etc.” (Abraham, 1993, p. 6).

On the soul level, horizontal polarities manifest in the nature of the soul’s three-pointed

consciousness: “it is God-conscious; it is group-conscious; it is self-conscious”

(Abraham, 1993, p. 137).

Abraham (1993) stated that although polarities generally reside on certain

horizontal levels (physical, emotional, mental, personality, or soul), there are usually

multidimensional or vertical influences involved. Vertical polarities exist between the

different levels. For example, between the physical and emotional as seen when an

individual becomes irritable (emotional level) when he or she has not exercised (physical

level). Vertical polarities are especially prevalent on the transpersonal level between the

personality and Higher Self, which manifest as characteristics of the two selves.

Examples of polarities between the personality and Higher Self include

I consciousness/group consciousness, personal benefit/group benefit, intellect/intuition,

and acquisition/sacrifice (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1972).

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Assagioli (1972) distinguished between physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and

interindividual polarities. Although he did not distinguish between horizontal and

vertical polarities, his definitions of physical, emotional, and mental polarities are

analogous to Abraham’s horizontal polarities manifesting on the physical, emotional, and

mental levels. In addition, Assagioli’s spiritual polarity, which he believed to be the

ultimate duality between the personality and the Higher Self, is identical to Abraham’s

definition of the vertical polarity between the personality and soul. Assagioli added an

additional interindividual polarity referred to as an interpersonal polarity, which he

believed exists between individuals, such as between the individual and his or her spouse,

family, or larger groups, such as society as a whole (Assagioli, 1972). Assagioli did not

give specific examples of this polarity, which leaves some confusion as to the difference

between an intrapersonal polarity and an interpersonal polarity.

Most polarities existing on the emotional and mental levels manifest in response

to interpersonal polarities. For example, when an individual comes into contact with

another individual (interpersonal level) and has an inner reaction (intrapersonal polarity)

of dislike brought about by this other individual (outer stimuli), would this be considered

an intrapersonal or interpersonal polarity? There is no definite answer in the literature;

therefore, in this study interpersonal polarities are considered to be polarities in which the

individual identifies with one pole and consciously or consciously assigns the other pole

to another individual. Examples include victim/victimizer, submission/domination, and

underfunctioning/overfunctioning. Interpersonal polarities differ from intrapersonal

polarities, which are the polarities that manifest on the physical, emotional, and mental

levels in response to outside circumstances, even though both of the poles remain

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internalized. Examples include happy/sad, like/dislike, pleasure/pain. It is from the ideas

of Abraham, Assagioli, and Schwartz-Salant regarding polarities that this study states that

polarities manifest on the intrapersonal (physical, emotional, and mental), interpersonal

(between individuals), and transpersonal levels (between the personality and the soul).

Although the words intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal are not words

Abraham and Assagioli used, they have been chosen to represent and integrate the ideas

of these theorists in this study.

Assagioli did not elaborate on or give examples of interindividual polarities other

than to say that these polarities exist between individuals. Jungian psychologist

Schwartz-Salant (2007) discussed the impossibility of opposites, which exists between

individuals in the form of distance and fusion. He believed that opposites form a level of

incompatible, true contradictions in which the presence of one annihilates the other, thus

creating a maddening effect in the individual similar to the interpersonal dynamic of the

double bind. According to Schwartz-Salant, these conflicting opposites exist either

between individuals or between the individual’s conscious mind and his or her

unconscious mind. Although he specifically focused on the opposites of fusion and

distance, which he termed the fusional complex, he indicated that the fusional complex

can be activated by any impossibility of opposites and not just fusion and distance. His

focus on the polarities of fusion and distance is similar to Bowen’s ideas of fusion and

cutoff (Bowen, 1985). For this study the impossibility of opposites refers to any pair of

opposites.

Schwartz-Salant particularly focused on the impossibility of opposites as they

arise within the field between the individual and another person (interpersonal level).

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The field is considered to be the space between people, which is “alive with meaning and

contains its own process” (Rubin, 2000, p. 341). It is either in this field or in the space

between one’s consciousness and unconsciousness that the opposites can be felt.

According to Schwartz-Salant, it is only through consciously experiencing the opposites,

for example, fusion/distance and chaos/order, or the disorganizing energy that one is able

to turn it into its positive form “awe, mystery, love, beauty, and compassion. . . . Meeting

the chaos, rather than dissociating, can effect change” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 11).

Experiencing the pairs of opposites through “the fusional complex is the doorway

through which any new form of consciousness and associated self--that structure that

bestows a sense of identity and order within the human life--must pass if this change is to

be stable in time and space, and, most significantly, exist as an embodied experience” (p.

10). It is Schwartz-Salant’s opinion that through experiencing the pairs of opposites

simultaneously one is able to fully experience the self.

Assagioli (1972) stated that “life can be regarded as a continual polarization and

tension. . . . and as a continual effort, conscious or not, to establish equilibrium” (p. 4).

According to Assagioli, the majority of polarities exist on the emotional level, causing

people many problems as they are “always actively seeking pleasure and fearfully fleeing

from pain” (p. 4). Assagioli (1972, 1973) illustrated the dynamic of the pairs of opposites

with the use of a triangle (see Figures 3.1 & 3.2).

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Serenity

Excitement Calm Depression

Figure 3.1. Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Assagioli, 1972).

Benevolent Understanding

Sympathy Indifference Antipathy

Figure 3.2. Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Assagioli, 1972).

The two lower points of the triangle represent the opposite poles in conflict, and

the apex represents the true solution or synthesis. The middle point between the

opposites is seen as a compromise and not the true solution. The true solution is only

reached through transcending the polarities into a higher synthesis, which “absorbs the

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two elements into a higher unity endowed with qualities differing from those of either of

them” (Assagioli, 1972, p. 4).

Four-Step Process of Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

Assagioli stated that the lower self is experienced through the integration of the

physical, emotional, and mental levels. Balancing the pairs of opposites existing on and

between the different levels is one way to integrate the personality. Assagioli (1973)

briefly described a four-step process for balancing the pairs of opposites as follows: (a)

Fusion of the two poles is achieved through neutralizing their charges. Assagioli (1973)

outlined three methods for harmonizing or fusing opposite poles. Abraham (1993)

elaborated on this step by adding that fusion is brought about by recognizing the function

and contribution of each of the poles so that neither pole dominates the other. (b) Fusion

of the two poles through the recognition of each results in a creation of a new reality.

This new reality manifests as an increased cooperation and penetration between the two

poles. (c) As the two poles begin to cooperate with one another, an adjustment of the

opposite poles occurs through finding an intermediary center by lowering the oscillations

between the two poles. (d) Synthesis caused by a higher element transforms the two

poles. Assagioli repeatedly stated that “the essential requirement . . . . is to avoid

identifying oneself with either of the two opposite poles, and to control, transmute, and

direct their energies from a higher center of awareness and power” (Assagioli, 1973, p.

8). Assagioli (1968) thought that in order to disidentify from the polarities, the individual

must be able to shift from the emotional level to the mental level, thereby becoming the

conscious observer so that he or she can gain insight. He did not state at what stage

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disidentification takes place; therefore, it is inferred that disidentification from each of

the poles is a continuous process.

According to Assagioli, disidentification helps the individual to identify with all

of his or her different parts, for example, sensations, emotions, thoughts, possessions, and

other people, so that he or she can realize that he or she is not those parts (Besmer, 1973).

The first step of disidentification follows a simple pattern of repetition of phrases. For

example, I have a job but I am more than my job, or I have anger, but I am more than my

anger. The individual continues this process for all emotions they are identified with

(happiness, sadness, greed, envy, etc.). As one is able to objectively observe each of the

poles, he or she begins to see the function of each of the poles and the interplay and

cooperation existing between the two, and is thus able to accept and disidentify with them

(Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1944).

Although Assagioli did not elaborate on this four-step process of balancing the

pairs of opposites nor is this process elaborated on in any Western psychological

literature, he continually referred to the importance of holding the tension between the

polarities on each of the levels, especially the emotional level. He believed that the

emotional level causes people the most problems, due to the existence of multiple

subpersonalities, which he believed manifest as pairs of opposites. James Vargiu (1973)

gave a five-step process for harmonizing the subpersonalities, which can be applied to

balancing the pairs of opposites.

Subpersonalities are harmonized through a five-step process of recognition,

acceptance, coordination, integration, and synthesis, whereby individuals learn to

disidentify from the subpersonalities by shifting their consciousness to the mental plane

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on “a higher level above them, in order to be able to observe and evaluate them, and

wisely regulate them as needed” (Assagioli, 1973, p. 4).

(1) Recognition of the subpersonality is the first step. Often individuals will

suppress one of the poles, for example, suppressing sadness in order to not have to

experience the emotion. Although negative emotions, which are attributed to the lower

unconscious are usually the emotions that get suppressed, positive emotions, which are

attributed to the higher superconscious, such as happiness and serenity, can be suppressed

as well (Haronian, 1972). Recognition implies that what was once unconscious must be

made conscious and specifically named so that one can observe and work with the

emotion. Naming the polarities is especially important in overcoming them as the “act of

naming, akin to the magical action of gaining power over a demon by learning its name”

(Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 29).

(2) Accepting each of the polarities through shifting one’s attention away from

each the polarities to the conscious observer, through a process of disidentification, is the

next step. Shifting to the conscious observer moves the energy and focus from the

feelings to the mind. The purpose of developing the mind is so that it may become an

accurate observer of what it perceives. Thus it may use this discrimination to navigate

the perils of sense and emotional identification. Bowen (1985) considered the ability to

shift the attention from the feelings to the mind to be a sign of differentiation, or

increased sense of self. When one disidentifies from the subpersonality and is able to

reflect, he or she will recognize the existence of the polarity of the subpersonality.

(3) Coordination requires the individual to penetrate to the core of the specific

subpersonality in order to find its urge or need. James Vargiu (1973) referred to the

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inherent goodness in these subpersonalities, “no matter how many layers of distortion

may surround it, the basic need, the basic motivation, is a good one--and if it became

twisted, it was because of not being able to express itself directly. The real core--not

what the subpersonality wants, but what it needs, is good” (p. 82). When the individual

makes the need of the subpersonality, which is often to be loved, conscious and seeks to

fulfill this need, the subpersonality will begin to work with the individual rather than

against him or her and will become coordinated around the personality.

(4) The stage of integration is concerned with the relationship between the

subpersonalities. As these subpersonalities manifest as pairs of opposites, they must be

integrated and balanced so that they no longer seek to destroy their opposites but rather to

work together in a mutual existence. According to Vargiu, integration can be

accomplished through time-sharing, cooperation, or absorption and fusion. With time-

sharing, a dialogue is started between opposing poles so that they can realize that their

fighting is causing harm to both and that by compromising each can have power. Thus

the two opposing poles compromise to share the time in which each is in control.

Through cooperation, opposing poles realize that they actually have similar goals and can

work together to achieve them. Finally, opposing poles can become absorbed and fused

with one another, thus creating a new reality or middle path (similar to Assagioli’s Step

3).

(5) The final stage of synthesis (the same as Assagioli’s Step 4) “facilitates the

integration of the personality through the refinement and harmonization of the personality

itself” (Vargiu, 1973, p. 89). The stage of synthesis is considered to be an interpersonal

and transpersonal occurrence as the outcome of synthesis leads the personality to a

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growing interplay with the Transpersonal Self and the world as a whole. Once this five-

step process is completed, the polarities gradually melt away into the self (Besmer, 1973).

If people manage to stay true to their own process of feeling the “impossible” opposites. Eventually their struggle proves to have been a passage to a new self. . . . the extreme chaos the person experiences can eventually calm down sufficiently to allow the incarnation process of a new self to become a living reality. (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 12)

Eastern Concept of Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

Both Western and Eastern literature state that the goal is to find the balance

between the pairs of opposites and walk the middle path or tread the razor’s edge through

detachment or disidentification. The word disidentification is used in Western

psychology, whereas the word detachment is emphasized in the selected Eastern theories

used in this study. Both words, however, refer to the same concept. Abraham (1997)

stated:

Detachment has to do with a psychological vantage point that enables one to see, to observe, to be aware. Detachment implies being free or distanced from the form factor, and therefore, being in a better position to make right judgment. . . . Detachment in this sense is not separation from form, for separation implies moving from distorted consciousness (attachment) to no consciousness (isolation, separation). Detachment implies greater consciousness. (p. 19) In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna stresses to Arjuna the importance of balancing the

pairs of opposites on the personality level in order to obtain union with the Higher Self.

Krishna explains that the self is found through walking the middle path and by holding

the tension between the opposites. He advises against negating the pairs of opposites and

encourages Arjuna to endure them while learning to balance them. It is in the balancing

of them that one is able to align with the Higher Self and it is “from this higher vantage

point that one is able to walk the middle path” (Abraham, 1993, p. 18). According to

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Krishna, “these wise ones have transcended the pairs of opposites; they are the same in

success and failure, indifferent to loss or gain; they never bother to compete or compare,

are free of envy, and contentedly shoulder whatever comes to them” (Hawley, 2001, p.

44). Once the individual has balanced the pairs of opposites, they dwell only in the

Higher Self.

As the pairs of opposites are balanced, the lower self is experienced. The lower

self is experienced as a grounding center around which the personality is formed

(Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961). According to Bowen (1985), as individuals experience

a deeper sense of self through differentiating themselves from the system, they have an

increased sense of I, are able to remain both an individual and part of a group, and are

less susceptible to becoming polarized. As a person becomes more in touch with his or

her self, he or she becomes more congruent and genuine, which usually leads to feelings

of aliveness, confidence, authenticity, clarity, love, and stability (Rogers, 1989; Satir et

al., 1991). As clients connect to their own inner yearnings, expectations, perceptions, and

feelings (self), they are then able to accept, value, and share themselves, resulting in

feelings of wholeness (Lum, 2000). Similarly, according to Psychosynthesis, the lower

self is experienced as a grounding center around which the personality is formed

(Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961). When individuals are in touch with this center, feelings

of integration, harmony, and transcendence emerge, which help to attune them to the

present moment and the universal feeling of connectedness that is thought to exist among

people (Assagioli, 1973). Experiencing and maintaining the lower self sets the

foundation from which one is able to experience the Higher Self through a five-step

process of meditation.

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Meditation

The Higher Self is experienced as the individual consciously tries to fuse his or

her center of identity of the lower self with the Higher Self through meditation.

Meditation “is a conscious deliberate inner action to fulfill some specific purpose”

(Assagioli, n.d., p. 2). While there are thousands of meditation techniques available, the

focus of the present study is a five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,

contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal

communication, June 1, 2007). This technique, which is the product of teachings found in

the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras (Bailey, 1955), and the writings of Alice Bailey

(1970), serves to align the lower self with the Higher Self or soul.

(1) The first stage of concentration serves to draw the senses inward through first

focusing on the breath, which results in the individual becoming mindful and present, and

then by chanting the sacred word ohm to “open up and stabilize ourselves in different

states of consciousness” (U. Hoehne, personal communication, May 22, 2006). This

stage of concentration serves to quiet the personality by transcending sensations,

emotions, and thoughts, resulting in a new clarity, which frees the mind then to focus in

any given direction. During this stage, the focus is on using the mind to move the energy.

An energy ball is imagined in the belly and is moved through concentrated visualization

from the belly, up the spine, and into the head for the next stage of meditation.

(2) In this stage, the energy is focused through concentrated effort in the mind

near the pineal gland, which is located in the middle of the brain between the ears. The

importance of the pineal gland is recognized in both Eastern and Western literature. In

1640 Descartes wrote, “my view is that this gland is the principal seat of the soul, and the

place in which all our thoughts are formed.” In Eastern writings, the pineal gland is

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considered to be the place where the energies of the Higher Self or soul enter the body

(Hopking, 2005; Hodgson, 2004). These views are subject to some question;

nevertheless, the energy is moved and focused in the pineal gland during this stage of

meditation to help to transcend emotions (Bailey, 1944; Assagioli, 1964). Also during

this stage of meditation, seed thoughts are used to open the individual to higher states of

consciousness. Seed thoughts are words such as serenity, bliss, harmlessness, or beauty.

These words are meditated on through a process of intense mental activity as follows:

The subject is considered from all angles until gradually all opinions merge into one comprehensive experience of understanding. . . . You move from the subject, to a consideration of one of its qualities or relationships, back to the subject, then out again, etc. Your goal is intense mental activity, confined within the field of ideas opened up by the seed thought. (Hodgson, 2004, p. 159) (3) As one enters the next stage of contemplation, the attention is moved

from the pineal gland up and above the head, through concentrated use of the will,

where the attention is held as high as possible in one-pointed concentration. The

attention then shifts from the mind to the soul, and it is the soul that contemplates

the seed thought. During this stage, the mind is kept quiet through sustained

concentration, and “consciousness slips into the realm of spirit. . . . functioning in

its own realm, perceiving the things of the kingdom of God” (Hodgson, 2004, p.

154).

(4) Contemplation is followed by the stage of illumination, wherein

attention is brought back to the mind to interpret the soul’s impressions. “The

soul seeks to impress upon the brain as much of its Wisdom and Knowledge as it

is capable of receiving and reflecting. The mind records and registers the ideas,

impressions, and concepts, formulating them into phrases and sentences, building

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them into thought forms and constructing clear mental images” (Hodgson, 2004,

p. 159).

(5) This meditation process ends with the stage of inspiration where the

energies and impressions gathered are grounded and integrated, so that the

individual is left with a feeling of inspiration to carry into personal, daily life.

During this stage, the energy is moved from the head first into the heart,

consciously joining heart and head, and then back down into the belly, to “rest

and ground ourselves in the physical body” (Hoehne, personal communication,

May 22, 2006).

This meditation process is a technique that enables the individual to experience

his or her Higher Self or soul. That is,

A clear and full experience of the Self gives at first such a strong sense of self-identity that it is felt as something sure, permanent, unchangeable and indestructible. It is realized as such an essential reality that all other experiences and realities appear, when compared to it, as changing, impermanent and of less or value and significance. (Yoemans, n.d., p. 21)

Experiencing the Higher Self has been described as being in touch with one’s true

essence, which is accompanied by feelings of joy, expansion, serenity, and inner

connectedness and love for all (Assagioli, 1973). When one is connected with his or her

Higher Self, he or she gradually becomes “more compassionate, wise, and inclusive, and

less controlled by separative attitudes such as greed, rage, and envy” (Firman & Russell,

1992). Being connected to the Higher Self gives the individual a feeling of connection to

others and to the world as a whole. The individual becomes connected through a

systemic web of interconnectivity to all that is living. Through this connection, the

individual becomes more compassionate and is able to experience a greater sense of love

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for all mankind. Individuals are often led by a feeling of responsibility for others, which

can lead to their seeking a life of service.

Loss of Self

This section builds on the concept found in the previous chapter of balancing the

pairs of opposites. The loss of self results from an inability to balance intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and/or transpersonal polarities due to identification with or repression of

one of the poles. The experience of loss of self is a universal occurrence that affects

people of all cultures, genders, social standings, and levels of psychological development

(Rogers, 1961). This phenomenon, which is both baffling and traumatic, is little

understood, yet is at the root of many psychological disturbances (Jung, 1933; Assagioli,

1965). Often individuals experience a loss of self and are unaware that it is a loss of self

that has occurred. They might say that the experience was unpleasant or at times

extremely painful, which suggests that there are differing degrees of loss of self. Some

individuals have reported that they felt funny, numb, confused, or not like themselves.

Others described the experience as being traumatic. One client said, “It was like I was

fighting for survival. I did not know which way was up. I felt like I had been pulled

under by this unknown force and there was nothing I could do about it. I just had to wait

till it decided to let me go, and then I would feel normal again.” Many people can

describe the experience of loss of self in great detail but are totally confused and pained

by what happened and why.

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At times, the “I” seems to us the most immediate and sure reality. Again, it is vague, intangible, almost inexistent like a mathematical point. It seems like something distant, like the coinciding in the infinite of innumerable parallels. Sometimes we have a clear sense of our personal identity through all changes; then again we seem changed, different from our “I” of the day before, and we don’t “recognize ourselves.” (Assagioli, n.d., p. 8) There have been a multitude of descriptors to define the phenomenon of loss of

self. From those descriptors, three points can be deduced as follows: (a) at some point

preceding this loss, there was an experience of having this so-called “self”; (b) an event

occurred which threatened this sense of self; and (c) in reaction to this event, something

occurred internally which caused the earlier experience of self to be diminished or lost

completely. The majority of this study focuses on the third point for the purpose of

bringing awareness to this internal shift that results in loss of self.

Both Western and Eastern perspectives observe that the loss of self results from

identification with something that is non-self, which refers to anything that is not one’s

essence, including all negative and positive thoughts, sensations, and feelings

(intrapersonal); another person (interpersonal); or outside factors, such as a job or a car

(Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933). This concept of non-self refers to the

concept as found in the writings of Psychosynthesis. These elements of non-self manifest

as pairs of opposites that, according to Schwartz-Salant (2007), exist between the

individual’s intrapsychic conscious and unconscious or between the interpersonal

dynamics between individuals. Identification with the non-self, which results in a loss of

self, is not considered to be a pathological occurrence. Rather, identification with non-

self refers to a state of being “ . . . when we are completely identified with any one thing,

we think, feel, and act accordingly. We then believe that we are for example, ‘rational,’

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or we are a ‘victim’ or we are ‘strong,’ and we begin to feel that we are this to the

exclusion of all else” (Carter-Haar, 1975, p. 56). The key to identification is at the

exclusion of all else, which includes the lower self and Higher Self. In the East, the loss

of self is thought to result from a disconnection with the soul, a disconnection that is

caused by one’s identifying with the personality (an example of the transpersonal polarity

soul/personality). According to Bailey (1950), identification with the lower self

manifests on the emotional level as glamour and on the mental level as illusion.

As one identifies with one of the polar opposites on either the physical, emotional,

mental, or interpersonal levels, the lower self becomes disintegrated because one is no

longer holding the tension between the two polarities, such as, when one identifies with

being hungry on the physical level, being angry on the emotional level, or having a

thought of injustice on the mental level. Identification is especially prevalent on the

emotional level: “A person in a sense, becomes like a psychological prisoner of the

pendulum swing between likes and dislikes on the emotional plane” (Abraham, 1993, p.

5). When a person becomes identified with feelings, thoughts, or sensations, the person

becomes polarized; thus one loses self in the action of identifying with the non-self (Jung,

1933). This identification may last only a moment, as the person experiences only a

small, subtle loss of self. At times, the person may become so identified with the non-

self that all of the person’s attention is absorbed in the polarity, and that absorption

results in a significant loss of self.

Western Psychological Perspective

Loss of self resulting from a failure to balance the pairs of opposites can be seen

from the Western psychological perspective in the intrapersonal dynamics of

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identification, repression, and projection/projective identification; and in the interpersonal

dynamics of fusion with another through unconscious patterns of collusion (Freud, 1934;

Jung, 1933; Winnicott, 1958; Assagioli, 1965; Bowen, 1985). Individuals are made up of

pairs of opposites, both of which must be acknowledged in order to be balanced

(Assagioli, 1972; Jung, 1933). Often these pairs of opposites are divided into “good” and

“bad.” Individuals tend to identify with the good parts at the exclusion of the bad parts,

which are consciously or unconsciously covered up through repression into the

unconscious or shadow side or through outward projection (Zweig & Abrams, 1991).

Identification

Conscious identification can be beneficial to the individual, as it has a specialized

quality which “when we identify with any one part of ourselves, we are able to

experience it fully, without being distracted. We feel the way it feels, see the way it sees,

for it represents a particular, specialized state of consciousness” (Cater-Haar, 1975, p.

61). Conscious identification allows individuals to identify with whichever part of

themselves will aid them in the moment, such as being strong, being a leader, or being a

good communicator. However, problems occur when identification becomes an

unconscious process where the individual identifies with whatever exerts the greatest pull

on his or her consciousness.

Subpersonalities. According to Assagioli, individuals will identify with different

subpersonalities, which are “simple discrete patterns of feelings, thoughts, and behavior

which often operate out of awareness--in the middle unconscious--and break into

awareness when triggered by different life situations” (Firman & Russell, 1992).

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When we are strongly identified with something, such as a major subpersonality, most of our energy flows through it. And our energy is filtered by it as well. In other words, only energy of a quality compatible with the basic quality of that subpersonality will be allowed to flow. This means that whatever we are identified with controls the acceptance and rejection of our experiences. (Carter-Haar, 1975, p. 69)

For example, if an individual is identified with the inferior subpersonality, even when he

or she receives praise or stands out as being superior in some area, he or she will not be

able to accept the praise, for praise is contrary to the inferior subpersonality. When

individuals identify with select parts of themselves and are cut off from other parts of

themselves, they cannot hold the tension between the poles, and they become

incongruent, aligning themselves with their false selves.

Repression

The perceived need for individuals to repress parts of themselves begins early in

childhood and is caused by interpersonal dynamics within the family, which encourage

them to abandon the quest for self and seek the approval of others (Miller, 1997; Rogers,

1980, 1986; Whitfield, 1987). As individuals begin to split between their true selves and

the selves they feel compelled to show to the world, they become unable to experience

themselves as whole beings. When individuals are cut off from parts of themselves, they

become incongruent, and therefore may experience feelings of emptiness, isolation, and

hopelessness, which may ultimately lead to symptoms of depression (Rogers, 1984).

According to Satir, “many of us hear frequent and persistent messages that

something is wrong with us, we do not fit according to some authority, and therefore in

all likelihood, someone else fits better. Consequently, conformity, and obeying have a

major crippling effect on our sense of self” (Satir et al., 1991, p. 6). Unfortunately, the

majority of these negative messages of not being enough originate from parental

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influences. Satir stressed the potential damaging effects to children caused by the

interactions within the primary triad. Since their survival depends on their parents’ love,

children will hide or reject parts of themselves that do not conform to their parents’

projections of how they are expected to be. As children conform to the wishes of others,

they lose themselves, their voices, and end up gauging their self-worth by others’

reactions to them (Satir & Baldwin, 1983). Repression of parts of oneself leads to a loss

of self, as the individual can no longer recognize and balance both of the poles. As

individuals continue to repress parts of themselves, they will begin to develop defense

mechanisms to compensate for this loss of self (Satir at el., 1977).

Defense mechanisms and a false self. In adapting to others’ wishes, children learn

to adopt survival rules that dictate their behavior and communication. Satir referred to

four survival stances: placating, blaming, being super-reasonable, and being irrelevant.

Each survival stance serves to protect the child’s self-worth (Satir, 1982, 1976).

Behind every defensive posture and incongruent response, each of us has a self-worth that always makes the same request: “I just want to be loved”. . . . When an event raises the question of whether that love and trust really exist, we activate our survival responses. Underneath the question of survival are usually the beliefs that others are in charge of our lives, that we could not cope without them, and that they define us. (Satir et al., 1991, p. 23)

Similar to Satir, Rogers (1980) believed that individuals adopt defense mechanisms to

protect their self-worth. These defense mechanisms manifest as roles or masks, which

they portray to the outside world. Although these survival stances and roles may initially

protect the individual’s self-worth (similar to subpersonalities), eventually they prove to

be problematic over time, leading the individual to becoming rigid and reactive.

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According to Kohut (1978), as individuals are met with chronically or

traumatically frustrating experiences where they are confronted by an unempathetic self-

object, the self becomes damaged and is forced to develop either a defensive or

compensatory structure. If the self is met with persistent frustration, it will cause

fragmentation of the self and a possible permanent break-up. When the self is not

“qualified by the other, committed to the ‘objective’ element, and without being lived in a

dialectical relationship with others, the ‘self’ is not able to preserve what precarious

identity or aliveness it may already possess” (Laing, 1959, p.139). When an individual

does not receive mirroring and empathy, he or she will become blocked and will fixate on

that part of himself or herself which did not receive validation, developing either a

defensive or compensatory structure to cover up this weakness in the self (see Figure

3.3).

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Unhealthy Development—Unempathetic Self-objects

Fragmentation Fragmentation of the self of the self

Figure 3.3. A Diagrammatical Representation of Arrested Development (Kahn, 1985, p. 899).

When the grandiose self is frustrated, the child’s self-esteem is injured and thus as

an adult, he or she will cling to the self-object as a means of validation and will be

vulnerable to shame and embarrassment. When the idealized parent is frustrated, the

child becomes disappointed, and as an adult will seek out others to provide self-soothing

in addition to looking outside himself or herself for his or her sense of inner values

(Patton & Robbins, 1982). Although defense mechanisms may initially provide the

individual with a sense of relief, defense mechanisms ultimately lead to a loss of self, as

Cohesive Self

Alter-ego or twinship needs

Grandiose and exhibitionistic needs

Insufficient Human closeness

Insufficient mirroring Idealized self-object unavailable

Idealizing needs

Self vulnerable to narcissistic injury producing either withdraw or frequent

rage; sexual, aggressive or oral activities used by the fragmented self to soothe, stimulate or pull itself together; feelings of depression, boredom, and

emptiness in life.

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they result from either identification or repression, both of which lead to an inability to

balance the pairs of opposites.

Shadow. As individuals are met with unempathetic others in their childhood, they

begin to suppress parts of themselves into their subconscious (Miller, 1997). Repressed

parts do not disappear. Rather, the repressed parts go underground, existing in the

individual’s unconscious and forming the shadow. According to Jung (1955), the shadow

is the part that one is unconscious of; the part that one has disowned because it is too

painful to be integrated into personality. Jung (1955) stated:

Everyone carries a shadow, and the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is. At all counts, it forms an unconscious snag, thwarting our most well-meant intentions . . . . By shadow I mean the “negative” side of the personality, the sum of all those unpleasant qualities we like to hide, together with the insufficiently developed functions and the content of the personal unconscious. (p. 14) The more the parts of the self are rejected and pushed into the unconscious, the

more they try to escape, thus the more energy it takes to keep them unconscious. This

unconscious process causes a fragmentation in the self, as one is not acknowledging and

holding the tension between opposites parts. As the self begins to fragment, the repressed

parts of the self are considered to be non-self and are seen “out there.” These repressed

parts of the self are likely to be projected into others, as the person is likely to “project by

attributing this quality to the other person in an unconscious effort to banish it from

ourselves” (Zweig & Abrams, 1991, p. XVIII).

Projection/Projective Identification

Both processes of repression and projection serve to rid parts of the self that have

been disowned because they are too painful to be integrated into the personality. As one

of the poles is disavowed, it becomes impossible to hold the tension between the two; and

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the individual becomes automatically polarized. When individuals are unaware of parts of

themselves, they are more likely to unconsciously identify with these elements when they

are projected onto them through the process of projective identification. When a person

identifies with a projection, he or she is identifying with that certain pole within himself

or herself (Laing, 1961; Willi, 1982). As this occurs, he or she becomes temporarily

polarized in identifying with the non-self.

Willi (1982), a student of Freud, described the unconscious ways in which

couples collude through projection and projective identification in order to get from the

other what they cannot get from themselves. Willi considered collusion to be an

unconscious interplay between two people based on similar unresolved issues.

The behavior of one person exercises an overwhelming influence upon the behavior of another . . . . This process is reinforced by mutual unconscious patterns which, although repressed by both parties, merge together when a polarization of roles comes about. (p. 154)

Within relationships, “the common, unresolved central conflict is acted out through

different roles which give one the impression that each partner is the exact opposite of the

other, when in reality we are dealing with the polar variants of the same theme” (Willi,

1982, p. 56). Unconscious collusions ultimately lead to a loss of self, as the individual

seeks attributes in the other and projects attributes onto the other that they have repressed

within themselves. According to Dicks (1963), a person will a pick a partner who will be

a container for his or her projections. Partners will then try to manipulate the other into

acting in accordance with their projections. As one partner projects a part of himself or

herself into the other, “at that moment, past and present merge, as the self is able to repeat

an unresolved dynamic with a new but equally important other” (Siegel, 2005, p. 408).

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Loss of self due to unconscious collusions with another, involving either

projecting or identifying with projections, begins in childhood, as the child adopts certain

roles assigned to it by its parents. The child then becomes the substitute for the rejected

parts of the parents (Willi, 1982). Learning to adapt to another to get their needs met,

children then carry this form of coping style, whatever it may be, into their future

relationships. For example, if a mother projects onto her child that of being a victim, the

child then internalizes his or her part of being a victim along with the mother’s part of

being a victimizer. The child will then carry this dyad and will reenact it in future

situations. Depending on the situation, the individual may choose to identify with the

victim and project the victimizer or vice versa. As individuals project onto another, they

lose the ability to find that which they project in themselves. This creates a fragmented

self. Laing (1961) stated “the one person does not wish merely to have the other as a

hook on which to hang his projections. He strives to find in the other, or to induce the

other to become, the very embodiment of that other whose co-operation is required as a

‘complement’ of the particular identity he feels impelled to sustain” (p. 101).

The idea of unconscious collusion is similar to Bowen’s (1985) idea that some

spouses unconsciously seek to fuse two partial selves into a common self, which results

in the loss of self.

One spouse becomes the more dominant decision-maker for the common self, while the other adapts to the situation. This is one of the best examples of borrowing and trading of self in a close relationship. One may assume the dominant role and force the other to be adaptive. . . . The dominant one gains self at the expense of the more adaptive one, who loses self. (Bowen, p. 377)

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Fusional Complex

According to Bowen (1985) and Schwartz-Salant (2007) the polarity that causes

individuals the most problems is the polarity of distance/fusion or

individuality/togetherness.

One of the most fundamental features of the human condition is the struggle that arises out of the need to strike a balance between two basic urges: the drive towards being an individual--one alone, autonomous--and the drive towards being together with others in relationship. (Gilbert, 1992, p. 12)

Schwartz-Salant (2007) referred to this polarity as the fusion complex and pointed to the

maddening affect of this impossibility of opposites. According to Bowen (1985), in an

attempt to decrease anxiety and to increase closeness, individuals will fuse with each

other. However, the increase in togetherness leads to a decrease in the individual’s sense

of self. Schwartz-Salant (2007) stressed that it is the presence of the impossibility of the

opposites of fusion and distance that creates the anxiety. Individuals try to escape by

dissociating the awareness of the presence of the polarities of fusion and distance from

awareness by mind-body splitting and retreats into passive fantasies.

Both Bowen (1985) and Schwartz-Salant (2007) described a systemic relation

between individuals, wherein an individual’s behavior is influenced by the interactions

within the system. Bowen viewed families as emotional units in which family members

have less autonomy in their behaviors than one would think, as they are greatly

influenced by what is going on in the family. Bowen pointed to the tendency for

individuals to function in reciprocal relationships to one another (one person loses

strength to another person’s gain). Similarly, Schwartz-Salant emphasized the impact of

the field between individuals on the individual’s behavior. The field is considered to be

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the space between people, which is “alive with meaning and contains its own process”

(Rubin, 2000, p. 341). He stressed that “it was important that these states of mind were

ours--that it was not Naomi’s projective identification at work, and that this chaos was

also my chaos, which lived in the space between us. The chaos, the nothingness, and pull

into a void were our condition, not something we were doing to one another” (Schwartz-

Salant, 2007, p. 84).

Eastern Spiritual Perspective

Eastern spiritual teachings emphasize that identification or attachment (these

words are used interchangeably) with anything that is not the Higher Self (transpersonal

dynamic), whether it is on the physical, emotional, mental, or personality levels, is the

cause of all suffering or loss of self. Thousands of years ago Buddha illuminated this

concept as the basis for the Four Noble Truths: (a) Life is suffering. (b) The cause of

suffering is attachment. (c) Suffering can be eliminated. (d) Suffering is eliminated

through following the eight-fold path (Bahm, 1958).

Bhagavad Gita

In addition to Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad

Gita, stresses the importance of disidentification or detachment (these words are used

interchangeably), especially from desire. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna stated that as

one becomes identified with desires or emotions, he or she loses sight of the Self, which

leads to “delusion, confused memory, destruction of discrimination,” and ultimately the

perishing of the self (Besant, 1947).

Abraham (1993) summarized Krishna’s description of how desires develop,

leading to attachment and ultimate loss of self. The pattern develops as follows: There is

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the initial contact with matter to which the senses perceive and react. As the senses react,

there is an initial sense of attraction or repulsion, which creates desires and attachment to

the fruits of action--“from attachments ariseth desire.” When one becomes attached to

the fruits of action, which leads to expectations, anger is soon to follow when these

expectations are not met--“from desire anger cometh forth.” The culmination of these

events is delusion--“destruction of discrimination”--and ultimate loss of oneself.

Krishna explains that it is the lower self that is thrown into the fluctuations of

likes and dislikes and the endless cycle enumerated above. Eventually, the lower self

must be disciplined by the Higher Self, which is unfazed by the tides of desire. The

battle between the lower self and the Higher Self is the ultimate polarity that the

individual or disciple must face. According to Krishna, this battle between the lower self

and the Higher Self is the purpose of existence, and it is only through the triumph over

the lower self that the soul is free. Thus, the ultimate goal is the reclaiming of the Higher

Self (Abraham, 1993).

Glamour/Illusion

According to Bailey (1950), the loss of self results from identifying with the

personality, which is caused by a failure to balance the pairs of opposites. This

identification manifests differently on the various levels of the personality. On the

mental level it manifests as illusion and is “the misunderstanding of ideas or

thoughtforms” (Bailey, 1950, p. 21). When desire is added to illusion, it then becomes

glamour, which manifests on the emotional level, and according to Bailey, is much more

prevalent today than illusion because of the emotional polarization of most people.

Glamour, which Bailey considered to be a major problem today, is anything with which

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one identifies on the emotional level that causes disconnection from the soul and results

in loss of self. Bailey stressed that the problem is not that these things exist, but rather

that we identify with them (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1942, 1944, 1950).

Glamours have been likened to a mist or fog in which the aspirant wanders and which distort all that he sees and contacts, preventing him from ever seeing life truly or clearly or the conditions surrounding him as they essentially are. . . . Glamour settles down upon him and he is rendered powerless to release himself or to do anything constructive. (Bailey, 1950, p. 31) According to Bailey (1950), glamour is the immediate problem that stands before

humanity. Glamours exist on the emotional plane and are considered to be actual forms

of energy, which are “smothering, vague and enveloping. In them, the person is

immersed as in the ocean or in a ‘sea of fog’” (p. 72). Glamour exists in many forms, all

of which distort the individual’s sense of reality, including the glamour of materiality,

sentiment, devotion, self-centeredness, personal ambition, isolation, victimhood, self-

pity, service, harmony, conflict, knowledge, idealism, and self-importance (Bailey, 1950;

Abraham, 1993). Abraham stated that “glamours are often virtues carried too far (such as

honesty to the point of distorting perception and failing to see people’s ‘humanity’) or a

virtue twisted in a personal way (the recognition of the importance of love, but trying to

turn it for one’s own personal good feeling)” (Abraham, 1993, p. 61). Describing

Bailey’s concept of glamour, Hawkins (2005) stated that glamour is “an energy that is

projected externally and imbues its object with exaggerated desirability that quickly fades

because it is not a quality of the admired object but an ego projection from the observer”

(p. 102).

According to Bailey, the only way to overcome glamour is through the use of the

illumined mind, which acts as a spotlight to reflect the soul’s light upon the emotional

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attachment. She stated, “glamour can only be dissipated by the inflow of clear, directed

light” (p. 241). Glamour, which is just a polarity and is similar to a subpersonality, is

overcome through shifting the energy and attention from the emotions to the mind where

the mind can then observe and shed light on the glamour. From the Eastern perspective,

until an individual has reached extremely high levels of consciousness, loss of self is an

inevitable part of the human process. However, as one progresses in balancing the pairs

of opposites, the occurrences of this phenomenon will steadily decrease.

Summary

This chapter has reviewed the literature on the organizing principle of this

dissertation, balancing the pairs of opposites, as this principle is found in the theories

presented in chapter 2 and as it applies to the concepts of the experience of self and the

loss of self. As they relate to the organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites,

the experience of self and loss of self sections are based on two principles: (a) The lower

self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the

tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and

transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1951; Assagioli, 1972, 1973). (b) The loss

of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as

polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced

either through identification with or repression of one of the poles.

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CHAPTER 4

CONFESSIONAL STATEMENT

This confessional statement serves as an apologia to provide an actual experience

of the theory. The intent of this statement is to reflect back on the theory so that it is

understood in life-as-lived terms. The statement is, therefore, contextualized in a first-

person voice. My own experience of self and loss of self has been the catalyst for writing

this dissertation. Looking to both Western psychology and Eastern spirituality to find the

answers to my painful experiences with loss of self and finding them both lacking, I

resolved to find my own experiential therapy/theory, with the guidance of my own

therapist. This, I believed, would integrate Western and Eastern theories and the concepts

I found helpful from both sides, including the concepts of mindfulness, the conscious

observer, and balancing the pairs of opposites.

Background

As far back as I can remember I have experienced very distinct periods of loss of

self, although at the time I did not realize that was the nature of the experience. Not until

I began to experience my “self” in therapy and began to feel connected to my self and the

world around me was I able to give words to my experience of loss of self--which I have

endured most of my life--and to identify those episodes as they continued to occur.

Although loss of self is usually painful, I believe that loss of self is especially painful and

noticeable as one begins to experience the self on a deeper level and realizes the contrast

between the two states. For me, a sense of self is evidenced by clear thinking, having a

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sense of my center, and feeling connected to my self and the world around me. Whereas

loss of self is evidenced by the onset of hazy, unclear thinking, the flooding of

undifferentiated emotions, and the feeling of disconnection from my self and the world

around me. Schwartz-Salant (2007) states that as the self enters time and space or begins

to be felt more strongly, there is a period of disorder, which is sometimes felt as “non-

containment, a ‘falling through,’ or even being pulled, into nothingness” (p. 43). He

points to the hero myth to validate the increase in the sensation of loss of self as the self

begins to gain strength, an experience wherein the hero goes to bring back order, but is

confronted with the forces of disorder. The increase in loss of self “clothes itself in many

forms of the shadow, notably an internal, powerful rage or violence, or envy. Suffering

the disorder is functional: it breaks down body armoring, so that the self can embody”

(Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 42). Over the years, these experiences of loss of self have

become more and more troubling to me, especially when these experiences occur when I

have been with clients. Therefore, dealing with this issue became my personal obsession

and the focus of my weekly therapy sessions for about three years.

Personal Origins of Loss of Self

As the theory states, in order to understand my sense of self and loss of self, I

have to look beyond myself to the dynamics in the system of which I am a part.

Systemic Interactions (Interpersonal Influences)

Many types of addictions and mental disorders run in my extended family,

including alcoholism, severe depression, and schizophrenia. Growing up I watched the

reactions of my family members to these individuals with mental illnesses. I sensed that

there was something wrong with these individuals, that they had to be taken care of, and

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that their illnesses were not to be talked about. I witnessed that certain emotions

associated with these mental illnesses, such as sadness, vulnerability, chaos, anger, and

fear, were not accepted and were somewhat shunned. As I witnessed this shunning of

certain emotions in others, I began to repress similar emotions, for fear that these feelings

would not be accepted, and for fear that these emotions would overtake me, as I had

witnessed with my family members.

Repression and Identification (Intrapersonal Influences)

Understanding the interpersonal/systemic influences on my sense of self and loss

of self has helped me to understand my intrapersonal reactions/polarities. As I repressed

my “dark side” for fear that these emotions would not be accepted by my family, I began

to identify with the persona or subpersonality of “I’m fine, nothing bothers me.” Thus

began the internal polarization of I’m fine/I’m not fine. As I continued to identify with

the polarity of I’m fine, which included acceptance of my “light side” (positive emotions)

and the repression of my dark side (negative emotions), I began to feel more and more

fragmented and alienated from my self (loss of self).

The internal pain of continual loss of self led me to self-medicate with alcohol

during my teenage years, which served to artificially balance the pairs of opposites within

me so that I could eek out a modicum of peace from the dark feelings that were

screaming to be heard. As the literature stated, those repressed parts did not disappear,

and the more these feelings are repressed, the more they fight to surface. My continual

insistence on repressing these feelings led to a problem with alcohol, which led to a

period of deep depression.

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This period of depression led me to check into rehab for alcohol addiction.

During my stay in rehab, all the feelings I had been repressing for years began to flood

forth, and I felt totally overwhelmed. Although I began to realize and acknowledge my

repressed feelings (step one of regaining a sense of self) while in rehab and with therapy

after I left rehab, I still could not accept these feelings and continued to deny my sadness

and depression as much as I could. For years after rehab, I stayed sober but still did not

feel whole. I felt that parts of myself were missing, and that I was not really experiencing

life. Although I had not experienced a depression like I did when I was nineteen, I lived

in a kind of low-grade depressive state. This colored my interactions with the world and

led me to periods of isolation where I felt an overwhelming sense of fear about both the

world and simple daily tasks. I now see that my depression resulted from not accepting

all the parts of myself. As the premise of this study states: in order to fully experience

the self, all parts of the self--all polarities--must be recognized and accepted and then

brought into integration/balance through holding the tension between the polarities.

Spiritual Bypass (Transpersonal Influences)

During this time, instead of dealing with the pain of my lower self, I tried to

bypass this pain through contacting my Higher Self through meditation techniques taught

in Eastern spiritual teachings. Immersing myself in these spiritual teachings, I began to

define things in black and white in terms of “spiritual” and “not spiritual.” I created and

identified with a spiritual persona and proceeded to think and act according to what I

perceived to be the spiritual way. This activity was at the expense of my real feelings. I

lived in a continuous state of incongruence, wherein my outsides rarely matched my

insides. This attempt to do a spiritual bypass of my emotions was very seductive, as I

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convinced myself that I was being spiritual. This led me not to my Higher Self but rather

further and further away from any sense of self. As the theory states, in order to contact

and maintain a connection with the Higher Self, the lower self must be integrated, so that

the tension can be held between the lower self and the Higher Self. I was living the

concept, attempting to contact the Higher Self (transpersonal influences) before

integrating the lower self, resulting in a loss of self.

Finding My Self in Therapy/Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

I believe the purpose of psychotherapy for me has been to reconnect with the parts

of myself that had become fragmented over the years. This process has been

accomplished by unraveling the layers within myself that I had suppressed. In the quest

to accept all parts of myself, feeling these feelings, and then holding the tension between

the opposite feelings, I have been able to feel more whole. Psychotherapy has been a

process for me. For years I was in therapy and made very little progress because I was

not willing to feel uncomfortable. I believe that lasting change only comes from learning

to accept and experience all parts of oneself and to be comfortable with the

uncomfortable states and actions that accompany growth and self-discovery.

It is only through getting in touch with my shadow or dark side and learning to

hold the tension between the dark and the light that I have been able to experience my

self. Getting in touch with my dark side meant confronting my family’s mental illness,

which included getting in touch with the “crazy” parts within myself that I had

suppressed over the years. I believe as Bowen (1985) observed, that we all have a bit of

schizophrenia in us. Bowen stated that the degree of the presence of such characteristics

within us, as well as environmental factors, are what determine if these crazy parts

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develop into disorders. I believe that I have many crazy parts within myself; however, I

do not believe they are abnormally crazy and warrant a diagnosis. That is not to say,

however, that these parts could not develop into severe problems if they were continually

repressed in concurrence with other negative environmental factors.

Coming to terms with the “dark” parts within myself and accepting these parts

gave me a great sense of relief, a freedom and a realization that I was not actually crazy.

As I was able to accept these dark and painful parts of myself, they no longer held power

over me, and I could begin to integrate them back into myself, through holding the

tension between the dark and the “light,” which gave me a sense of control over them.

Accepting these painful parts of myself did not make them go away, however. Rather,

through my accepting the painful parts, they became manageable, and I was and am able

to work and learn from them.

By no means has the purpose of my therapy been to alleviate my pain, but rather

to get in touch with it in order to move through it. I see pain, whether it is in the form of

depression, anxiety, guilt, etc., as a gift that when accepted as it is, not judged, and not

forced to change will transform itself into a deeper level of understanding. Through this

process I have noticed that I have become more tolerant with myself, which includes

being more comfortable with being uncomfortable. As I began to disidentify from certain

parts of myself and reintegrate other parts, I was able to reflect on all these parts and see

the cooperation between all of them. I was able to see how every part, defense,

subpersonality, or role had a place in me. As I began to integrate all these parts through

holding the tension between the polarities, I began to experience a deeper sense of self.

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Defining Loss of Self in Personal Terms

As I began to experience a sense of self, I also became acutely aware of the

periods when I lost this sense of self. Although I have frequently experienced very

distinct periods of loss of self, I was now able to identify these periods for what they were

and realize I did not have to exist that way. Thus I began to carefully examine these

periods so that I could describe exactly what was happening, figure out why it was

happening, and learn how to stop it from happening.

What Happens

When I experience periods of loss of self, it is as though I am invaded by some

unknown force that drags me under and leaves me feeling desperate. My loss of self is

evidenced a sudden onset of cloudy thinking, a feeling of disconnection from both myself

and the world around me, and a feeling of being overwhelmed by a flood of “hazy

preverbal undifferentiated feelings” (U. Hoehne, personal communication, July 15,

2007). When I experience periods of loss of self I become flooded with feelings so

overwhelming that I cannot distinguish what they are, and I become paralyzed by them.

The feeling of being paralyzed manifests as an inability to think or articulate myself

clearly, a feeling of total disconnection from myself and others, and a feeling of

helplessness and panic. Schwartz-Salant’s described this experience of loss of self as “a

mental blankness or fragmentation, a feeling of becoming overwhelmed and

disembodied, and sometimes severe body and psychic pains, leading to desperation” and

can be accompanied by “extreme and destabilizing anxiety, a compensatory rage, and

temporarily impaired capacity for reflection and clear thinking” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007,

p. 126). It is the sense that there is “a kind of spell in the room, and accompanying

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feelings of mental deadness and muteness” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 96). These periods

of loss of self vary from being very brief and only relatively uncomfortable to lasting

days and being extremely isolating and emotionally painful.

When these episodes occur, although I can still interact with others, I become

very withdrawn, and my attention is almost completely absorbed in an inward battle for

survival. While this may sound dramatic to refer to these episodes as a battle, that is

exactly how they feel. These episodes of loss of self can be extremely uncomfortable, as

though my entire being is threatened with annihilation, and I feel as though I must fight

for survival of my sense of self as witnessed by a sense of center, clear thinking, and a

feeling of connection to the world around me.

Although these descriptions may sound pathological and although they do have a

psychotic element to them, I do not believe my experiences of loss of self dictate a

pathological occurrence. Psychosis is evidenced by the existence of sensations,

emotions, and or thoughts, which are so overwhelming that the individual is overtaken

and is unable to exist in reality the majority of the time. I believe that psychosis, as

evidenced by any feeling or thought which engulfs us for any period of time, such as

chaos, madness, dread, rage, anxiety, etc., exists in all of us. I do not believe that sanity

means that one is free from these psychotic elements, but rather that one has discovered

these parts within himself or herself and is able to integrate them into personal being and

not repress them out of fear of becoming insane. I believe that the true evidence for

sanity is that one is able to touch the depths of insanity and the heights of sanity and

identify with neither by holding the tension between these two poles.

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Why Loss of Self Occurs

Loss of the lower self and the Higher Self results as polarities on the

intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal levels become unbalanced either

through identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973;

Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). In observing my own periods of loss of self, I have noticed

that it results from identifying/repressing the same reoccurring polarities, and vacillating

between the poles of these specific dualities, depending on the situation. The main

polarities which manifest in my life on the intrapersonal level are happy/sad, like/dislike,

and pleasure/pain. Loss of self results when I vacillate between the poles, identifying

with one pole one minute, while in the next minute identifying with the other pole. On

the interpersonal level, the main polarities that manifest in my life are victim/victimizer,

inferior/superior, underfunctioning/overfunctioning, and fusion/distance. The

transpersonal polarities that exist between the personality and soul are I/we, personal

benefit/good of the group, and illusion/reality. My connection to my Higher Self is lost

as I identify with the lower self on either the physical, emotional, mental, or personality

levels or another individual on the interpersonal level.

Regaining a Sense of Self

As I searched for ways to regain self and looked to both Western and Eastern

literature, I could find no comprehensive theory that gave an adequate explanation or way

to restore a sense of self, a paucity that resulted in my attempt to integrate theories and

fill in the holes in theory with my findings from my own personal experience. Integrating

Western and Eastern literature with my own personal experience, I have integrated

Assagioli’s (1972) four-step process for balancing the polarities, Vargiu’s (1973)

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five-step process for harmonizing subpersonalities, and additional techniques that I

learned in therapy (U. Hoehne, personal communication, July 17, 2007). I condensed the

recovery of self to a three-step process: (a) recognizing and naming in the here and now

the feelings associated with the sensation of loss of self; (b) identifying with the feeling

and giving words to it in order to identify the need behind the feeling so that the polarity

being triggered can be identified; and (c) shifting to the conscious observer through the

process disidentification and reflecting on the situation, thus gaining insight and clarity.

Practical Example

The following example outlines the three-step process used in an actual, personal

experience of loss of self. The experience occurred right after getting off the phone with

a friend of mine who had just given me what I perceived as negative feedback on a

section of my dissertation (which I believed I had just finished).

I am sitting at my computer and I am starting to become more and more

confused. My brain seems to be in a fog; I start to feel more and more

disconnected from myself, as though I am sinking into a hole. I am unable

to think; everything seems heavy, and I feel desperate and panicked.

There is an overall feeling of massive anxiety and helplessness and no

matter what I do it will not go away. The more I try to get out of this

feeling, the more it seems to close in around me with a dooming presence.

Thoughts accompany this feeling. I can’t do this. I will never finish this

paper. I can’t, I can’t, I can’t. It will never be good enough. What is the

use? No one can help me.… The thoughts take over and drag me further

under. This is my reality. I am totally immersed in it.

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This experience of loss of self details one actual experience of what occurred internally

when I experienced a loss of self. Although the circumstances usually vary, the interior

feelings and symptoms are the same: hazy, unclear thinking; a flooding of

undifferentiated feelings with an overall feeling of panic; and an overwhelming sense of

disconnection from myself and the world around me. This theory proposes that when one

experiences a loss of self, there is a specific three-step process to follow to regain a sense

of self.

Step 1: Recognize a loss of self has occurred and name the feelings. After about

fifteen minutes into this panicked state, the thought came to me: This is an

example of loss of self. I knew this, because I had come to recognize the

symptoms. As soon as I had this realization, I knew I had to proceed to name

what I was feeling. I was feeling fear. As soon as I named what I was feeling, the

feeling lost some of its power over me, and I could begin to work with the fear.

Step 2: Identify with the feeling in order to identify the polarity that is being

triggered. Once I identified the feeling of fear, I sat with this feeling and tried to

give the feeling words. My fear of the paper not measuring up to the “all-

powerful authority” translated into my fear of not being enough. I then realized I

had identified with the interpersonal pole of inferiority in the

inferiority/superiority polarity. I have noticed that polarities seem to exist

simultaneously on the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels and continuously

influence each other. I am not usually aware of the interpersonal polarity until the

intrapersonal polarity manifests. In the above example, I became aware of my

own feeling of fear and identification with inferiority. Once I reflected on these

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feelings, I noticed that they were reactions to a subtle, at first unconscious,

polarity of victim (me)/victimizer (another) into which I had slipped with another

person (my friend from the phone call).

In my observations, polarities manifest in layers with one primary polarity

influencing many secondary polarities. The task, then, is to decipher which of

these is the primary polarity that, when balanced, will automatically bring the

other polarities into balance? In my experience I have come to recognize that a

few polarities continually arise in my interactions, including

inferiority/superiority, victim/victimizer, and distance/fusion. I also recognize the

polarity of victim/victimizer as being the primary polarity that influences all the

others.

Step 3: Shift to the conscious observer and hold the tension between the polarities.

By disidentifying from my fear and feelings of inferiority through consciously

shifting from the emotional level to the mental level, I was able to work to shift

out of the victim polarity by holding the tension between the poles of victim and

victimizer. As I have worked to balance these polarities, I have experimented

with two different ways to hold the tension between the two. One way to balance

the poles is to consciously to shift my identification to the other polarity until the

two balance out. This approach is not usually a quick fix, and I swing back and

forth until I am somewhere near the middle, and, of course, then it starts again!

Another way, which works better for me, is to consciously attempt to identify

with the middle compromise, and then to manifest this compromise in my daily

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life, so that there is less chance to identify with either polarity. For example, in

the polarity of victim/victimizer, trying to identify with harmlessness (see

Figure 4.1).

Benevolent Understanding

Victim Harmlessness Victimizer

Figure 4.1 Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Researcher generated).

Identifying with harmlessness meant not only practicing harmlessness with others

but also with myself. Trying to manifest harmlessness then brought me to another

polarity of inferiority/superiority, wherein I was identified with inferiority. I then worked

to balance this polarity by holding the tension between the two poles by trying to practice

humility, the middle compromise between inferiority and superiority.

Whenever I become identified with a polarity, I take time to regain my balance.

The sooner I become mindful of my identification, the easier I can regain a sense of self.

I have found that balancing the pairs of opposites is a moment-to-moment process. As

soon as I feel I have balanced one polarity, another will surface. Ultimately, I aspire to

be consistently mindful and not experience loss of self. I want to be able continuously to

hold the tension between the polarities and not become identified with or unconsciously

try and repress one of them. However, this accomplishment has not been my experience,

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and I continually have to attempt to regain my sense of self, which for me is an ongoing

process and not an ultimate destination.

Once I am able to establish my connection to my lower self, I can work to contact

my Higher Self through the five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,

contemplation, illumination, and inspiration explained in chapter 3 (Hodgson, 2004; U.

Hoehne, personal communication, May 22, 2007). I have found this process to be one of

the simplest yet most effective meditation techniques I have used. As with all things, the

more I have used the technique, the more I have gotten comfortable with it. My

experience with mediation is that each day is different. Some days I start meditation and

my mind is sharp and focused, which leads to a clear and insightful meditation. Other

days, my mind is a whirlwind, which usually leads to a frustrating and unproductive

mediation.

When I am able to align myself with my Higher Self through meditation, I

experience effortless flow in my life. It is as though I am in alignment, and the

inspiration and intuition flows into me. I find during these times, I am most effective

with clients. Rogers (1980) stated that when he was most in touch with his inner self, he

was most effective with clients. I find this to be true. I feel that this connection to my

Higher Self from which I receive, intuition, inspiration, and guidance is my greatest asset

as a therapist.

If we can achieve that identification with soul, that at least momentarily there is that sense of seeing with the person, entering into “the heart” of the person, and “looking outward” with the person, instead of the other way around. Generally we look through the veil of our own personalities at the person, and we generally fail to see anything but our own projections, which carry us swiftly to false conclusions. The magic ingredient or the particular psychological “chemistry” that enables one to

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see something as it is in essence (rather that as it appears to be or as we think it is) is love, a quality of the heart. (Abraham, 1997, p. 98)

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Observation of both Western psychology and specific Eastern spiritual practices

in relation to the self has led me to the conclusion that neither approach is complete.

Personal experience with and close study of most Western psychological theories has

pointed to a deep emphasis on the lower self and personality with a lack of understanding

of the Higher Self and spiritual nature of individuals. Although this omission is not

always the case, it is apparent in the majority of psychological theories. On the other

hand, many Eastern spiritual theories focus on the Higher Self, but provide an inadequate

understanding of the lower self.

Many Western psychological theories view the discovery and evolution of the

personality as the ultimate goal of therapy. These theories delve into the unconscious (or

deeper levels of awareness), helping individuals to become conscious of their defense

mechanisms and releasing them so that they may move from their false selves into their

true selves (Winnicott, 1958). However, once the uncovering of the unconscious is

accomplished and the individual’s true self or I is strengthened, the paradigm of growth

stops, and the theory does not usually extend to the Higher Self found in Eastern thought

(Crampton, 1977; Firman & Russell, 1992). Often Western psychology reaches to the

depths of the unconscious, leaving the heights of the superconscious completely

unexplored. The reverse may be said of Eastern theories, which often emphasize and

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explore the heights of the superconscious and altered states of being at the expense of

examining the lower realms of the unconscious.

There are downsides to both of these approaches. Following Western

psychological theories only can lead to a sense of unfulfillment, boredom, and overall

depression, as individuals fail to connect with higher aspects of themselves. Whereas,

individuals following Eastern spiritual paths often tend to bypass the psychological

feelings aspect as they attempt to go directly into the higher states of consciousness. This

approach is often noted as doing a spiritual bypass, resulting in feelings being suppressed

in order to reach higher states, where the perception is that of no feelings or of bliss.

Welwood (2000), stated:

While struggling to find themselves, many people are introduced to spiritual teachings and practices that urge them to give themselves up . . . as a result, they wind up using spiritual practice to create a new ‘spiritual’ identity, which is actually an old dysfunctional identity--based on avoidance of unresolved psychological issues--repackaged in a new guise. In this way, involvement in spiritual teachings and practices can become a way to rationalize and reinforce old defenses . . . This is a major pitfall of the spiritual path, especially for modern Westerners. The attempt to avoid facing the unresolved issues of the conditioned personality only keeps us caught in their grip. (p. 27)

Trying to bypass feelings causes many problems and eventually can lead to, in severe

cases, states of insanity, or more often to an overall sense of isolation and disconnection

from oneself and the world.

This study represents an integrative theory of Western psychology and Eastern

spiritual teachings through the bridge of the theory of Psychosynthesis, which recognizes

psychology’s primary function of healing childhood traumas (intrapersonal element);

most of which occur within the context of the family relationship (interpersonal element);

to develop a healthy ego; and to it add Maslow’s idea of self-actualization and the

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Eastern dynamic of the Higher Self (transpersonal element) (Firman & Russell, 1992;

Maslow, 1968). Self-actualization or self-realization refers to the “moment-to-moment,

here-and-now relationship to one’s deepest sense of truth and meaning in life” (Firman &

Russell, 1992, p. 33). This concept seeks to bridge the gap between the lower, personal

self and the Higher, Transpersonal Self. Assagioli encouraged individuals to “realize first

that the realization of the Self has different levels or octaves. First, at the personality

level. We must realize that the appearance of the self does not begin at the top--it begins

on the plain. It is a purely psychological experience. But it puts the firm foundation for

all the rest” (Assagioli, 1962, p. 4).

The lower self is experienced as the polarities are balanced on the physical,

emotional, mental, and personality levels through shifting the attention from the polarities

to the conscious observer on the mental level through the process of mindful detachment.

As the polarities are balanced on each of the levels, the personality integrates around the

lower self or I. Once the lower self is integrated around a conscious center, the Higher

Self can be contacted using the five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,

contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal

communication, April 24, 2007).

Keeping the personality integrated through balancing the pairs of opposites so that

one can stay connected to the Higher Self (if that is his or her goal), is a continuous

process.

Treading the razor-edge suggests being balanced not on something you can stand on but on a fine line that is more like a tension between forces. This point of tension is an ongoing process--no place to rest one’s head, as it were, no solid ground. Both metaphors suggest a keen mental alertness and a differentiating power. (Abraham, 1993, p. 13)

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Walking the middle path or holding the tension between the polarities is a moment-to-

moment process, which requires one to be mindful. As soon as one is not mindful of

holding the tension between the polarities, he or she is susceptible to identifying with or

unconsciously repressing one of the poles, thus resulting in a loss of self.

Conclusions

Since there is no qualitative or quantitative evidence on which to base my

conclusions, these conclusions are based on the integrative theory posed in this study,

which is the product of Western psychology, Eastern spiritual teachings, and my own

personal experience. In writing a theoretical dissertation, I have realized that theory

helped to explain the concept of self from the Western psychological perspective as seen

in systems theory, psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, self-psychology, humanistic

psychology, and Psychosynthesis; and from the Eastern theory as seen in the Bhagavad

Gita and the works of Alice Bailey. Ultimately, theory has provided me with an

understanding of such concepts as mindfulness, balancing the pairs of opposites, the

conscious observer, repression, projection, projective identification, unconscious

collusion, and the fusional complex. As I brought Western and Eastern theories together,

an integrative theory began to emerge that provided me with a structure or framework for

thinking about the ideas presented in this dissertation. However, as this integrative

theory emerged, I began to realize it was still just a theory, which to me remained one-

dimensional and flat. This newly acquired theoretical view gave me a mental

understanding that left me with a feeling that the interpretation was unfulfilled.

Vision is never conveyed by an interpretation based upon a developmental theory, but rather by a statement of the existence of what we perceive, whether that be through our eyes, feelings, body, experiences, smell, or hearing. (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 12)

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The understanding that I was looking for was a tangible experience of the self.

Since theory-based dissertations lack standard empirical methodology, I became the

subject on which my theory was tested. In order to bridge the gap between where theory

left off and finishing the dissertation, I had to have a period of living the theory in order

to make it experiential so that the dissertation would come to life. To embody and

experience these ideas, I had to incorporate them, and experiment with them in my day-

to-day life. Since there was no specific literature to confirm or deny my ideas, I used my

own intuitive sense of whether the ideas where “correct” or not. Sitting with these ideas

and letting them marinate within the container of my own self was the only way to let

these ideas season. Holding the container for these ideas by being the container, I found

that I was intuitively led to certain material or situations that helped me to facilitate the

discovery of the answers I was seeking. Intuition has been used in science for thousands

of years as a valid test method. Einstein said that his intuitive sense about his research

was the most valuable asset he had. “The intellect has little to do on the road to

discovery. There comes a leap in consciousness, call it intuition or what you will, the

solution comes to you and you don't know how or why. The truly valuable thing is the

intuition.” Therefore, the relationship between theory and experience for me became the

initial and final source for the theory as it was actualized.

I have heard it said that writing a dissertation is like giving birth. I agree with this

statement wholeheartedly. Writing a theoretical dissertation is a process of bringing to

life ideas and theory. With the birth of a child, there has to be adequate time and

nurturing for the ideas to form and develop. Ideas have a gestation time also, and to force

them into being before they are ready alters the quality and stability of the ideas and

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theory. While writing this dissertation, I began to sense that it had a rhythm and timing

of its own, and the integrity of the theory was based on me conforming to the rhythm of

the process of it and not my own.

Conforming to the rhythm of the process meant becoming a container or incubator

to hold, nurture, and guide the formation of the dissertation. This meant not only

guiding, but also being open to being led by this creation. Being led by the process

required a different kind of being/relating. Being led by the process required me to at

times shut down my concrete mind and be led by my abstract mind. Similar to how

Michelangelo asked his canvas to reveal to him what the canvas would like to become, I

sensed where to go with this dissertation by posing the question: Where should I go?

This way of being, which is so foreign to society’s way of doing things, brought

up the ultimate polarity for me of doing/being. My tendency with this dissertation was to

want to make it happen. I felt pressure to perform and to finish what seemed at times to

be an enormous undertaking. Often this feeling of pressure led me to want to just do. I

found that a lot of my doing was driven by a sense of anxiety and often was not very

efficient. I was in a sense doing for the sake of doing, which led to a feeling of spinning

my wheels. Although one cannot finish anything without a certain amount of doing, to

integrate an additional amount of being can reduce the amount of doing and improve the

quality of the final project. The creation of the theory required me to maintain the

polarities of being/doing so that articulating the theory became the task of doing the

principle of the theory itself, that is holding the tension.

In writing this dissertation when I consciously added an element of being to the

process, I had to do less, and the process seemed to flow much smoother. By being, I am

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referring to sitting with my anxiety over feeling totally overwhelmed by the process;

sitting with my discomfort with not being able to integrate ideas; and not having the

words to finish a section and resisting trying to fix it. Using intuition and my inner voice

for guidance on what sources to use, what concepts to integrate, or where to go when I

felt like I was at a dead end, became a valuable resource. At times, incorporating being

with doing was very challenging, for the anxiety was so intense to get something done

that to be seemed both impossible and foolish. Society has conditioned itself to do while

simply to be implies laziness, inefficiency, and foolishness. Obviously doing has its

place, because if we did nothing, nothing would be accomplished. I would argue,

however, that the often dismissed act of simply being has an equally important role in

maximizing one’s efficiency. I found that when I balanced the polarities of being and

doing, my anxiety lifted, I felt more efficient, and there was less to do.

Although I have had many insights into myself and loss of self throughout the

years, I still feel that I am a long way from truly understanding the nature of the self. I

feel my situation is analogous to Kierkegaard’s idea of living in the question mark. My

perplexities represent the pairs of opposites of doing/being, known/unknown,

theory/experience, and manifest/unmanifest. It is as though the theory I am working on is

a living, experiential theory, which changes and grows as I implement the theory. I feel

that this dissertation is a work in progress, one that will probably span a lifetime. The

only true conclusion that I have come away with is how much I do not know.

Implications of Findings

This theory, with its application of systems theory to understand the relationship

of the parts, which comprise the self, including the relationship between maintaining the

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tension between the opposite poles, provides a greater context for the systemic work done

with couples and families in the field of Marriage and Family therapy. As individuals

begin to see the feedback loop that is created between themselves and others, including

their spouses, family members, and friends, they become informed about theirs as well as

others’ sense of self, and patterns start to emerge. These patterns in turn can be examined

and then adjusted to eradicate dysfunctional behaviors, which result in the loss of self.

This study pertains more to therapists than to the general public. The theory

presented provides an understanding of the experience of self and loss of self and can

provide another way to look at the phenomenon of loss of self, not as a pathological

occurrence, but as an average day-to-day occurrence that affects all people. It can also

provide the tools to help people navigate their way back to the self. Inherent in the

conclusions of this theory is the assumption that in order to help clients

achieve a deeper understanding and experience of self, it is imperative that therapists

have navigated the waters of their own selves and have developed the ability to recognize

their own periods of loss of self as well as having developed techniques to regain the self.

In order to aid clients in finding their sense of self through discovering and

holding the tension between all the parts of themselves, therapists must be continuously

working to uncover and embrace all parts of themselves, including the chaos, madness,

and wounded child, which make up the false self; in addition to the order, sanity, and

soul, which make up the true self. In addition, therapists must become comfortable with

both their shadow and light, and be able to hold the tension between the two. It is only

when they can go to the depths and the heights within themselves and hold these two

states simultaneously on a moment-to-moment basis that therapists will be able to

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recognize and tolerate these similar states in their clients. They will also be able to

refrain from interacting in unconscious patterns of collusion with their clients and can act

as guides to help them navigate through the seemingly treacherous states of the self.

Therapist’s Role

The role of the therapist is to act as an agent of change by providing a safe space

where clients can reconnect with themselves. Therapists should be non-directive in their

roles as catalysts of change. This does not mean that they take a passive stance with

clients, rather that they actively hold the space for clients to find answers through their

interactions. Therapists do this by actively listening to and reflecting back their clients’

thoughts and feelings (Rogers, 1980). Also, therapists must continually model to their

clients functional behavior with the intent that the clients will eventually internalize this

behavior (Satir et al, 1991).

In addition to creating a safe place and modeling healthy behavior for clients,

therapists must pay close attention to their own internal voice and utilize their intuition.

Both Satir and Rogers felt that this was their most important tool in effecting change.

Rogers (1980) stated:

I find that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive self, when I am somehow in touch with the unknown in me, when I am perhaps in an altered state of consciousness, then whatever I do seems to be fully healing. Then simply my presence is releasing and helpful to the other . . . it seems that my inner spirit has reached out and touched the inner spirit of the other. Our relationship transcends itself and becomes a part of something larger. Profound growth and healing and energy are present (p. 129). When listening to his or her inner voice, the therapist becomes aware of any

thoughts, feelings, or sensations he or she is having in the present moment that are

associated with the client. Therapists must not be afraid to utilize this information for

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fear that it does not make sense or that it may appear to be unfounded. Listening to one’s

intuitive process is a skill the therapist must develop, and like any skill, it will improve as

more attention is placed on it (Satir et al., 1991). As it applies to the therapist’s role in

this theory, one of the functions of doing therapy is not only to have a therapy that is

theory driven, but also that the act of therapy generates theory and the therapist becomes

a container for the theory based upon the systemic interaction of the therapy itself.

Theory generates theory, which informs practice; therefore, it can be the occasion that the

theory-building can produce hypotheses that lend themselves to experimental work in an

experimental study.

Further Research

As it applies to this theory, further empirical research needs to be done that

incorporates the integrative theory presented in this dissertation along with experiential

testing. Qualitative interviews could be conducted to discern the effects on clients of

balancing the pairs of opposites when using the three-step process described in chapter 4.

This could be parlayed into a quantitative study using two groups, one that uses this

three-step process and one that engages in regular talk therapy.

In addition, there is relatively little research on the experience of self and the loss

of self. Since these experiences are so subjective, it would be beneficial to conduct

qualitative interviews, which could provide actual descriptions of the experience of self

and loss of self. These interviews could then be transcribed and coded for the presence of

polarities existing in the descriptions of self and loss of self.

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Abraham, K. (1997). Techniques of soul alignment: The rays, the subtle bodies and the

use of keywords. White City, OR: Lampus Press.

Assagioli, R. (n.d.). Meditation. Retrieved February, 12, 2007, from http://two.not2.org/psychosynthesis/articles/meditation.htm.

Assagioli, R. (n.d.). Talks on the self. Retrieved February, 12, 2007, from http://two.not2.org/psychosynthesis/articles/talksonself.pdf.

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