Year 11 REVISION

UNIT 2: HOSTILE WORLD: Living with Natural Hazards

EXAM DATE: Friday 24th January 2012

The revision list below outlines all the key geographical ideas you will need to know for your Hostile World Modular exam. It is essential that you learn all the case study detail and can quote from memory the key facts and details. The best way to do this is to revise the geographical ideas and case studies once and then a few days later revisit the same

knowledge and case studies again to test your knowledge.

There are three topics you need to learn!

1. Causes, effects and management of wildfires.2. Causes, effects and management of tectonic hazards (volcanoes and earthquakes)3. Causes, effects and management of tropical storms (hurricanes).

The Geography Department would like to wish you the best of luck in the exams!

DO NOT ANSWER THE SECTION ON “THE CHALLENGE OF EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS!” – YOU HAVE NOT STUDIED THIS!!!!!!

TOPIC ONE: Causes, effects and management of tectonic hazards (volcanoes and earthquakes)

KEY GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS

CASE STUDY I NEED TO KNOW

(Place names, strategies, dates and figures are all case study

detail)

Yes I have

revised this

once!

Yes..I have

revisited this

again!

What are the SEEP effects of tectonic

hazards?

SEEP = Social, environmental,

economic and political effects

(You may have done different case studies

eg, Monserrat and Mount St Helen’s etc – revise the ones you are

happy with!)

*What are the SEEP effects of tectonic hazards?*What are primary and secondary effects?

Kobe earthquake, Japan (MEDC)

Kashmir earthquake, Pakistan (LEDC)

Mount Etna, Italy (MEDC) Mt Pinatubo, Phillipines

(LEDC)*How and why do SEEP effects very with development?

Kobe Kashmir Mount Etna Mt Pinatubo

*How and why do SEEP effects very with development?

Kobe Kashmir Mount Etna Mt Pinatubo

What causes earthquakes and

volcanoes?

*Where do you find most earthquakes and volcanoes?

Know the pattern of earthquakes and volcanoes.

*How do plate boundaries explain the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes?

Know your plate boundary diagrams, examples and how they work.

o Constructive

o Destructiveo Collisiono Conservative

*What drives plate tectonics?*What is the structure of the earth?

Be able to label the different layers of the earth.

Know how convection cells work.

Why do people live near tectonic hazards?

*What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in areas at risk of earthquakes and volcanoes?

Los Angeles

*Why people choose to stay or are UNABLE to move away from an area at risk.

Mt Pinatubo

Can we reduce the effects of volcanic

effects of earthquakes and volcanoes?

Managing hazards

*What methods are used to reduce the impact of earthquakes?

Kobe Japan Before - Preparation and

planning. During – managing the

event. Managing the after effects

*What are the methods used to reduce the impact of volcanoes?

Mount Etna Before - Preparation and

planning. During – managing the

event. Managing the after effects

TOPIC TWO: Causes, effects and management of tropical storms (hurricanes).

KEY GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS

CASE STUDIES and KNOWLEDGE I NEED TO

KNOW

(Place names, strategies, dates and figures are all case study

detail)

Yes I have

revised this

once!

Yes..I have

revisited this

again!

What are the SEEP effects of tropical

storms?

SEEP = Social, environmental,

economic and political effects

*What are the SEEP effects of tropical storms?*What are primary and secondary effects?

Hurricane Katrina, USA (MEDC)

Cyclone Nargis, Myanmar (LEDC)

*How and why do SEEP effects very with development?

Hurricane Katrina, USA (MEDC)

Cyclone Nargis, Myanmar (LEDC)

*How and why do SEEP effects very with development?

Hurricane Katrina, USA (MEDC)

Cyclone Nargis, Myanmar (LEDC)

What causes of tropical storms?

*Where do you find most tropical storms?

Know the pattern of tropical storms on a map.

*How do tropical storms form? Be able to describe how tropical storms form.

Can we reduce the effects of Tropical

storms?

Managing tropical storms

*What methods are used to reduce the impact of tropical storms?

USA Before - Preparation and

planning. During – managing the

event. Managing the after effects

*How does the damage from tropical storms vary with development?

More tropical storms to come?

*Are the number and severity of tropical storms increasing?*Identify patterns in tropical storm data.*Why are patterns of tropical storm activity changing?*What impact will these changes have on people, economies and environments around the world?

TOPIC THREE: Causes, effects and management of wildfires.

KEY GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS

CASE STUDY I NEED TO KNOW

(Place names, strategies, dates and figures are all case study

detail)

Yes I have

revised this

once!

Yes..I have

revisited this

again!

What are the SEEP effects of wildfires?

SEEP = Social, environmental,

economic and political effects

*What are the SEEP effects of wildfires?*What are primary and secondary effects?

Australian wildfires 2009

What causes wildfires? *What are the natural causes of wildfires?*What are the human causes of wildfires?

Can we reduce the damage wildfires can

do?

Managing hazards

*What methods are used to reduce the impact of wildfires?

Australian wildfires 2009 Before - Preparation and

planning. During – managing the

event. Managing the after effects

More wildfires to come? *Are the number and severity of wildfires increasing?*Identify patterns in wildfire data.*Why are patterns of wildfire activity changing?*What impact will these changes

have on people, economies and environments around the world?

KEY TERMS:

Environmental effects – effects on nature and the landscape

Social effects – effects on people

Economic effects – effects on trade, money and business

Primary effects – effects resulting directly from the event itself.

Secondary effects – knock on effects. Those that result from primary effects.

Appropriate technology – technology designed with consideration of the community it is intended for.

Rural areas – Countryside areas – low population density

Urban areas – City areas – high population density

LEDC – less economically developed countries

MEDC – More economically developed countries

Preparedness – means being ready (emergency planning) e.g. evacuating people out of the danger zone around Mount Pinatubo

Mitigation – is reducing the impact e.g. having earthquake resistant building designs as in Kobe, Japan

TECTONIC HAZARDS

Tectonic plates – the earth’s surface is broken into large pieces. The large pieces are called plates.

Plate boundary (or plate margins) - where tectonic plates meet each other.

Continental crust – the part of the Earth’s crust that makes the continents; it’s between 25km and 100km thick. The thickest part of the continental crust is underneath the mountains.

Oceanic crust – part of the earth’s crust which is under the ocean; between 5km-10km thick, heavier and denser than the continental crust.

Mantle: The middle layer of the earth. It lies between the crust and the core and is about 2,900km thick.

Magma – Melted rock below the earth’s surface.

Core – middle layer of the earth. It is a solid, has a temperature of 5500°C and is made of iron and nickel.

Asthenosphere – Top part of the mantle.

Lithosphere - Uppermost layer of the Earth, the surface of which is called the crust, it is split up into plates

Convection currents – currents that transfer heat from one part of the mantle to the other. The earth’s core heats the mantle causing it to expand and rise. As the current rises through the mantle it cools and thickens. The currents which rise from the earth’s core are strong enough to move the tectonic plates on the earth’s surface.

Destructive plate boundary (margin) – where oceanic plate and continental plate meet. The oceanic plate is subducted (sinks down) below the continental plate and is destroyed. An example of this type of plate boundary is the ring of fire around the Pacific. Large, explosive volcanoes form on this plate boundary.

Constructive plate boundary (margin) – Plates that pull apart allowing hot rock to well up and create new crust.

Collision plate boundary (margin) – two continental crusts come together and collide. As continents move against each other such as the Indian continent running into the Eurasian continental plate mountain chains can be created e.g., the Himalayas.

Conservative plate boundary (margin) - plates slide by each other e.g. San Andreas Fault, USA.

Volcanic activity – the escape of molten rock, ash and gases from an opening in the earth’s surface.

Magnitude - measure of the strength of the earthquake or volcano. Richter scale also measures earthquake strength.

Pyroclastic flow - a mix of hot gas and ash surging rapidly away from the volcano during an explosive eruption

Lahar – water mixes with volcanic ash and flows rapidly downhill. Has the consistency of wet cement.

Firestorm – when buildings catch fire following an earthquake and as the hot air rises air is sucked in at ground level feeding the fire which spreads rapidly.

Earthquake – ground shaking caused by a release of energy. This can be caused when plates finally slip past each other or an explosive volcanic eruption occurs.

Tsunami (tidal wave) – a destructive sea wave caused by an earthquake or volcanic eruption.

Liquefaction - where water-saturated sediment temporarily loses its strength and acts as a liquid. Building can sink into the soil or start to lean because of this process.

Aftershocks – smaller earthquakes (tremors) that occur after the main earthquake.

Retrofitting – the addition of new earthquake resistant technology to older buildings.

Epicentre – the source of the earthquake.

Focus – the point on the earth’s surface directly above the earthquakes epicenter.

Building code – regulations which state how a building should be constructed in order for it to be safe.

Seismic activity – movements in the earths crust (earthquake waves).

Evacuation – movement of people away from area or danger.

Laser ranging – using laser beams and mirrors to detect small but significant changes in the earth’s surface. Useful in predicting a volcanic eruption.

TROPICAL STORMS:

Storm surges (or tidal surge) – abnormal rise of the sea along the shore as the result of a storm.

Tropical – situated in the area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn

Eye of the storm – the calm clear area at the centre of the tropical storm

Track – the path taken be a tropical storm.

Natural cycle – series of events in nature that are repeated over and over again.

Hurricane – are large areas of low pressure (sometimes called cyclones, typhoons and willie-willies)

WILDFIRES

Drought – a long period of low rainfall

Wildfire season – the period in the year where wildfires are most likely to occur

Wildfire intensity – the severity of the burning.

Exam Tips:

1. Answering the question.

“Using your own knowledge describe the effects of a volcanic eruption or earthquake”

Underline the key words and know what they mean!

Eg, Using own knowledge, describe, effects, volcanic eruption, earthquake.

2. Developing your point.

“Using your own knowledge describe the effects of a volcanic eruption or earthquake.”

3. How to get the best from sources.

o Read the sources CAREFULLY.o Look at all pictures and diagrams CAREFULLY.

4. Recognizing when to put in your own CASE STUDY KNOWLEDGE!

Instructions from examiner about what SKILL they want

you to use!

The GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION they want

you to use!

POINT:

A volcanic eruption has many different effects. The pyroclastic cloud burns at 2200◦C and destroys everything in its path.

DEVELOPMENT OF POINT:

The pyroclastic cloud destroyed 600km of land around Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991.

Further Development of POINT:

This put 600,000 people out of work and cost $1.5 Billion in property and economic damage.

o Where is says “using your own knowledge” you must put in a relevant case study.o If a question does not say “using your own knowledge” but you have information which is RELEVANT to that

question – USE IT!

Making the A/A* Grade Here are some tips as to how to access the highest grades – YOU have the ability, it is simply a matter of

technique.

BEFORE THE EXAM

Know the syllabus well – use the textbook to make a list of

what you should have covered in your lessons.

Know KEY geography words –

put together a GLOSSARY for

each topic

Practice past papers – use those given to you by your teacher – ask for feedback

as to how to improve

Mark a friend’s exam question and get them to mark

your effort and share feedback

CASE STUDIES – have a range of case studies for

each topic and LEARN them – including facts and

figures

Highlight the KEY words in the question – e.g.

EXPLAIN, GIVE EXAMPLES

Highlight the KEY words in the question – e.g.

EXPLAIN, GIVE EXAMPLES

Use your own knowledge in ANY response – even if it does not state that you have to do so.

DURING THE EXAM

PART 1: TECTONIC HAZARDS: EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

Structure of the earth

Use the resources given if it refers to them and asks you to – quote figures and units e.g. 10

km.

Read through the whole section of the paper quickly before you start – make a note of the MARK ALLOCATION for

each question. Provide at least as many points as there are marks – or

develop your answers in detail.

Stick to the KEY QUESTION – do not describe if it asks you to explain. If necessary – plan your answer, especially the longer ones.

FINALLY – answer the right section, keep an eye on the time

and GOOD LUCK – YOU can do this!!

Tectonic plates:

The pattern and distribution of volcanoes

TOP TIPS: PRACTICE

LABELLING THE STRUCTURE OF THE

EARTH.

Top Tip:

Know an example of each of the pate boundaries and be able to identify them on the map.

Top Tip:

Be able to explain why volcanoes form in specific areas. Be able to link them to destructive plate boundaries.

The pattern and distribution of earthquakes:

TOP TIP: To describe pattern use the OSO rule!

Obvious description: Most volcanoes and earthquakes can be found along the plate boundaries (margins).

Odd description: There are ‘Hot spot’ volcanoes found in the middle of Plates. For example Hawaii on the Pacific plate. This does not fit the overall pattern.

Specific Description: One of the largest areas of volcanic activity is found around the North Pacific Plate. This is a destructive plate boundary and is called the ‘ring of fire’.

Practice questions:

1. Describe the pattern of earthquakes.a. Obvious………………………………………………..b. Specific………………………………………………..c. Odd…………………………………………………….

2. Describe the pattern of volcanoes.a. Obvious………………………………………………..b. Specific………………………………………………..c. Odd…………………………………………………….

TOP TIPS:

PRACTICE DRAWING AND EXPAINING HOW EACH

PLATE BOUNDRY WORKS.

Top Tip:

Be able to explain why earthquakes form in specific areas. Be able to link them to types of plate boundaries.

There are four different types of plate boundary:

1. Destructive plate boundary

A continental plate and an oceanic plate are pushed together by the convection cells in the Mantle. The oceanic crust sinks down beneath the continental crust because it is denser (heavier) than the continental plate; this creates a subduction zone. As the oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate friction is created as the two plates move past each other. This creates earthquakes (blue dots). The earthquake zone is called the ‘Benioff zone’. As the oceanic plate sinks deeper into the mantle it starts to melt creating magma (hot liquid rock). The hot magma rise through the continental crust and if it reaches the surface a volcano is formed. If the magma cools before reaching the surface it creates plutons.

Example: Eurasian plate meeting the Pacific plate – the Ring of fire.

2. Constructive Plate Boundary

Oceanic crust is pushed apart by convection currents in the mantle. As the Oceanic crust separates; magma from the mantle is sucked up into the gap and cools creating new land. A good example of this type of plate boundary is found in the Atlantic Ocean – the Mid Atlantic Ridge. This process caused Africa to ‘drift’ away from South America.

3. Conservative Plate Boundary

Two continental plates move laterally (sideways) past each other. Sometimes they move in opposite directions or the can move in the same direction (though one plate moves more quickly than the other. As the plates move past each other it creates friction. This creates large

earthquakes. A good example of this type of plate boundary is the North American plate moving past the Pacific plate. The San Andreas fault is one of

the most famous conservative plate boundaries in the world.

Collision Plate Boundary

Two continental plates collide as convection cells in the mantle push them together. As neither plate can sink down beneath the other the rock is pushed up and forms mountains. Collision plate boundaries are often struck by large earthquakes. A really good example of a collision plate boundary is the Indo-Australian plate colliding with the Eurasian plate. This created the Himalayan Mountains.

Why do plates move?

The theory is that the plates-driving force is the slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid crustal plates. The Core heats the mantle near it and causes it to expand and rise. As the hot magma rises through the mantle it cools and eventually reaches the asthenosphere/crust where it sticks to the underside of the crust. It is then pushed in a circular motion by hot magma rising from the crust – dragging the crust in the same direction (a bit like a conveyor belt).

Features of Tectonic Hazards:

Volcanic Eruptions Earthquake

Blast

Lava flow

Pyroclastic flow

Ash fall

Ground shaking and earthquakes

Day turns to night

Lightning storms created within the ash clod

Lahar

Ground shaking

Liquefaction

Tsunami

Landslides

Why do people live in volcanic areas?

Why do people live in hazardous areas?

People believe science and technology will make life safer from them (volcanic eruptions can be predicted by science allowing people to evacuate) also some volcanic eruptions (like Etna) can be managed to reduce damage.

Geothermal energy

Steam from water heated by hot rocks below the surface drives turbines to generate electricity. Geothermal energy produces 70% of Iceland’s electricity.

Mineral extraction

Many valuable minerals from volcanic activity for example, gold, lead, tin, silver, gemstones.

Fertile soils

Volcanic rocks and ash break down to form fertile and productive farmland

Raw materials

Volcanic rock creates raw materials for many industries. For example building materials for roads and buildings

Tourism

Volcanic landscapes are attractive and they attract many people. Geysers like Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park are major tourist attractions.

Top Tip:

Make sure you can define these words and you

know what they mean!

Opportunities like well paid jobs, great life styles, good climates make people take the risks. Technology like earthquake resistant buildings and excellent disaster emergency plans make people take the

risk. People have no choice: they simply cannot afford to move away. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes do not happen all the time. A volcano might erupt in a 500 year pattern. So

‘it won’t happen in my lifetime’ might influence if a person decides to live near a volcano.

Effects of Tectonic hazards: Case Studies

Volcanic Eruptions:

Mount Etna, Sicily Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

June 1991

Type of volcano

Eruption History

Composite

Erupts fairly frequently 6 time in the last century and 5 times so far in the last decade

Composite

Had not erupted for over 600 years

Type of eruption

Explosive – Lava flowing from the crater at temperatures up to 1000ºC – relatively cool lava and numerous openings (vents)

VEI 6 – Very explosive eruption. Pyroclastic flows 100m thick flowed at 100km/hr or more down all sides of the mountain reaching as far as 16km away. Lahars and ash fell over a 600km radius.

Deaths none 6 directly from eruption

800+ indirect (secondary deaths) through ash fall and disease in refugee camps

Cost Damage to infrastructure and roads. Cost $1.5 billion in property and economic damage.

Management Evacuation

Diverting lava flow down newly dug channel away from settlements

Evacuation of wide area around volcano before the eruption.

Refugee camps set up for displaced people

Homeless few – although a ski lodge and hotel have been destroyed by lava flows in the 1990’s

200,000 mainly from lahars

More effects Mount Etna is a big tourist attraction and ashtrays are made in a press using molten lava.

600,000 lost their jobs

Occasionally ash falls may reach major cities like Catalonia and disrupt air traffic.

Mudslides covered 50,000ha of crops

Power supplies were cut off for 3 weeks and water supplies became contaminated

TOP TIPS:

CATEGORISE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

EFFECTS

TOP TIPS: REVISE 2 SOCIAL, 2 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONEMNTAL EFFECTS FROM EACH CASE

STUDY.

TOP TIPS:

CATEGORISE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS

EFFECTS

TOP TIPS: REVISE 2 SOCIAL, 2 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONEMNTAL EFFECTS FROM EACH CASE

STUDY.

Earthquakes:

Kobe, Japan: Jan 1995 Kashmir, Pakistan/India : Oct 2006

Magnitude 7.2 Richter scale 7.6 Richter scale

Time of day 5.46am 8.52am

Deaths 6,300 79,000 - Pakistan

1,400 – Indian occupied Kashmir

Injured 35,000 In excess of 100.000 Many in isolated rural (countryside) villages

Homeless 300,000 – 20% of the city’s population 3.5 million

Damage US$99.3bn damage, reconstruction put at $120bn

103,500 buildings destroyed

Over US$ 5bn

More than 6,000 school and colleges destroyed in earthquake

More effects 20,000 people lost their jobs, many businesses moved away, many companies no plans to return to Kobe

Mountainous, inaccessible, war torn region of Pakistan with few roads to access the many isolated villages, Many roads destroyed by landslides. It meant many had to make their own way down the mountains to get help as there was no way emergency services could reach them. Few helicopters available and they could not fly in bad weather.

Most post 1970 earthquake proof designed buildings and infrastructure worked well and did not collapse. The main damage was the older residential areas with wooden houses and heavy tiled roofs, and the port was badly damaged.

Poorly built adobe houses in rural villages and in the city of Muzzaffarabad collapsed in the earthquake. There were few earthquake proof buildings in the city. It was a school day and many children died when poorly built schools collapsed.

Japan has an earthquake training day on the 1st Sept every year, to educate the population on what to do in the event of an earthquake.

60% of people were rescued by their neighbours.

The relief agencies failed to raise the US$550M needed to cope with the disaster

Three factors that affect how serious a disaster is

• Rural/urban – rural areas have fewer people and buildings so the size of the disaster is smaller (but it may take longer for help to reach the region if road/rail is damaged or it is a long way from major cities and rescue teams/equipment)

• Population density – the more people, the more deaths.• How prepared countries are – depends on how developed it is. LEDCs have less time, money and expertise to

prepare for hazards; communication is poor and emergency services are not usually ready. Also returning to normal after the disaster takes much longer. MEDCs are better prepared as they have more time, money and

knowledge to develop buildings that are earthquake proof and have prepared emergency services for disasters, but they still can’t stop the hazard happening.

When considering human response to tectonic hazards you need to identify how they are managed before, during and after the event.

Preparedness – means being ready (emergency planning) e.g. evacuating people out of the danger zone around Mount Pinatubo

Mitigation – is reducing the impact e.g. having earthquake resistant building designs as in Kobe, Japan

Evaluating the human response to a tectonic Hazards: Example…….Kashmir earthquake:

Response Positive Negative Local people dug people out with their bare hands

Community helped each other People are not trained rescuers. They could have caused more injuries to people or caused buildings to collapse further.

Army were air lifted in to help Army could help rescue people/recover bodies.

Army could not help all villages affected. Army was concentrated in large urban areas. Villages in the mountains did not receive help until much later.

Non Government Organisations (NGO’s):

Oxfam, Unicef, International Red Cross all work in Kashmir to help the victims of the disaster.

Medical supplies, shelter, water and rescue workers all try to help people affected by the earthquake.

So many people affected charities are spread too thin. Urban areas receive the most help as they cannot get help to the villages easily due to cut off roads (landslides). Tents first sent in by the charities are too thin to withstand the harsh winters.

Foreign Government aid:

UK, Malaysia, Switzerland all gave money, resources (army help) and aid to Kashmir.

Money is used to help the people of Kashmir. Used to buy medicines, shelter and rebuild.

Corruption means some money never gets to those who need it. Money is spent on urban populations first. Rural villages are left to fend for themselves.

Communication President asks people to come down from the mountains in a radio interview. This shows they are aware that villages in the mountains are in trouble.

People in rural mountainous areas cannot easily get to the cities due to roads being blocked by landslides. Also did they even get the message?

Rebuilding homes Pakistani government distributed $44M to 379,000 people to rebuild homes.

3.2 million people are still homeless. This is just not enough money to help everyone! Rebuilding programmes are mainly located in the cities.

How can damage from earthquakes be reduced?

Earthquakes cannot be predicted. We know where they are likely to happen but not when. So the only way earthquake damage can be reduced is by being prepared.

What is earthquake preparedness?

Educating people so they know what to do during an earthquake. In Japan they have a ‘Disaster prevention day’ every September the 1st. People are reminded what to do in the event of an earthquake and Tsunami. The local schools teach children what to do and emergency services and local governments do ‘disaster drills’ to train

their people to ensure they are ready to deal with a disaster. In the USA April is ‘earthquake preparedness’ month. People are encouraged to :

Prepare their homes – secure all large, heavy pieces of furniture to the wall. Create a disaster plan – make sure all the family know what to do in an earthquake. Make a safe place

in each room and have an earthquake kit ready should you have to leave quickly. Practice your earthquake drill – practice getting into safe places in each room regularly. After the shaking stops – check for injuries. Use your earthquake kit to deal with non serious injuries.

Listen to the radio for instructions. Building earthquake resistant buildings – MEDC countries have strict building laws and have developed

technology to create earthquake resistant buildings. They use strong and suitable building materials and buildings are checked to ensure they adhere to the building codes.

Earthquake resistant buildings key features are: Computer controlled moveable roof weights to counter the shock

waves and reduce stress on the buildings. Cross bracing adds strength to the walls and building. This prevents

twisting when shaking occurs. Automatic window shutters to prevent glass falling. Core inside building is built of reinforced concrete – stabilising and

strengthening the building. Automatic sprinkler system –prevents fires. Automatic gas shut off to prevent fires. Foundations set deep into ground Building sits on giant Rubber shock absorbers – helps to counter-act and

dampen vibrations. Base isolator allows some sideways movement – reduced the impact of

shaking. Retro fitting – this is the process of fitting earthquake resistant technology to older buildings. Appropriate technology – in LEDC’s building laws are often ineffective and people cannot afford MEDC

style earthquake resistant technology. In Gujarat (India) much cheaper earthquake resistant designed houses are being built. These use recycled materials.

Science is working to try and predict earthquakes - Research and development is happening around the world to try and find a way to predict earthquakes. So far ‘earthquake shaking maps’ have been created to help show which areas are most at risk. Also ‘stress maps’ show areas of the earth’s crust under the most pressure.

How can volcanoes be managed?

Volcanic eruptions can be predicted, but volcanic eruptions cannot be stopped.

Signs that a volcanic eruption is imminent: Technology that can be used to pick up the signs that a volcanic eruption is coming:

Small earthquakes happen. They become more frequent as volcanic eruption becomes more likely. The earthquakes move towards the surface showing hot magma is rising up underneath the volcano.

Seismometer picks up size and location of earthquake. This can be mapped and shows rate magma is rising through the crust.

Steam starts to rise from the crater. Volume of steam being released increases or changes colour.

Radon gas collectors – trap and monitor gases escaping from the volcano. The higher the concentration of radon gas the more likely an eruption is to occur.

Sides of volcano bulge – landscape changes, surface cracks appear as volcano expands.

Tilt meters show if the landscape is changing. It measures the angle of the slope of a volcano. Satellite images and laser ranging can also detect changes in the volcano.

How can volcanoes be managed?

Action undertaken in an MEDC country: BEFORE Volcano is monitored for signs of eruption.

Volcano risk maps produced – which are the places most likely to be the highest risk. Area around volcano is evacuated prior to the eruption. Disaster emergency plans updated and practised by local government Volcano drills and training happens educating local people so they know what to do in an emergency.

DURING Restricted access to the volcano. Disaster emergency plans activated – steps taken to manage volcanic eruption and minimise damage. Updates are given over the radio.

AFTER Disaster emergency plans carried out to reduce impact of volcano - cleanup operation starts. Disaster emergency plan evaluated and improved ready for next time.

MOUNT ETNA, Sicily, MEDC CASE STUDY: 1992 eruption

Action taken:Before Mount Etna is under 24hr monitoring by the GNV. It uses a range of technology to monitor the volcano.

As soon as serious volcanic activity is detected emergency plans are put in place. The GNV uses volcanic risk maps to decide which communities are most at risk- in this case the town of

Zafferena Etna.. Army, Police, fire service and GNV officials warn communities at risk. They are to prepare to evacuate. GNV officials order evacuations when necessary. Police and the army help people at risk to evacuate

and also control access to the volcano by monitoring and closing roads. Temporary buildings are removed from the areas at risk. Lava diversion walls are built around large buildings. These encourage lava to flow around building and

protect it from damage. GNV are consulted when new houses are built. They have to approve buildings and their locations.

During The GNV coordinate the management of the lava. They use:o Bulldozers to create rock/earth walls that help divert lava away from highly populated areas. In

the case of Zafferena Etna a rock barrier 160m long and 20m high was built to protect the town. Sadly this was unsuccessful and the lava toppled over the barrier and continued to threaten the town.

o Planes and helicopters to drop water and ‘delaying liquid’ which helps reduce the likelihood of fires in the area.

o Explosives and dynamite have been used to divert lava flows to less valuable areas of land. Explosives were used near the source of the lava flow, to disrupt a very efficient lava tube system through which the lava traveled for up to 7 km without losing heat and fluidity. The main explosion on 23 May 1992 destroyed the lava tube and forced the lava into a new artificial channel, far from Zafferana. Shortly after the blasting, the rate of lava emission dropped and during the remainder of the eruption (until 30 March 1993) the lava never advanced close to the town again.

o The 1991–1993 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a few hundred metres from the town's edge.

After GNV decide when area is safe. Communities are allowed to return. Repairs are made to damaged infrastructure (roads and buildings). GNV officials update volcano risk map and evaluate their response so improvements can be made ready

for next time.

What is volcano preparedness?

Educating people so they know what to do during a volcanic eruption. The local schools teach children what to do and emergency services and local governments do ‘disaster drills’ to train their people to ensure they are ready to deal with a disaster. People are encouraged to :

Prepare their homes – secure all precious and essential possessions so they are ready to evacuate quickly.

Create a disaster plan – make sure all the family know what to do during an evacuation (volcanic activity).

Practice your evacuation/volcanic eruption drill – practice evacuation procedure and check supplies regularly

After the eruption stops – check for injuries. Use your disaster kit to deal with non serious injuries. Listen to the radio for instructions.

Building volcano resistant buildings – MEDC countries have strict building laws and have developed technology to create volcano resistant buildings. They use strong and suitable building materials and buildings are checked to ensure they adhere to the building codes.

Volcano resistant buildings key features are: Built on strong and high concrete foundations. Gas ‘shut off valves’ outside the buildings reduce likelihood of explosions within the building. Lava diversion walls are built around the buildings – diverting lava around the building. Sloping roofs made of metal are encouraged – this allows ash to fall off the roof more easily and

reduces the likelihood of collapse. Houses are built on high areas of land, so on sides of hills not in valleys. Lava will run to the

lowest point and collect in the valleys. Therefore valleys are high risk areas for lava flows and lahars (volcanic mudflows).

PART 2 : TROPICAL STORMS

Where would you find tropical storms?

Tropical storms form in areas where the sea temperature is over 27°C. Most form in between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. Hurricanes formed in the northern hemisphere spin clockwise whereas hurricanes formed in the southern hemisphere spin anti-clockwise . This is because of the Coriolis effect.

How are hurricanes measured?

The strength of hurricanes is measured using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Wind speeds have to be higher than 74mph for winds to be classed as ‘hurricane strength winds’.

What does a tropical storm need to form?

The most intense tropical

storms (hurricane

category 3 or above) are

found in three main

areas:

1. Western Pacific

(around Japan and

Indonesia)

2. Eastern Pacific

3. Carribean Sea

Essential ingredients to make a tropical storm:

1. Water over 27°C.

2. Heat from the sun causing rapid evaporation

3. Spinning of the earth to create concentrated clouds.

Stage 4: the winds of the upper atmosphere push away the clouds at the top of the hurricane – creating a low pressure area. Again this causes a vacuum and more moist air is sucked into the hurricane. The faster this process happens the more severe the wind speed and the worse the hurricane becomes.

Stage 3: as the thunderstorms rise higher and higher they cool and release their energy. This loss of energy creates a vacuum and moist air from the sea is sucked into the hurricane creating new thunderstorms. As this happens wind speeds increase and the hurricane gets more powerful.

Stage 2: the thunderstorms combine together as the earth spins. Moist air continues to evaporate from the oceans causing the thunderstorms to rise and intensify in strength as the clouds cool in the upper atmosphere. The thunderstorms

spin around a central clear patch called the eye.

Stage 1: rapid evaporation of water from the oceans create large amounts of moist air. As the air rises through the atmosphere it cools quickly creating thunderstorms.

What are the key features of tropical storms?

Key feature: Hazards created:High winds Gusts and gales cause devastation.Storm Surges Storm surges cause sea water to invade the land.

This can cause large scale coastal flooding.

Precipitation Large amounts of precipitation are released by a hurricane. This can cause large scale flooding.

What are the effects of tropical storms?

Cyclone Nargis, Burma (Myanmar) (LEDC) Hurricane Katrina, USA (MEDC)

Date Formed: April 27th 2008

Landfall in Burma: 2nd May 2008

Formed: August 23, 2005

Landfall: 29th August 2005

Category of storm

130 mph (category 3 hurricane)

Gusts as high as 130-160mph (category 4 hurricane)

175mph (category 5 hurricane)

Areas affected

Bangladesh, Myanmar, India, Sri Lanka

2.4 million people affected

Bahamas, Cuba, South coast of USA

Death 138,000 deaths (though it is unsure if this is a realistic figure). Most deaths occurred in the Irrawaddy river delta region (killed by 12ft high storm surge)

55,000 missing

1,836 people were killed

Damage

*US$10 billion

*95% of homes in the city of Bogalay were destroyed.

*Power and clean water supplies interrupted in large cities like Yangon

*US$300 billion

*80% of New Orleans was flooded (upto 6m high)

*Three million people were left without electricity for a week.

Relief/Aid

Relief efforts were slowed for political reasons as Burma's military rulers initially resisted large-scale international aid. U.S. President George W. Bush said that an angry world should condemn the way Burma's military rulers were handling the aftermath of such a catastrophic cyclone.]Burma's military junta finally accepted aid a few days after India's request was accepted.

Corruption: Some donated aid items were found to be available in the country's black market, and Myanmar's junta warned on May 15 that legal action would be taken against people who traded or hoarded international aid.

34 countries have pledged aid totaling US$30million.

*US$50billion of aid was given to New Orleans by the Government to help it recover.

*The UK government sent food aid to help.

Effects

*Millions of people at risk from Cholera, dengue fever and malaria.

*millions of people homeless

*dead bodies polluting water supplies

*crops and livestock destroyed – food insecurity created.

*Criminal gangs roamed the streets, looting homes and businesses.

*one million people were made homeless

*cotton and sugar cane crops were flattened.

*Tourism was badly affected.

*major roads and bridges were damaged/destroyed

TOP TIPS:CATEGORISE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

EFFECTS

TOP TIPS: REVISE 2 SOCIAL, 2 ECONOMIC AND

ENVIRONEMNTAL EFFECTS FROM

*Many people left New Orleans and have never returned.

How can we reduce the impact of hurricanes?

In order to reduce the damage from hurricanes most people are advised to follow these three steps:

FORECAST PREPARE ACT

FORECAST:

Science and weather monitoring allows us to track and monitor hurricanes. The National Hurricane Centre predicts the likely track of a hurricane (though this is just a best guess as hurricanes are very unpredictable). The white area shows the likely area that could be affected. People can track the hurricane on the web and can prepare for the hurricane (2-5 day warning)

Check out http://www.katrina.noaa.gov/forecast/forecast.html for more information

PREPARE:

EDUCATION: o In the USA April is ‘Hurricane Preparedness’ month. Schools teach students what to do to prepare

for a hurricane. Leaflets like the one below are distributed. Families are encouraged to draw up a disaster plan and to practice it regularly. Families are encouraged to have a disaster kit packed and ready should they have to

evacuate quickly.o Buildings are prepared:

Windows boarded up. Gas, water and electricity are turned off

o Buildings are being built using appropriate technology: USA

Building codes make sure buildings built to standard using high quality materials Windproof tiles are used in high risk areas In storm surge areas buildings are designed so the first floor walls wash out but top

floor remains supported. Buildings are on stilts above maximum storm surge level. ACT:

o Evacuation and disaster plans are put into action. This reduces damage and loss of life.

Hurricane Preparedness Poster:

More hurricanes to come?

There is global disagreement as to whether or not the number and severity of tropical storms is changing.

Many people believe that climate change is increasing the number of tropical storms.

Other people say there are the same amount of tropical storms but they are becoming more severe.

The graph shows the records of hurricanes in the Atlantic. Hurricanes have only been recorded since the 1960’s. This graph shows that some hurricanes are below average and some are above average. Since 1995 there seem to be more above average hurricanes.

Divided Opinions:

Some scientists say that climate change is increasing the number and the severity of tropical storms. Other scientists say that the number of tropical storms have stayed the same they have just got more

severe. Some scientists say that the number of tropical storms will decrease in the future. Other scientists say that we have only been monitoring tropical storms for 50 years – so it is too early to

say if this is a natural increase in tropical storms or if it is influenced by man and climate change. There is not enough data and evidence to say one way or the other.

Are tropical storms becoming more destructive?

Costs of hurricanes are increasing as more people live in areas affected by them. People prefer to live near the coast and as such live in high risk areas. Property around the coastline is valuable and insurance claims will increase the economic damage cause by

hurricanes.

PART 3 : WILDFIRES

Where would you find wildfires?

What are the causes of wildfires?

Natural causes of wildfires Human causes of wildfires

23% of wildfires in Australia are caused by lightning.

Volcanic eruptions emit hot lava and ash. This can cause fires.

Spontaneous heating – material gets heated naturally to the point it spontaneously catches fire. Compost heaps in dry climates are a particular risk.

Prolonged dry climates increase the risk of fires. Vegetation dries out and has more chance of catching fire!

Areas in drought conditions are particularly vulnerable to wildfires.

Wind speed and direction can increase the intensity of fires. The Santa Ana winds in California increase the risk of severe fires in the area. For example, high winds can blow down electricity cables creating a fire risk.

Fires spread more quickly on steep slopes as the fire comes into contact with more vegetation.

13% of wildfires in Australia are caused by poor management to BBQ’s and camp fires.

37% of wildfires in Australia are caused deliberately by arsonists

1% of wildfires in Australia are caused by trains or machinery (sparks)

10% of wildfires in Australia are started due to farming processes (clearing the land using slash and burn techniques which get out of control)

Accidents are to blame for starting wildfires eg, playing with matches.

Discarding lit cigarettes also increases risk of fires.

Litter (broken glass and metals) magnify the suns heat and transmit them to the vegetation – this regularly starts fires.

Black Saturday – Australian Wildfire Case Study

Key questions:

What caused Black Saturday? What were the effects of Black Saturday? How can wildfires be managed to reduce their impact?

Why are wildfires

increasing around the

world?

Read through the story. Create a key and highlight/annotate the story to show:

Human and natural causes of the wildfires Underline case study information (facts figures, dates, names, places) Social, environmental, economic and political effects What were the PRIMARY and SECONDARY effects? How wildfires are managed – before, during and after the event.

The date is the 7th of February 2009. This date is now forever called ‘Black Saturday’ by the people of Victoria in Australia. It is called Black Saturday as on this day there were 100 different wildfires (bush fires). The fire fighters in the region struggled to cope with the number of fires and the intensity of the blaze. There were several reasons the fires started. A 39 year old man is been jailed for arson after admitting he started two of the fires. He will now serve 25 years in jail and has been labelled a ‘mass murderer’ by the Australian Prime Minister. Also, February is in the Australian hot season and this year had been particularly dry. Drought conditions and higher than normal temperatures dried out vegetation which resulted in fires starting naturally in 98 different locations. The hilly area around Victoria meant the fires spread quickly. The effects of the wildfires have been disastrous. Over 180 people were killed over the weekend and 7,500 people were made homeless by the fires. 3,500 homes have been destroyed. In the town of Maryville 80% of the buildings were destroyed and 15 people died. The wildlife living in the Eucalyptus forests has been decimated and animal shelters are overwhelmed by animals who need treatment for burns. Sam the Koala became a icon of hope as she survived the fires. The wildfires have been called the ‘worst in Australian history’ and every year on the 7th of February there is a memorial for the 180 people killed and the fire fighter who lost his life trying to save others. After the fires Australians raised £10million pounds to help people in the area recover from the bush fires. More than 150 sports stars, actors, politicians and musicians took part in a telethon to raise money for the people affected by bush fires.

How does Australia manage bush fires?

The Australian Department for the Environment and Conservation (DEC) manages wildfires by:Before the event During the event After the event

Fire Prevention: uses activities to educate and train people about how to reduce the likelihood of wildfires.

*The DEC will train people how to manage wildfires and prepare their home through advertisements on the TV.

*The DEC has a dedicated telephone to report wildfires on. It is a free service and you dial “000” from any phone.

*The DEC will evaluate the response made and will look to improve how it deals with wildfires next time.

Spotting fires: during the hot season the DEC encourages all light aircraft to report fires and their locations. It also has built tall towers which can be used to spot wildfires.

*the DEC uses “dromeda” planes to drop water on the fires to try and slow them down and stop their progress.

Manage the land: *they use bulldozers to create large fire breaks. *they clear areas at high risk of sparks eg, around telegraph poles, near machinery or train lines.

*The DEC has dedicated water tankers that are ready to move to any location.

*The DEC will maintain and repair machinery and continue to manage high risk areas.

Communication: the DEC will send radio messages and inform people who may need to evacuate.

Communication: the DEC will send radio messages to inform people what is happening and if it is safe to return home.

Communication: the DEC will send radio messages to inform people what is happening and if it is safe to return home.

Keeping your home safe in wildfire season!

1. MOST IMPORTANT – if it is a serious and intense fire leave

immediately – do not try to fight the flames! Listen to the radio

for instructions about where to go!

2. Prepare a fire evacuation kit in your car/home – plenty of

water, blankets, food and medicine.

3. Keep the lawn cut and bushes and shrubs well watered. Trim off

any dead branches and leaves.

4. Keep compost bins away from the house.

5. Have a fire break around your house (eg, a gravel area which

can not burn!)

6. Wet the area/house using hoses – this will help stop sparks to

take hold.

7. Keep beaters (Pulaski) close to hand. Beat out any sparks that

you see.

8. Close the curtains – should the glass shatter it will not harm

you.

9. Wear fire resistant clothing. In case of emergency cover

yourself and blankets in water and lie down on the floor.

Poster showing what to do in the event of a wildfire

Australian DEC Educational Poster.

More wildfires to come?

It is not known whether significant changes to wildfire patterns are changing. Long term global records on wildfire do not exist. We only have records from 1960 to analyse.

Scientists have identified evidence that wildfire patterns are changing. For example:

*Becoming more intense – the average sizes of wildfires and the areas they destroyed have been steadily increasing between 1960 to 2005 in the USA.

*The wildfire season has increased by 78 days compared to 1970 data in the USA.

*Costs of dealing with wildfires are increasing.

Buildings in MEDC countries are insured. Damage caused by wildfires caused people to claim on their insurance thus driving up premiums.

Higher populations in high

risk areas means the

government has to pay for

more fire-fighters and

management of land in

that area (fire prevention).

Climate change and changes in weather pattern are also being blamed for the increasing severity and number of wildfires. Scientists cannot agree if this is true as we have not had wildfire data for a long enough time to prove that climate change is to blame.

Costs of wildfires are going up because people are choosing to live in ‘at

risk’ areas.