WARM-UP

•Draw each of the three models of the atom that we

learned about last unit.

•Who came up with each?

•What was wrong with each?

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UNIT 2 NOTES QUANTUM THEORY &

PERIODIC TABLES U B T I T L E

Q U A N T U M T H E O R Y

WHAT DO YOU SEE?

LIGHT

•Light is a particle AND a wave, at the same time

•Electromagnetic radiation – energy that exhibits

wavelike behavior as it travels through space.

–Visible light is only one example

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

PROPERTIES OF WAVES

•All light has a speed (c) of 3.0x108 m/s

•Wavelength (λ) – length of one complete wave

•Frequency (ν) – number of waves that pass a

point during a certain time period

–Hertz (Hz) = 1/s

•Amplitude (A) – distance from the origin to the

trough or crest

WAVES

PRACTICE

PRACTICE

•Looking at EM spectrum, which form of

radiation has the:

–Longest wavelength?

–Highest frequency?

–Highest energy?

PRACTICE

•Which form has the longer wavelength?

–Violet or green

–Blue or red

–Ultraviolet or infrared

–Ultraviolet or visible

–Infrared or visible

–Orange or yellow?

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

WAVE CALCULATIONS

c = λν

•c = speed of light (3.0 x 108m/s)

•λ = wavelength (m, nm, etc.)

•ν = frequency (Hz or /s or s-1)

WAVE CALCULATIONS

Microwaves are used to transmit information. What is the

wavelength of a microwave having a frequency of 3.44 x

109 Hz?

WAVE CALCULATIONS

What is the frequency of green light that has a wavelength

of 4.9 x 10-7 m?

WAVE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS

•How is frequency related to wavelength?

•How is frequency related to energy?

•How is wavelength related to energy?

QUANTUM THEORY

Max Planck (1900)

•Observed the emission of light from hot objects

•Photoelectric effect – the emission of electrons

from a metal when light shines on the metal

•Light has to have a minimum frequency in order

for the photoelectric effect to occur!

QUANTUM THEORYMax Planck (1900)

•He suggested that an object emits energy in small,

specific amounts, called quanta

•Quantum – the minimum quantity of energy

that can be lost or gained by an atom

QUANTUM THEORY

QUANTUM THEORYEinstein(1905)

•Light is a particle AND a wave!

–“wave-particle duality”

•Photon – particle of light having zero rest mass

and carrying a quantum of energy

WHAT DO YOU SEE?

MORE CALCULATIONS

Ephoton = hν

•E = energy (J, joules)

•h = Planck’s constant (6.6262 x 10-34 J· s)

•ν = frequency (Hz or /s or s-1)

WAVE CALCULATIONS

What is the energy of a photon from the violet portion of

the rainbow if it has a frequency of 7.23 x 1014 s-1?

BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

What was wrong with Rutherford’s model?

BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

Bohr accounted for that problem!

•Electrons exist only in orbits with specific amounts of

energy called energy levels

ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

Some definitions:

•Ground state: the lowest state or

energy of an atom

•Excited state: a state in which an

atom has a higher potential energy

than its ground state (this is when

an atom GAINS energy)

BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

•The smaller the electron’s orbit, the lower the atom’s

energy state

•Each orbit has a quantum number (n)

•When an electron moves to a HIGHER energy level

energy is put IN

•When an electron “drops” to a LOWER energy level, a

photon is EMITTED (light)

BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

•Each element has a unique bright-line emission spectrum

• Sad news? Bohr’s calculations only worked for hydrogen

MODERN QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM

•DeBroglie’s Hypothesis (1923):

–If waves can behave like particles, then maybe

particles (e-) can behave like waves. Wave-particle

duality

MODERN QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM

•Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927)

–It is impossible to know both the position and

velocity of an e- at the same time.

MODERN QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM

•Schrodinger’s Wave Equation (1926)

–Treat the electron as a wave

–He developed an equation used to determine the

probability of finding the e- in

any given place around the

nucleus.

–If these probabilities are

plotted in 3D, the probability

area becomes a cloud.

THE QUANTUM MODEL

THE QUANTUM MODEL

QUANTUM NUMBERS

•What are they?

–Values that represent different electron

energy states and the most probable

place to find an electron

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

•n

•Represents the cloud size (distance from the nucleus)

•Main energy level

•n≤7

•See row on the periodic table

•As n↑, size↑, Energy↑

SECOND QUANTUM NUMBER

•𝑙

•𝑙 = 0 → 𝑛 − 1

•Number of sublevels in a level = “n”

•Represents sublevels within an electron

cloud

•s,p,d,f (order of increasing energy)

ORBITALS

• s orbital

–Sphere

–𝑙 = 0

–One orientation

•p orbitals

–Peanut

–𝑙 = 1

–Three orientations

ORBITALS

•d orbitals

–𝑙 = 2

–Five orientations

• f orbitals

–𝑙 = 3

–Seven orientations

THIRD QUANTUM NUMBER

•𝑚𝑙

•𝑚𝑙 = +𝑙 → −𝑙

•Represents the orbitals within sublevels

•s 1 orbital 𝑚𝑙 = 0p 3 orbitals 𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, +1d 5 orbitals 𝑚𝑙 = −2,−1,0, +1,+2f 7 orbitals 𝑚𝑙 = −3,−2,−1,0, +1,+2,+3

FOURTH QUANTUM NUMBER

•𝑚𝑠 = ±1

2

•Only two electrons can occupy an orbital at

the same time

•Represents the spin of the electron (clockwise

or counterclockwise)

•Electrons in the orbital must have opposite

spin

Principal Energy

Level

Number of

Sublevels

Number of

Orbitals per

sublevel

Number of

Electrons per

Sublevel

Maximum

Number of

Electrons per

Energy Level

EXAMPLES

•Name the orbitals described by the following quantum

numbers

–𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 1

–𝑛 = 4, 𝑙 = 2

–𝑛 = 6, 𝑙 = 0

•Give the n and 𝑙 values for the following orbitals

–2p

–4f

WARM-UP

• What are the possible 𝑚𝑙values for 𝑙 = 2? Which type of

orbital is this?

• What are the four quantum numbers for the last electron

of potassium (K)?

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WHEN FIGURING OUT WHERE ELECTRONS GO IN AN ATOM, THE FOLLOWING RULES MUST BE FOLLOWED…

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

•No two e- in the same atom can have the same set of

four quantum numbers.

• If 2 electrons occupy the same orbital, they must have

opposite spin

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

• “building up”

•Electrons occupy lowest energy level available

•Begin with the 1s orbital

• Sublevels overlap beginning with 3d…

•How do you know the order of energy?

HUND’S RULE

• “fair share”

•Each orbital in a sublevel must have one electron before

any orbital in that sublevel receives a 2nd.

ORBITAL NOTATION

•Used to show exactly where all electrons are in an atom

•An orbital is represented by a circle, line, or box

•Up and down arrows represent electrons with opposite

spin

O

WARM-UP• List all the quantum numbers for n=1

•What about n=2

•Write out the electron configuration and orbital

notation for phosphorus

•What is the noble gas configuration for iodine?

QUANTUM NUMBERS

• If more help/clarification is needed

http://ed.ted.com/on/a7vrCy9f

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

•The numbers in front of the sublevel letters represent

the energy level

•The “exponents” refer to the number of electrons in that

sublevel.

•The sum of the exponents should equal the atomic

number of the element

VALENCE ELECTRONS

•Electrons found in the outermost energy level

•These electrons are involved in bonding

• Since the d and f orbitals have higher energy due to

overlap, s and p orbitals contain valence electrons

•Maximum and desired amount of valence e- is 8

–Except H, He, Li, and Be (only have 2)

LEWIS ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAM

•The dots around the element symbol represent only

valence electrons.

O

P E R I O D I C TA B L E

ELEMENT SUPERHERO PROJECT

Three Easy Steps.

1. Choose one element from the periodic table and

research it.

2. Create a super hero that represents that element and its

unique qualities.

3. Design a comic depicting your superhero and name.

4. Print out instructions and follow closely

5. Complete the required worksheet

DUE: Wednesday, September 21, 2016

LAVOISER (1790’S)

•Composed a list of known elements (23 elements)

–Including oxygen, carbon, gold and silver

NEWLANDS

•Organized elements by increasing atomic mass

•The law of octaves

MENDELEEV (1869)

•Organized the first periodic table

by increasing atomic mass

•Connection between atomic mass

and elemental properties

•Predicted properties of

undiscovered elements (like

scandium, gallium and germanium)• http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-genius-of-mendeleev-s-periodic-

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

MOSELEY•Henry Mosley- arranged the Periodic Table by

atomic number.

–Atomic number = number of Protons

•TODAY! The periodic table is still organized by

atomic number.

•Periodic Law: the statement that there is a

periodic repetition of chemical and physical

properties of elements when they are arranged by

increasing atomic number

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

•Groups

•Periods

•Valence Electrons

GROUPS

GROUPS

• Elements in the same groups have the same number of

VALENCE ELECTRONS!

• Valence electrons are the outer most electrons on an

atom. They control how the atoms attach to each other.

PERIODS

PERIOD

•All of the elements in a period have the same

number energy levels.

SECTIONS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE• Alkali metals

• Alkaline earth metals

• Transition metals

• Halogens

• Noble gases

• Lanthinides

• Actinides

• Metals

• Non-metals

• Metalloids

CREATE A PAPER SLIDE VIDEO• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qf6L1PTG3p4

• Each group (of approximately 4 people) will receive one of these

families (listed above) and create a presentation based on each

family. This presentation will then be presented to the class. Each

group will TEACH the class about their particular Periodic Table

Family.

• Each project will contain:

– 3 characteristics of the periodic family

– where they can be found on earth (if they are found on earth)

– how many valence electrons and/or what charge

– at least 2 ways the family is used by humans.

Number of Points Category

40 Completion

Did you turn in a completed project?

Did it include 3 characteristics, where they can be found, how

many valence electrons, and 2 ways it is used by humans?

20 Research

Did you provide hardcopies of research?

10 Complexity

How much effort (Thinking or Artistic) did you put into your

project?

10 Creativity

How creative is your idea?

How creative did you get with your project itself?

10 Presentation

Did you present your project?

Did you speak clearly, animatedly, and loudly?

10 Final Product

What does it look like?

How neat is it?

METALS

• Malleable

• Ductile

• Conduct electricity

• Lustrous

• Metallic bonding

ALKALI METAL – GROUP 1A

• Soft

• Most reactive metals

• Group 1

• One valence electron

• Forms ions with a +1 charge

• Reactive violently with water.

• Francium is even radioactive!

ALKALINE EARTH METALS – GROUP 2A

•Are very reactive.

•Density greater than group 1

•Hardness greater than group 1

• Less reactive than group 1

•Two valence electrons

• Forms ions with a +2 charge

•Used in fireworks, batteries, and

your body!

TRANSITION METALS – D BLOCK

• Form colored ions in solution.

–Copper is blue or green

•More than one charge.

–Copper can be +1 or +2

•Most widely used by Humans

• Iron, Nickel, Copper, Gold, etc.

LANTHANIDES

• Rare earth metals

• Similar to group 2 in characteristics

• Top row of F block

ACTINIDES

•Radioactive

•Bottom row of F block

METALLOIDS

• Exhibit characteristics from both metals and nonmetals.

• Semiconductors.

• Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, and

Tellurium

• On staircase (except Aluminum)!

INNER TRANSITION METALS

• Lanthanides and Actinides

• Located outside of the periodic table.

• Often used with light and film.

• Uranium is in this section

– Used for nuclear power.

HALOGENS – GROUP 7A

• Most reactive nonmetals

• Called salt formers

• Forms ions with a -1 charge

• 7 valence electrons

• Bromine and iodine are used in halogen headlights

• Halogens form salts when forming an ionic bond with a

metal.

NOBLE GASES – GROUP 18

•All of these elements are gases.

•Do NOT interact with other elements - Inert

•Why?

–Because they have a FULL valence/outer shell.

OTHER GROUPS

• Other groups in the table are named by the

element at the top of the table.

• Some group are mixed with metals and non-

metals.

• Which two groups are most mixed?

ATOMIC RADIUS

• Defined by how close one atom is to another

• Rule: Atomic radius increases as you go DOWN a group

and decreases as you go to the RIGHT along a period

• Why??

–Because as you go down a group you increase the number

of energy levels

–As you go across radius decreases because you are

increasing protons causing a greater pull on the electrons

ATOMIC RADIUS

ATOMIC RADIUS

•What has the largest atomic radius: carbon,

fluorine, beryllium or lithium?

•Which has the largest radius: Mg, Si, S, Na?

IONIC RADIUS

• When atoms LOSE electrons, they become smaller

• When atoms GAIN electrons, they become larger

• The rule: Increases as you go DOWN a group and

decreases as you go to the RIGHT along a period

• Cations < neutral atoms < anions

IONIC RADIUS

•Which substance is larger?

–Calium or calcide ion?

–Fluorine or fluoride ion?

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

•The ability of an atom to attract an electron.

• Fluorine has the highest electronegativity.

•The Rule: Decreases DOWN a group and increases

across the period.

•The noble gases have a electronegativity of zero.

Why?

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

•Rank the following elements by increasing

electronegativity: sulfur, oxygen, neon, and aluminum

IONIZATION ENERGY

• The energy it takes an atom to lose an electron.

• The alkali metals have a very low ionization energy,

because they want to lose an electron to have a full outer

shell.

• The halogens have a very high ionization energy.

• The noble gases have the highest (Helium the highest of all

of them) because they want to keep all of their electrons

so they keep their outer shell.

• **More valence electrons = higher ionization energy

IONIZATION ENERGY

REACTIVITY - METALS–The most reactive metal on the periodic table is Francium

–Metals want to give their electrons away

–The lower the ionization energy and the electronegativity,

the more reactive a metal is

REACTIVITY - NONMETALS–The most reactive metal on the periodic table is Fluorine

–Nonmetals want to gain electrons

–The higher the ionization energy and the electronegativity,

the more reactive a metal is