Water for the Future: Challenges and Potential Solutions

8/14/2019 Water for the Future: Challenges and Potential Solutions

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WATER FOR THE FUTURE:

CHALLENGES AND POTENTIALSOLUTIONS

NAME : MOHD HAAZIQ B. MOHD ZAHAR

UNIVERSITY : UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

YEAR OF STUDY : THIRD YEAR

PHONE NUMBER : +60177353696

I/C NUMBER : 871111-23-5093

EMAIL : [email protected]
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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ABSTRACT

Earth is rich with its diversities and abundance of life forms; including more than six billion

people. However since the beginning of the twenty-first century, Earth is facing a serious water

crisis. Water is essential to all known forms of life. There is no physical shortage of water on

Earth, but most of the resource is saline and, therefore, non-potable without a proper water

treatment. The availability and access to freshwater water varies dramatically with geography

and many regions already face severe scarcity. An increasing global population, climate change

and pollution will only exacerbate this situation. All the signs suggest that it is getting worse

and will continue to do so, unless corrective action is taken.


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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The long-term sustainability of water is in doubt in many regions of the world [1]. Currently,

humans use about half the water that is readily available. Water use has been growing at more

than twice the population rate, and a number of regions are already chronically short of water.

Both water quantity and water quality are becoming dominant issues in many countries.

Problems relate to poor water allocation and pricing, inefficient use, and lack of adequate

integrated management.

The major withdrawals of water are for agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption [2].

Most of the water used by industries and municipalities is often returned to water courses

degraded in quality. Irrigation agriculture, responsible for nearly 40% of world food production,

uses about 70% of total water withdrawals (90% in the dry tropics) [3]. Groundwater, which

supplies one third of the worlds population, is increasingly being used for irrigation. Water

tables are being lowered in many areas making it more expensive to access.

There are great differences in water availability from region to region - from the extremes of

deserts to tropical forests. In addition there is variability of supply through time as a result both

of seasonal variation and inter-annual variation. All too often the magnitude of variability and

the timing and duration of periods of high and low supply are not predictable; this equates tounreliability of the resource which poses great challenges to water managers in particular and

to societies as a whole. From the report done by United Nation, 2.5 billion people are still

without a proper sanitation facilities and around 900 million people are still rely on unimproved

drinking-water supplies [4].

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Earth, with its diverse and abundant life forms,

including over six billion humans, is facing a serious water crisis. The long-term sustainability of

water is in doubt in many regions of the world [5]. All the signs suggest that it is getting worse

and will continue to do so, unless corrective action is taken. The real tragedy is the effect it has

on the everyday lives of poor people, who are blighted by the burden of water-related disease,

living in degraded and often dangerous environments, struggling to get an education for their

children and to earn a living, and to get enough to eat [6].


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The crisis is experienced also by the natural environment, which is groaning under the

mountain of wastes dumped onto it daily, and from overuse and misuse, with seemingly little

care for the future consequences and future generations. In truth it is attitude and behavior

problems that lie at the heart of the crisis. The problems must be made known to the society

and with adequate knowledge and expertise they can be tackled. We have developed excellent

concepts, such as equity and sustainability.

1.1 The Demand for Water

Water is a precious resource in short supply and is predicted to triple in price in the next few

decades. Water demand is met by non-potable and potable water. From the water report [7],

non-potable water is mainly for industrial (15%) and agricultural (70%) purposes and

represents 85% of water demand globally. To feed the predicted additional 3 billion people in

the year of 2050, it will require 80% rise in irrigation of water requirements. This analysis

primarily concerns potable waters, which are used for human consumption and domestic living.

Ready access to clean, reliable water supplies is not a given for one billion people worldwide.

The definition of water demand has switched from the amount required by the supplydistribution from the treatment works to the amount of water required by the customer [8]. The

water resources required to satisfy consumer demand are substantially higher than the

consumer demand itself.

Household water demand is a function of three factors which are frequency of use, volume per

use and also the individual supplying facilities such as taps, showers and hoses. However, the

measure is complicated because devices, such as hoses, can be used for different functions.

Water demand fluctuates in the day, but broadly speaking has a peak in the morning, after

school and a less intense peak in the evening. This cycle varies at the weekend and during the

different seasons, typically peaking during winter and summer. Water supply infrastructure is

based on peak demand.


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1.1.1 Domestic

Sufficient treated water is delivered to houses and industry to meet potable water demand [9,

10]. Other domestic, industrial and agricultural needs are met through non-potable water that is

treated to an appropriate legal standard. Rainwater and grey water are harvested, treated (tosatisfy legal and appropriate standards) and used in all buildings for appropriate purposes [11].

Smart meters monitor and inform households on their water and energy usage and customers

are rewarded for reduced usage.

Workable codes for sustainable housing are adopted that ensures new houses are water

efficient. Additionally, the existing housing stock is progressively retrofitted to high water

efficiency standards. Household products and appliances, such as washing machines and

detergents are designed to work effectively with minimal water and energy demands, and

produce waste streams that require minimal treatment and are recycled as grey water. There is

effective collaboration between water companies, users, appliance manufacturers and chemical

companies.

1.1.2 Agricultural

In most countries, the agriculture sector is the predominant consumer of water. Historically,

large-scale water development projects have played a major role in poverty alleviation by

providing food security, protection from flooding and drought, and expanded opportunities for

employment. In many cases, irrigated agriculture has been a major engine for economic growth

and poverty reduction [12].

Rainwater is harvested and improved agricultural practice, such as zero tilling, is employed to

maximize rainwater use and minimize soil erosion. Grey water that meets appropriate standard

is used for irrigation where possible. Water efficient irrigation systems and practices areroutinely employed that minimize water use and ensure water demand is met sustainably.

Agrochemicals (fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides) are designed and employed to maximize

efficacy, minimize crop treatments and degrade quickly in the environment. Agrochemical inputs

are minimized by the application of integrated pest management strategies. Livestock

management systems are in place to keep animal wastes from water.


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1.1.4 Industry

A continuous external supply of water for internal use is regarded as a privilege and not a right.

Industry minimizes water use and maximizes water and heat recycling saving both energy and

water bills. State of the art systems are routinely used that are highly efficient, safe and low

maintenance. The principles of waste minimization, established in the 1990s are taken seriously

[13].

1.1.5 Chemical Industry

The chemical industry routinely applies the principles of green chemistry, minimizing water,

resources, energy, risk and cost. Chemicals are designed to be highly effective and at end of life

to be reusable and/or recyclable or to degrade quickly in the environment.


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2.0 CHALLENGES

2.1 Geographical restriction

There are great differences in water availability from region to region - from the extremes of

deserts to tropical forests. In addition there is variability of supply through time as a result both

of seasonal variation and inter-annual variation. All too often the magnitude of variability and

the timing and duration of periods of high and low supply are not predictable; this equates to

unreliability of the resource which poses great challenges to water managers in particular and

to societies as a whole.

Most developed countries have, in large measure, artificially overcome natural variability by

supply-side infrastructure to assure reliable supply and reduce risks, albeit at high cost and

often with negative impacts on the environment and sometimes on human health and

livelihoods [14]. Many less developed countries, and some developed countries, are now finding

that supply-side solutions alone are not adequate to address the ever increasing demands from

demographic, economic and climatic pressures; waste-water treatment, water recycling and

demand management measures are being introduced to counter the challenges of inadequate

supply. In addition to problems of water quantity there are also problems of water quality.

Pollution of water sources is posing major problems for water users as well as for maintainingnatural ecosystems.

2.2 Urbanization

The current global population is 6.6 billion people, while United Nation estimated it will be nine

billion by the year 2050 [15]. Human activity, particularly since the industrial revolution, has

had significant impacts upon the hydrological cycle. Water availability is changing because of

human induced climate change and because of pollution; predominantly chemical in nature.

Concurrently, a rising global population is increasing demand for water to satisfy domestic,

industrial, and agricultural needs.


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Over recent decades extensive urbanization and land consumption processes have become an

increasingly prominent but contentious issue in both public and academic discussions on land

use change [16]. Although worldwide impervious land makes up 0.43% of the total land area

[17], forward-looking studies imply that these dynamics will not subside [18, 19].

Among the most important modifications that affect the urban water balance is the increase in

the impervious cover [17, 20]. Many authors claim that urban sprawl and the growth of the

amount of built-up land have considerable negative impacts, such as social segregation and

environmental degradation [19, 21 - 24]. At the same time, there is also strong support for the

opinion that the problems of urban sprawl are by far outweighed by its benefits such as that it

enables a growing number of people to live according to their desires [25 - 28].

The long-term observation of urban growth and sprawling land consumption has proven that it

is the cumulative impact of land use change and surface sealing, rather than short-term

consequences that is likely to impair the urban water balance. It highlights the problems that

can arise in the long run due to this cumulative impact of land use change over time on the city

or regional scale and thus gives an example of how severely urban growth on a city's fringes

can affect environmental processes such as the water balance in quantitative terms [29].

Urban sprawl potentially leads to an increased flood risk produced by increasing direct runoff and a resulting higher release of water out of the urban system. This could restrict a city's

chances for future development in that technical precautions necessary to mitigate these

problems may become extremely expensive. However, it is fairly clear that the long-term effects

of urban land uptake on the environment in general, and water balance in particular, not only

depend on the amount but also the distribution of the land to be developed, or the spatial

pattern of land conversion, as well as the previous quality of this land [18, 30, 31].

From an environmental point of view, the compact city generally seems to be the most

desirable form because it allows a preservation of the largest possible patches of natural

landscape. On the other hand, intensification and an increase of impervious surfaces in existing

urban areas tend to be accompanied by a considerable decline in environmental quality [32].


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2.3 Climate Change

Globally, there is expected to be marked effects on precipitation leading to an increase in both

droughts and floods. Over eastern parts of North and South America, northern Europe and

northern and central Asia, climate models predict significant increases in precipitation with

climate change. However, reductions are predicted in the Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern

Africa and parts of southern Asia. More intense and longer droughts are predicted over wider

areas of the tropics and subtropics and heavy rainfall events are expected to increase in

frequency over most land areas. Droughts and increasing imbalances between demand and

available resource will force use of more contaminated including saline water sources.

The consequences of global climate change are manifested primarily through water; whether it

is in glacial melt, floods, droughts and sea level rise. Planners can no longer rely on past

hydrologic conditions to forecast future risks. Climate change increases the risk of failure or

underperformance of structures and institutions. Developing countries are the most vulnerable

to climate change because of their heavy dependence on climate sensitive sectors, low capacity

to adapt and poverty. Current climate variability and weather extremes already severely affect

economic performance in many developing countries.

Apart from extreme events such as droughts and floods, climate change is seldom the mainstressor on sustainable development, although the direct and indirect impacts of increasing

climate variability can impede and even reverse development gains. Climate change may not

fundamentally alter most of the worlds water challenges, but as an additional stressor it makes

achieving solutions more pressing. All of the potential impacts of climate related disasters,

including economic losses, health problems and environmental disruptions, will also affect and

be affected by water. Unfortunately, poor are likely to suffer the most from the effect of climate

change [33].

The decisions and policies put in place today for mitigation (such as reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, applying clean technologies and protecting forests) and adaptation (such as

expansion of rain-water storage and water conservation practices) can have profound

consequences for water supply and demand both today and over the long term [34]. Climate


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change also adds to the uncertainty surrounding all the other drivers. Thus, examining climate

change forces considerations of the interconnectedness of all the drivers.

2.4 Mismanagement of Water

There are many shortcomings in how water is managed today in a context of increased

scarcity: low efficiency, environmental degradation, and inequity. Despite some improvements

competition is increasing and water use efficiency remains low in most sectors. But the answer

is not just more efficient allocation mechanisms and more emphasis on greater yields and

productivity, because these alone may lead to further losses in equity and environmental

sustainability. Rather, a combination of supply and demand management measures is needed.

Corruption can have enormous social, economic and environmental repercussions, particularly

for poor people. Water-related construction projects such as aqueducts, sewer systems and

basic sanitation and wastewater treatment plants have become magnets for corruption in many

developing countries, which have limited oversight capacity for efficient use of public resources.

Transparency Internationals Global Corruption Report 2008, prepared in collaboration with the

Water Integrity Network, estimates that corruption in the water supply sector increases the

investment costs of achieving the water supply and sanitation target of the Millennium

Development Goals by almost $50 billion [35].

2.5 Imbalance Between Prevention and Response Resources

Traditionally, disaster management has been problem response driven. It is still predominantly

used for emergency response operation after a disaster occurs instead before any undesirable

incident happen. The impact of disasters such as severe flooding or drought can be reduced or

even prevented if there is a proper prevention measure taken. A recent study shows that it is

up to eight times cheaper to invest in longer-term prevention, mitigation and preparedness than

in post disaster emergency response [36].


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opportunity to raise awareness of water issues in the region. The water information system will

provide statistics and information, including national water sector profiles of selected countries;

compile best practices, and establish links with other water knowledge centers. New national

water partnerships will be supported in Indonesia and the Philippines, among others, while new

subregional water partnerships will be supported in the Pacific and Central Asia.

The grant will be financed from the Cooperation Fund for the Water Sector, a multidonor fund

aimed at promoting effective water management policies and practices. The Government of

Netherlands made the first contribution to the Fund and ADB will administer the grant. ADB's

water policy stresses the need for integrated cross-sectoral approaches to water resource

management and development in order to conserve the increasingly scarce resource. It

emphasizes that water is a socially vital economic good that needs careful management to

sustain equitable economic growth and reduce poverty. Improving water services for the poor

and conserving water resources through a participatory approach are at the heart of the policy.

3.2 Water Treatments

3.2.1 Sea Water Desalination

The majority (97%) of water on Earth is saline and, without energy intensive desalinationtechnology, is non-potable. The remaining 3% is fresh water of which two thirds are locked

away in glaciers and the polar ice caps. Humanitys needs therefore must be met with only 1%

of the Earths total water. Of this, the majority is groundwater, with 0 .3% as surface water and

only 0.04% present in the atmosphere. It is clear that saline ocean water equates to a

potentially limitless supply of water through desalination.

Desalination is used mainly in water-scarce coastal arid and semi-arid areas that are located

inland where the only available water source is saline or brackish groundwater. The technology

has been well established since the mid twentieth century and has evolved substantially to meet

the increased demands of water-short areas [38, 39].


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Based on the statistic from International Desalination Association in 2002 [40], about 50% of

global desalination takes place in the Middle East, followed by North America (16 %), Europe

(13%), Asia (11%), Africa (5%) and the Caribbean (3%). South America and Australia each

account for about 1% of the global desalination volume. Globally, the contracted capacity of

desalination plants is 34.2 million 3 /day converting principally seawater (59%) and brackish

water (23%). In terms of the uses of desalinated water, municipalities are the largest users

(63%), followed by substantial industry use (25%).

The cost of producing desalinated water has fallen dramatically in the past two decades.

Recently built large-scale plants produce fresh water for US$ 0.45/ 3 to US$ 0.50/ 3 using

reverse osmosis systems and US$ 0.70/ 3 to US$ 1.0/ 3 using distillation systems. The energy

consumed to drive the conversion is a significant part of the cost and ranges from 4 to

15kWh/ 3 depending on factors such as the technique used, the production rate of the facility,

and the quality of the equipment [41 43].

There are currently several methods of desalting water with the most common large-scale

methods being multi-stage flash, multiple effect distillation, vapor compression, and reverse

osmosis. The first three of these fall under the general category of distillation. In distillation,

saline water is vaporized and, as salt does not appreciably enter the vapor phase, the

subsequent condensate is nearly pure water. In multi-stage flash, vaporization is accomplishedby a combination of thermal energy input and a lowering of the vapor pressure. And both

multiple effect distillation and vapor compression rely solely on thermal energy for this phase

change.

The difference is that multiple effects requires a constant input of thermal energy to maintain

its process, whereas with vapor compression thermal input is only required to start the process.

Once the vapor is initially formed, it is mechanically compressed and the resulting rise in

temperature provides the thermal energy for subsequent vaporization. Reverse osmosis, by

comparison, requires no phase change but rather works by passing saline water through a

semipermeable hydrophilic membrane against its natural salt-concentration gradient. The

membrane allows water to pass through while retaining most of the salt.


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3.2.2 Waste Water Treatment

The interests of water reuse are rapidly growing. By critically reviewing the technical issues

involved in the development of guidelines for cropland application of reclaimed waste water, the

World Health Organization may direct the attention of interested parties to safeguard these

practices worldwide [44]. The principle function of waste water treatment is to remove solid,

organic and microbiological components that cause unacceptable levels of pollution to the

receiving water body. All wastewater treatment facilities have compliance standards to meet in

relation to biological oxygen demand and suspended solids. Additional consideration is given to

ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, micro-organisms, specific organic pollutants and metals

depending on the size of the treatment facilities and the nature of the discharge.

The processes most commonly encountered in wastewater treatment include screens, coarse

solids reduction, grit removal, sedimentation, biological treatment and filtration. The majority of

the processes work through the application of a physical force and are collectively known as

physical processes. The other processes operate through a biological reaction coupled to an

adsorption step. Here micro-organisms utilize components as part of their growth cycle and

convert dissolved organic components to solids for removal in downstream physical processes.

The two key areas of continuing concern to the industry are energy and sludge. Energycomprises around 28% of the operating cost of treating wastewater. Energy savings are

possible through better management practice. However, such savings will be difficult to sustain

if the trend towards increasingly lower allowable limits of components continues. In this

scenario, innovation is the only pathway through which long term reductions will be sustained.

The application of anaerobic systems to wastewater treatment is one promising route for

further development. Improvements in our understanding of anaerobic systems and the

development of new reactor configurations means that anaerobic treatment of wastewater in

temperate climates is becoming feasible.

Sludge makes up around two thirds of the total costs of wastewater treatment and is a key area

where the use of appropriate chemicals and chemical processes can greatly enhance

performance and sustainability. However, current understanding of such systems is limited and


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is the critical barrier to improvements. Consequently, the treatment and disposal of sludge is

potentially the area where chemistry can have the greatest short term impact. Chemistry will

play an increasingly important role in wastewater treatment. Traditionally its main focus has

been on analytic techniques to aid the engineer in understanding the biological and physical

processes utilized. In the future, the need to remove more exotic components will result in a

greater emphasis on chemical processes.

In particular, the need to reduce nutrients to very low levels, removal of dissolved metals and

specific organic compounds such as endocrine disrupting chemicals, will rely on chemistry to

provide solutions. This will come from both an improved understanding of the nature of

pollutants, and the development of innovative technologies to remove such components. The

most likely areas for development in the short to medium term are new adsorbents, new sludge

conditioning chemicals and technologies, and chemical oxidation technologies which can target

specific compounds rather than deliver blanket solutions.

3.2.3 Industrial Treatment

Industrial water treatment is dominated by the use of water as a heat transfer medium or as a

process medium. Heat transfer is either in the heating/steam-raising mode or as a cooling

medium. Therefore the challenges are to minimize corrosion of the plant and distributing pipe-work, and deposition of water hardness salts and bacterial fouling of the plant. The process

applications of water are wide and diverse, ranging from a solids transfer medium in paper

production, to a solvent/lubricant in engineering cutting fluids.

Many industrial wastewater streams contain toxic metal cations, for example, 2+ and 2+ or

their oxyanions in up to few hundred mg / 3 , which must be removed before water recycling

or discharging directly into surface waters. These metal ions are also toxic, similar to several

other heavy metals. Impact of nickel can be manifested in allergic reactions, chronic toxicity

(dermatitis nausea, chronic asthma, coughing, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, vertigo and

lassitude), but acute toxicity is not typical [45]. The conventional processes to treat this kind of

wastewater are, e.g. chemical precipitation, ion exchange, membrane separations (such as

electrodialysis, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration), adsorption or biosorption.


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On the other hand, some of the waste water produced by the production and handling of high

explosives may produced waste water that is contaminated with the explosives and their

byproducts. The environmental impact caused by the production of explosives made from

nitroaromatic compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is currently a major concern,

mainly due to their toxic nature, a fact that makes these compounds highly harmful [46]. One

such waste water is referred to as yellow water, due to its characteristic color. The composition

of yellow water varies widely depending on the ammunition manufacturing processes [47].

However, among those toxic compounds, TNT is known as the major constituent of yellow

water [48]. Due to the toxicity and possible carcinogenicity of TNT, these explosive compounds

must be removed from wastewater before it is released into the environment [49 - 51].

Conventional biological wastewater treatment processes such as activated sludge processes are

not effective in treating yellow water because the electron withdrawing nitro constituents in

these explosives inhibit the electrophilic attack through enzymes [52, 53]. Chemical oxidation

methods such as advanced oxidation processes are also not considered effective because the

nitrofunctional groups inhibit oxidation [46]. Consequently, combined methods have been the

method of choice for TNT waste water treatment.


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4.0 CONCLUSION

A global water shortage is looming on the horizon. Water is vital in human daily life. Without a

proper precautionary step, the water will become an expensive commodity in the foreseeable

future. Therefore, as several steps such as effective water management and water treatments,

whether it is about desalination of sea water, waste water treatment and industrial waste water

treatment, these are the right step to handle the challenges that the world is facing. By meeting

the demand of water, water will no longer be a threat for the future.


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5.0 REFERENCES

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