WAYS OF KNOWING1. INTUITION OR TENACITY

I just "feel it"

2. AUTHORITYBible, grandmother, expert

3. LOGICDeducing the answer

4. SCIENCEEmpirical test (focus for our class)

…each is usefulSome are best for particular questions.

For example, what is the fastest way to

Calgary?

1. WHICH WAYS OF KNOWING WOULD "WORK?"

2. WHICH IS “BEST?”

THEORYStatement of how one thing causes another,

usually involving TESTABLE hypotheses

EXAMPLE

OBSERVATION: Trees change colour in the fall.

THEORIES:

The great hunter causes trees to change colour in the fall.

Trees change colour in the fall because of frost.

Trees change colour because of they receive less light.

A GOOD THEORY:EXPLAINS current observations

PREDICTS future events

is USEFUL (practical applications)

is SIMPLE[R] than other explanations (parsimonious)

is TESTABLE (theory can be falsified)

Theory versus Observation

Observation(Variables)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Theory(Concepts)

The “wheel of science” (Bacon)

Observation

Generalization

Theory

Hypothesis

DEDUCTION

INDUCTION

From abstract to empirical

Concept A:

Punishment

Concept B:

Attendance

Yelling at students

Increases attendance by

50%

ABSTRACT

EMPIRICAL Observable

Theoretical

THE SCIENTIFIC METHODWhat’s GOOD about this method?

1. PURPOSIVE

2. RIGOROUS

3. TESTABLE

4. OBJECTIVE

5. FALSIFYABLE

Falsification (Popper)1. Make a Prediction

2. Establish Ground Rules

3. Gather Data

4. Compare Results to Predictions

a. If consistent, hypothesis was

supported (NOT proven)

b. If not, revise hypothesis and retest

Advances in Science (Kuhn)“Normal” science

Development and testing of compatible

theories

“Paradigm shifts”

Radical re-orientation

Examples:

Astronomy

Marketing

The Elements

Earth

Water

Air, Fire

Sun

Stars

Astronomy: Ptolemy

Kuhn’s “paradigm shift”

Earth

Sun

CONCLUSIONData don’t “speak for themselves”

Must know what to look for

Must know how to interpret the findings

Must understand underlying THEORY

Theories are nets cast to catch what we call

“the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to

master it. We endeavor to make the mesh

ever finer and finer.

Karl R. Popper

Quote of the Day