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1. Supplementary Methods Network Modeling. Using information about the gross anatomy of bonobos, common chimpanzees and modern humans gathered from our previous works on these taxa (Diogo & Wood 2011, 2012; Diogo et al. 2013, in press), we built unweighted, undirected network models of the musculoskeletal anatomy of the head, upper limb, and lower limb of H. sapiens, Pan troglodytes, and P. paniscus. These anatomical networks formalize the anatomical organization of the body as nodes connected by links. The codification of musculoskeletal networks of heads and limbs followed that of previous works (Diogo et al. 2015; Esteve-Altava et al. 2015b). Bones represent skeletal elements (i.e., bones and cartilages) and muscles, while links represent physical joints among pairs of skeletal and muscular elements (e.g., articulations, attachments, and blending). In the adjacency matrix that codes the network model, every contact present between two nodes is coded as 1 and the absence of contact between two bones is coded as 0. We also analyzed the skeletal and muscular components separately, and to this end we created skeletal and muscular networks. Skeletal networks include bones and cartilages as the nodes, connected by their articulations. Muscular networks include muscles as the nodes, connected by tendinous joints and fibrous fusions among them. The adjacency matrices that formalize the anatomical networks were saved as Excel sheets (see SI2) and analyzed in R (R Core Team 2016) using the package igraph (Csardi & Nepusz 2006). It is important to note, because we included more musculoskeletal elements in our human matrices than we did in our Diogo et al. 2015 and Esteve-Altava 2015ab, the network parameters and modules obtained for humans are more comprehensive, and different, from those previously described in those papers. Network Parameters. We compared the overall anatomical organization of each body part using six network parameters: number of nodes (N), number of connections (K), density of connections (D), average clustering coefficient (C), average shortest path length (L), and heterogeneity of connections. N and K account for the number of anatomical structures modeled, anatomical parts and pairwise relations. D is the number of actual connections with respect to the maximum possible. D is often used as a proxy for the complexity of a morphological
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Page 1: anatomicalnetworks.comanatomicalnetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/… · Web view1. Supplementary Methods. Network Modeling. Using information about the gross anatomy of bonobos,

1. Supplementary Methods

Network Modeling. Using information about the gross anatomy of bonobos, common chimpanzees and modern humans gathered from our previous works on these taxa (Diogo & Wood 2011, 2012; Diogo et al. 2013, in press), we built unweighted, undirected network models of the musculoskeletal anatomy of the head, upper limb, and lower limb of H. sapiens, Pan troglodytes, and P. paniscus. These anatomical networks formalize the anatomical organization of the body as nodes connected by links. The codification of musculoskeletal networks of heads and limbs followed that of previous works (Diogo et al. 2015; Esteve-Altava et al. 2015b). Bones represent skeletal elements (i.e., bones and cartilages) and muscles, while links represent physical joints among pairs of skeletal and muscular elements (e.g., articulations, attachments, and blending). In the adjacency matrix that codes the network model, every contact present between two nodes is coded as 1 and the absence of contact between two bones is coded as 0. We also analyzed the skeletal and muscular components separately, and to this end we created skeletal and muscular networks. Skeletal networks include bones and cartilages as the nodes, connected by their articulations. Muscular networks include muscles as the nodes, connected by tendinous joints and fibrous fusions among them. The adjacency matrices that formalize the anatomical networks were saved as Excel sheets (see SI2) and analyzed in R (R Core Team 2016) using the package igraph (Csardi & Nepusz 2006). It is important to note, because we included more musculoskeletal elements in our human matrices than we did in our Diogo et al. 2015 and Esteve-Altava 2015ab, the network parameters and modules obtained for humans are more comprehensive, and different, from those previously described in those papers.

Network Parameters. We compared the overall anatomical organization of each body part using six network parameters: number of nodes (N), number of connections (K), density of connections (D), average clustering coefficient (C), average shortest path length (L), and heterogeneity of connections. N and K account for the number of anatomical structures modeled, anatomical parts and pairwise relations. D is the number of actual connections with respect to the maximum possible. D is often used as a proxy for the complexity of a morphological structure, because the more connections among parts, the more functional possibilities, and also more potential functional outcomes. C is the average of the sum of connections between all neighbors of each node with respect to the maximum possible, it measures the number of triangular loops or motifs in the network. C is used as a proxy for the relative amount of biological inter-dependence between three parts. L is the average of the minimum distance between all pairs of nodes in the network, distance is measured in number of connections, each one having unit length. L is used as a proxy of effective proximity (e.g., to work together) among anatomical parts. Together, D, C, and L measure the integration of the network. The higher number of interactions and their inter-dependences, the higher the integration of the system; and higher D and C, and lower L, in the network. Finally, H is the ratio between the standard deviation of connections per node and the mean number of connection per node, which provides an estimate of the irregularity of the network. H is used as a proxy of anisomerism, and how different or non-homogeneous are the parts that compose the morphological structure in their number of connections. Further details on the mathematical description and morphological interpretation of these parameters have been given elsewhere (Esteve-Altava et al. 2011; Esteve-Altava et al. 2013; Rasskin-Gutman & Esteve-Altava 2014; Esteve-Altava et al. 2015a). We used functions from the package igraph to quantify these parameters.

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Connections Centrality. We quantified the relative importance of each connection in the network using the centrality parameter betweenness. The link betweenness is defined by the number of shortest paths (as in parameter L) going through a link. The number of paths crossing a given link is used as a proxy of its importance in the overall network integration and functioning. We used the function edge_betweenness from the package igraph to quantify this parameter in every link. We focused our discussion on the links having a score higher than the 50% of the maximum for the network.

Community Detection. We delimited the modules of the anatomical networks using a standard random walk algorithm, using the function cluster_walktrap of igraph. The heuristics of this algorithm is the idea is that short random walks (we used random walks of 3 steps) tend to concatenate nodes within the same module (Pons & Latapy 2006). This allows to find groups of nodes (modules) more densely connected among them than to nodes outside of the module. The quality of the identified partitions is evaluated using the optimization function modularity (Q) defined by Newman and Girvan (2004), which is commonly used to assess whether the partition identified by a community detection algorithm is better that what is expected at random. Q will be close to 0 if the number of links within modules is no better than that expected at random; Q will be closer to 1 if the modules identified deviate from what is expected for a random network. According to Newman and Girvan observations, usual values of strongly modular networks range between 0.3 and 0.7. The expected error of Q was calculated using a jackknife procedure, where every link is an independent observation.

Additionally, we performed a two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum test on the internal vs. external connections of every module, in order to estimate their statistical significance. According to the general definition of module as a group of nodes highly connected among them and poorly connected to nodes in other groups, we expect internal connections to be significantly higher than external connections (H0: Kinternal = Kexternal; Ha: Kinternal > Kexternal). Lower p-values tell us to reject H0, and hence we can assume the alternative hypothesis that the nodes of the module are more connected among them than to other nodes outside the module. In other words, the module identified is not expected by a random grouping of nodes. Note, however, that the accuracy of this test will depend on the sample size, that is, the number of nodes in the module. Smaller modules will render unreliable p-values.

Supplementary Methods References

Csardi G, Nepusz T. 2006. The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal, Complex Systems 1695. http://igraph.orgDiogo, R., Esteve-Altava, B., Smith C, Boughner JC, Rasskin-Gutman D. 2015. Anatomical network comparison of human upper and lower, newborn and adult, and normal and abnormal limbs, with notes on development, pathology and limb serial homology vs. homoplasy. PLoS ONE 10 (10): e0140030Diogo, R., Potau, J. M., Pastor, J. F., de Paz, F. J., Barbosa, M., Ferrero, E. M., Bello, G., Aziz, M. A., Arias-Martorell, J., Wood B. 2013. Photographic and Descriptive Musculoskeletal Atlas of Chimpanzees (Pan) - with notes on the attachments, variations, innervation, synonymy and weight of the muscles. Taylor & Francis, Oxford.Diogo, R., Potau, J. M., Pastor, J. F., de Paz, F. J., Barbosa, M., Ferrero, E. M., Bello, G., Aziz, M. A., Arias-Martorell, J., Wood B. In press. Photographic and Descriptive Musculoskeletal Atlas of Bonobos, with notes on the attachments, variations, innervation, synonymy and weight of the muscles. Springer, New York.

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Diogo, R., Wood, B. Comparative anatomy and phylogeny of primate muscles and human evolution (Taylor and Francis, Oxford, 2012).Diogo, R., Wood, B. Soft-tissue anatomy of the primates: phylogenetic analyses based on the muscles of the head, neck, pectoral region and upper limb, with notes on the evolution of these muscles. J. Anat. 219, 273–359 (2011).Esteve-Altava B, Boughner JC, Diogo R, Villmoare BA, Rasskin-Gutman D. 2015a. Anatomical network analysis shows decoupling of modular lability and complexity in the evolution of the primate skull. PLoS ONE 10(5): e0127653.Esteve-Altava B, Diogo R, Smith C, Boughner JC, Rasskin-Gutman D. 2015b. Anatomical networks reveal the musculoskeletal modularity of the human head. Scientific Reports 5: 8298.Esteve-Altava B, Marugán-Lobón J, Botella H, Rasskin-Gutman D. 2011. Network models in anatomical systems. Journal of Anthropological Sciences 89: 175-184Esteve-Altava B, Marugán-Lobón J, Botella H, Rasskin-Gutman D. 2013. Structural constraints in the evolution of the tetrapod skull complexity: Williston’s Law revisited using network models. Evolutionary Biology 40: 209-219.Newman MEJ, Girvan M, 2004. Finding and evaluating community structure in networks. Physical review E, 69(2), p.026113.Pons P, Latapy M. 2006. Computing communities in large networks using random walks. Journal of Graph Algorithms & Applications, 10(2), 191-218.R Core Team. 2016. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/.Rasskin-Gutman D, Esteve-Altava B. 2014. Connecting the dots: anatomical network analysis in morphological EvoDevo. Biological Theory 9: 178-193.

2. Supplementary Results

SUPPLEMENTARY RESULTS OF MUSCULOSKELETAL NETWORKS

Supplementary Table 1. Network parameters for every musculoskeletal network.N K D C L H

Homo sapiens Head 157 352 0.029 0.412 3.589 1.067Pan troglodytes Head 154 358 0.030 0.433 3.564 1.038Pan paniscus Head 152 357 0.031 0.447 3.527 1.030Homo sapiens Forelimb 94 193 0.044 0.380 3.410 0.923Pan troglodytes Forelimb 99 245 0.051 0.405 3.313 0.788Pan paniscus Forelimb 95 217 0.049 0.423 3.296 0.845Homo sapiens Hindlimb 91 207 0.051 0.378 3.222 0.909Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 97 217 0.047 0.381 3.320 0.962Pan paniscus Hindlimb 98 222 0.047 0.391 3.305 0.974

Key connections. The higher the value of the edge betweenness, the more important is the link. The printed values are for the top ones.

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temporal.left mandible 771temporal.left stylopharyngeus.left 735temporal.right mandible 771temporal.right stylopharyngeus.right 735mandible orbicularis.oris.left 537mandible orbicularis.oris.right 537thyroid.cartilage cricoid.cartilage 955thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.left 575thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.right 575

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temporal.left mandible 653temporal.left stylopharyngeus.left 735temporal.right mandible 653temporal.right stylopharyngeus.right 735mandible orbicularis.oris.left 530mandible orbicularis.oris.right 530thyroid.cartilage cricoid.cartilage 900thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.left 562thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.right 562

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temporal.left mandible 648temporal.left stylopharyngeus.left 734temporal.right mandible 648temporal.right stylopharyngeus.right 734mandible orbicularis.oris.left 516mandible orbicularis.oris.right 516thyroid.cartilage cricoid.cartilage 888thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.left 562thyroid.cartilage stylopharyngeus.right 562

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scapula humerus 578humerus radius 316humerus flexor.carpi.ulnaris 289ulna flexor.digitorum.profundus 395

scapula humerus 326humerus radius 252humerus pectoralis.major 315humerus latissimus.dorsi 353

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humerus flexor.digitorum.superficialis

245

humerus extensor.digitorum 478

scapula humerus 368humerus radius 259humerus ulna 199humerus pectoralis.major 261humerus latissimus.dorsi 297humerus flexor.carpi.radialis 234humerus extensor.carpi.ulnaris 215humerus extensor.digitorum 349distal.phalanx.1 flexor.digitorum.profundus 188metacarpal.5 extensor.carpi.ulnaris 240

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femur tibia 713tibia extensor.digitorum.longus 369tibia tiblialis.posterior 544tibia flexor.digitorum.longus 386

femur tibia 846tibia tiblialis.posterior 685

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femur tibia 882tibia tiblialis.posterior 690

Supplementary Table 2. Best partitions identified using the random walk-trap algorithm.# Modules Q value Expected error

Homo sapiens Head 11 0.5268070 0.0265030Pan troglodytes Head 12 0.5320566 0.0254535Pan paniscus Head 11 0.5363989 0.0254737Homo sapiens Forelimb 5 0.5795726 0.0297993Pan troglodytes Forelimb 11 0.5391254 0.0317625Pan paniscus Forelimb 7 0.5510098 0.0316175Homo sapiens Hindlimb 9 0.5440150 0.0295011Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 7 0.5678184 0.0290254Pan paniscus Hindlimb 6 0.5618761 0.0270400

Supplementary Table 3. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 (postcranial; light green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.00087 clavicle.left, clavicle.right, scapula.left, scapula.right, vertebrae, trapezius.left, trapezius.right, omohyoideus.pars.superior.left, omohyoideus.pars.superior.right, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.left, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.right

2 (left facial; dark blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 zygomatic.left, frontal, nasal.left, nasal.right, maxilla.left, lacrimal.left, platysma.myoides.left, risorius.left, zygomaticus.major.left, zygomaticus.minor.left, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.left, depressor.supercilii.left,

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corrugator.supercilii.left, corrugator.supercilii.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left, procerus.left, procerus.right, buccinatorius.left, levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.left

3 (neurocranium & facial, pharyngeal, ear and masticatory muscles; dark green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left, temporal.right, sphenoid, ethmoidal, palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right, occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, auricularis.posterior.left, auricularis.posterior.right, mentalis.left, mentalis.right, tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right, masseter.left, masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.left, temporalis.main.body.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right, pterygoideus.medialis.left, pterygoideus.medialis.right, sternocleidomastoideus.left, sternocleidomastoideus.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right, levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right, palatoglossus.left, palatoglossus.right

4 (supra-infrahyoid and tongue; orange in Fig. 1)

TRUE 4e-05 hyoid.bone, sternum, mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right, digastricus.anterior.left, digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.left, stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.left, digastricus.posterior.right, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right, geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right, genioglossus.left, genioglossus.right, hyoglossus.left, hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.left, styloglossus.right, sternohyoideus.left, sternohyoideus.right, sternothryroideus.left, sternothryroideus.right

5 (laryngeal movement; yellow in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.00083 thyroid.cartilage, cricoid.cartilage, stylopharyngeus.left, stylopharyngeus.right, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right, cricothyroideus.left, cricothyroideus.right, palatopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.right, salpingopharyngeus.left, salpingopharyngeus.right, thyrohyoideus.left, thyrohyoideus.right

6 (right facial; light blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.00029 zygomatic.right, maxilla.right, lacrimal.right, platysma.myoides.right, risorius.right, zygomaticus.major.right, zygomaticus.minor.right,

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orbicularis.oculi.right, depressor.supercilii.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, buccinatorius.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.right

7 (true vocal folds movement)

TRUE 0.00864 arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right, thyroarytenoideus.left, thyroarytenoideus.right, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right, arytenoideus.transversus, arytenoideus.obliquus, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right

8 (right ear facial muscles)

TRUE 0.02967 temporoparietalis.right, auricularis.anterior.right, auricularis.superior.right

9 (left ear facial muscles; pink in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.02967 temporoparietalis.left, auricularis.anterior.left, auricularis.superior.left

10 (left inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.left, stapes.left, stapedius.left

11 (right inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.right, stapes.right, stapedius.right

Supplementary Table 4. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 (postcranial; light green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.06289 clavicle.left, clavicle.right, scapula.right, vertebrae, trapezius.left, trapezius.right, sternocleidomastoideus.left, sternocleidomastoideus.right, omohyoideus.pars.superior.right, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.right

2 (supra-infrahyoid & tongue; orange green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 hyoid.bone, sternum, mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right, digastricus.anterior.left, digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.left, stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.left, digastricus.posterior.right, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right, geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right, genioglossus.left, genioglossus.right, hyoglossus.left, hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.left, styloglossus.right, sternohyoideus.left, sternohyoideus.right, sternothryroideus.left, sternothryroideus.right, thyrohyoideus.left, thyrohyoideus.right

3 (left facial; dark blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.00632 premaxilla.left, premaxilla.right, maxilla.left, zygomaticus.major.left, zygomaticus.minor.left, auriculo.orbitalis.left, depressor.supercilii.left, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left,

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levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left

4 (right facial; dark blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 frontal, ethmoidal, nasal.left, nasal.right, maxilla.right, lacrimal.left, lacrimal.right, zygomaticus.major.right, zygomaticus.minor.right, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, auriculo.orbitalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.left, orbicularis.oculi.right, depressor.supercilii.right, corrugator.supercilii.left, corrugator.supercilii.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, procerus.left, procerus.right, buccinatorius.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right

5 (pharyngeal) TRUE 0.00682 palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer, tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right, stylopharyngeus.left, stylopharyngeus.right, palatopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.right, levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right, salpingopharyngeus.left, salpingopharyngeus.right, palatoglossus.left, palatoglossus.right

6 (laryngeal and true vocal fold movement; yellow in Fig. 1)

TRUE 1e-05 thyroid.cartilage, arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right, cricoid.cartilage, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right, cricothyroideus.left, cricothyroideus.right, thyroarytenoideus.left, thyroarytenoideus.right, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right, arytenoideus, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right

7 (neurocranium & facial, pharyngeal, ear and masticatory muscles; dark green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left, temporal.right, sphenoid, zygomatic.left, zygomatic.right, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right, platysma.myoides.left, platysma.myoides.right, occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, auricularis.posterior.left, auricularis.posterior.right, buccinatorius.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.right, mentalis.left, mentalis.right, masseter.left, masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.left, temporalis.main.body.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right,

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pterygoideus.medialis.left, pterygoideus.medialis.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right

8 (left scapula and omohyoideus; brown in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.40683 scapula.left, omohyoideus.pars.superior.left, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.left

9 (right inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.right, stapes.right, stapedius.right

10 (left inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.left, stapes.left, stapedius.left

11 (left auricularis superior)

FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.left

12 (right auricularis superior)

FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.right

Supplementary Table 5. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 (supra-infrahyoid & tongue; orange in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 hyoid.bone, sternum, mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right, digastricus.anterior.left, digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.left, stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.left, digastricus.posterior.right, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left, constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right, geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right, genioglossus.left, genioglossus.right, hyoglossus.left, hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.left, styloglossus.right, sternohyoideus.left, sternohyoideus.right, sternothryroideus.left, sternothryroideus.right, thyrohyoideus.left, thyrohyoideus.right

2 (neurocranium & facial, pharyngeal, ear and masticatory muscles; dark green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left, temporal.right, sphenoid, zygomatic.left, zygomatic.right, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right, platysma.myoides.left, platysma.myoides.right, occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, auricularis.posterior.left, auricularis.posterior.right, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.right, mentalis.left, mentalis.right, masseter.left, masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.left,

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temporalis.main.body.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left, pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right, pterygoideus.medialis.left, pterygoideus.medialis.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right

3 (left facial; light blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.00516 premaxilla.left, premaxilla.right, maxilla.left, zygomaticus.major.left, zygomaticus.minor.left, auriculo.orbitalis.left, depressor.supercilii.left, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left, buccinatorius.left, levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left

4 (right facial; dark blue in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0 frontal, ethmoidal, nasal.left, nasal.right, maxilla.right, lacrimal.right, lacrimal.right, zygomaticus.major.right, zygomaticus.minor.right, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, auriculo.orbitalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.left, orbicularis.oculi.right, depressor.supercilii.right, corrugator.supercilii.left, corrugator.supercilii.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, procerus.left, procerus.right, buccinatorius.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right

5 (pharyngeal) TRUE 0.00682 palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer, tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right, stylopharyngeus.left, stylopharyngeus.right, palatopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.right, levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right, salpingopharyngeus.left, salpingopharyngeus.right, palatoglossus.left, palatoglossus.right

6 (postcranial; light green in Fig. 1)

TRUE 0.01152 clavicle.left, clavicle.right, scapula.left, scapula.right, vertebrae, trapezius.left, trapezius.right, sternocleidomastoideus.left, sternocleidomastoideus.right, omohyoideus.left, omohyoideus.right

7 (laryngeal and true vocal folds movement;

TRUE 1e-05 thyroid.cartilage, arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right, cricoid.cartilage, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right,

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yellow in Fig. 1)

cricothyroideus.left, cricothyroideus.right, thyroarytenoideus.left, thyroarytenoideus.right, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left, cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right, arytenoideus, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left, cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right

8 (left inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.left, stapes.left, stapedius.left

9 (right inner ear)

TRUE 0.15085 incus.right, stapes.right, stapedius.right

10 (left auricularis superior)

FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.left

11 (right auricularis superior)

FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.right

Supplementary Table 6. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 (axial-pectoral girdle; shown in blue in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00196 occipital, sternum, ribs, vertebrae, clavicle, subclavius, pectoralis.major, pectoralis.minor, serratus.anterior, rhomboid.minor, rhomboid.major

2 (long extensors/flexors of digits; shown in dark green in Fig. 2)

TRUE 1e-05 middle.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.5, flexor.digitorum.superficialis, flexor.digitorum.profundus, extensor.digitorum, extensor.digiti.minimi, extensor.indicis, lumbrical.1, lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, lumbrical.4

3 (digits 1-3 movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0 trapezoid, trapezium, scaphoid, capitate, metacarpal.1, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, proximal.phalanx.1, proximal.phalanx.2, proximal.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.1, flexor.carpi.radialis, flexor.pollicis.longus, extensor.carpi.radialis.longus, extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis, extensor.pollicis.longus, adductor.pollicis, adductor.pollicis.accessorius, flexor.brevis.profundus.2, abductor.pollicis.brevis, flexor.pollicis.brevis, opponens.pollicis, interosseus.dorsalis.1, interosseus.dorsalis.2, interosseus.dorsalis.3, interosseus.palmaris.1

4 (digits 4-5 movement; shown in light green in

TRUE 5e-05 lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, hamate, metacarpal.4, metacarpal.5, proximal.phalanx.4, proximal.phalanx.5,

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Fig. 2) flexor.carpi.ulnaris, opponens.digiti.minimi, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, abductor.digiti.minimi, interosseus.dorsalis.4, interosseus.palmaris.2, interosseus.palmaris.3

5 (scapular-arm-forearm-thumb movement; shown in light orange in Fig. 2)

TRUE 1e-05 scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres.minor, teres.major, subscapularis, levator.scapulae, latissimus.dorsi, biceps.brachii, coracobrachialis, brachialis, triceps.brachii, anconeus, pronator.teres, palmaris.longus, pronator.quadratus, brachioradialis, extensor.carpi.ulnaris, supinator, abductor.pollicis.longus, extensor.pollicis.brevis

Supplementary Table 7. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1(thumb movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00106 trapezium, metacarpal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.1, adductor.pollicis, flexor.brevis.profundus.2, flexor.pollicis.brevis, opponens.pollicis, abductor.pollicis.brevis, extensor.pollicis.longus, abductor.pollicis.longus

2(axial-pectoral girdle-A; shown in dark blue in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.16804 occipital, vertebrae, rhomboideus, levator.scapulae, levator.claviculae, latissimus.dorsi, dorsoepitrochlearis

3(axial-pectoral girdle B; shown in yellow in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.02433 ribs, sternum, clavicle, serratus.anterior, subclavius, pectoralis.major, pectoralis.minor

4(digit 5 movement -A; shown in light gree in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.31959 triquetrum, pisiform, hamate, metacarpal.5, flexor.carpi.ulnaris, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, opponens.digiti.minimi

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5(forearm-wrist-digits movement; shown in light orange in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.04763 humerus, radius, ulna, triceps.brachii, brachialis, pronator.quadratus, flexor.digitorum.profundus, flexor.digitorum.superficialis, palmaris.longus, epitrochleoanconeus, pronator.teres, brachioradialis, supinator, extensor.carpi.ulnaris, anconeus, extensor.digitorum

6(wrist movement; shown in light blue in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.3255 scaphoid, lunate, trapezoid, capitate, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, flexor.carpi.radialis, extensor.carpi.radialis.longus, extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis

7(scapular; shown in dark brown in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.70666 scapula, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, deltoideus., teres.minor, subscapularis, teres.major, biceps.brachii, coracobrachialis

8(digit 4 movement; shown in dark magenta in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00118 metacarpal.4, proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalax.4, lumbrical.3, contrahens.digitorum.4, flexor.brevis.profundus.7, flexor.brevis.profundus.8, intermetacarpal.4

9(digit 5 movement - B; shown in light magenta in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00074 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.5, lumbrical.4, contrahens.digitorum.5, flexor.brevis.profundus.9, abductor.digiti.minimi, extensor.digiti.minimi

10(digit 2 movement; shown in red in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00058 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.2, lumbrical.1, flexor.brevis.profundus.3, flexor.brevis.profundus.4, intermetacarpal.1, extensor.indicis

11(digit 3 movement; shown in

TRUE 0.00032 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.3, lumbrical.2, flexor.brevis.profundus.5, flexor.brevis.profundus.6, intermetacarpal.2, intermetacarpal.3

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light brown in Fig. 2)

Supplementary Table 8. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1(long extensors/flexors of digits; shown in dark green in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00015 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.5, flexor.digitorum.profundus, lumbrical.1, lumbrical.2, lumbrical.4, contrahens.digitorum.5, interosseus.dorsalis.1, interosseus.palmaris.1, extensor.digitorum, extensor.digiti.minimi, extensor.indicis

2(axial-pectoral girdle; shown in dark blue in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00035 occipital, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicle, serratus.anterior, rhomboideus, levator.scapulae, levator.claviculae, subclavius, pectoralis.major, pectoralis.minor, latissimus.dorsi, dorsoepitrochlearis

3(scapular-arm-forearm-wrist movement; shown in yellow in Fig. 2)

TRUE 7e-05 scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, deltoideus., teres.minor, subscapularis, teres.major, triceps.brachii, brachialis, biceps.brachii, coracobrachialis, pronator.quadratus, flexor.digitorum.superficialis, palmaris.longus, epitrochleoanconeus, pronator.teres, brachioradialis, supinator, extensor.carpi.ulnaris, anconeus

4(digit 5 movement; shown in light light green in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.02623 triquetrum, pisiform, hamate, metacarpal.5, proximal.phalanx.5, flexor.carpi.ulnaris, interosseus.palmaris.3, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, opponens.digiti.minimi, abductor.digiti.minimi

5(digit 4 movement; shown in dark magenta in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.00803 metacarpal.4, proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalax.4, lumbrical.3, contrahens.digitorum.4, interosseus.dorsalis.4, interosseus.palmaris.2

6(digits 2-3 movement; shown in light blue in Fig. 2)

TRUE 0.02298 scaphoid, lunate, trapezoid, capitate, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, proximal.phalanx.3, flexor.carpi.radialis, interosseus.dorsalis.2, interosseus.dorsalis.3, extensor.carpi.radialis.longus, extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis

7 TRUE 0.00122 trapezium, metacarpal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.1, adductor.pollicis,

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(thumb movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 2)

flexor.brevis.profundus.2, flexor.pollicis.brevis, opponens.pollicis, abductor.pollicis.brevis, extensor.pollicis.longus, abductor.pollicis.longus

Supplementary Table 9. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1(ankle/digits 1-2 movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 6e-05 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform, lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.1, metatarsal.2, metatarsal.4, proximal.phalanx.2, fibularis.longus, tibialis.anterior, tiblialis.posterior, lumbrical.1, flexor.hallucis.brevis, adductor.hallucis, dorsal.interosseus.1, dorsal.interosseus.2

2(hip-thigh-leg movement; shown in yellow in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0 hip.bone, femur, patella, tibia, gluteus.maximus, gluteus.medius, gluteus.minimus, tensor.fasciae.latae, obturator.internus, obturator.externus, gemellus.superior, gemellus.inferior, iliopsoas, quadratus.femoris, pectineus, sartorius, rectus.femoris, vastus.lateralis, vastus.intermedius, vastus.medialis, adductor.brevis, adductor.magnus, adductor.longus, biceps.femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, gracilis, popliteus

3(ankle/digit 1 movement; shown in light orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.25971 fibula, calcaneus, talus, proximal.phalanx.1, plantaris, gastrocnemius, soleus, extensor.hallucis.brevis, abductor.hallucis

4(long flexor/extensor toes; shown in light green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 8e-05 middle.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.5, extensor.digitorum.longus, flexor.digitorum.longus, extensor.digitorum.brevis, flexor.digitorum.brevis, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.4

5(digit 5 movement; shown in dark green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.05589 metatarsal.5, proximal.phalanx.5, fibularis.brevis, fibularis.tertius, abductor.digiti.minimi, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, plantar.interosseus.3

6(digit 3 movement; shown in dark blue in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.11717 metatarsal.3, proximal.phalanx.3, lumbrical.2, plantar.interosseus.1, dorsal.interosseus.3

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7(axial-pelvic girdle; shown in light blue in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.1844 ribs, vertebrae, quadratus.lumborum, piriformis

8(digit 4 movement; shown in dark magenta in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.69146 proximal.phalanx.4, lumbrical.3, plantar.interosseus.2, dorsal.interosseus.4

9(distal phalanx digit 1 movement; shown in pink in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.25249 distal.phalanx.1, extensor.hallucis.longus, flexor.hallucis.longus

Supplementary Table 10. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1(ankle/digits 1-2 movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.00017 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform, lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.1, metatarsal.2, proximal.phalanx.2, fibularis.longus, tibialis.anterior, tiblialis.posterior, opponens.hallucis, lumbrical.1, flexor.hallucis.brevis, adductor.hallucis, plantar.interosseus.1, dorsal.interosseus.1

2(digits 3-4 movement; shown in dark magenta in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.00868 metatarsal.3, metatarsal.4, proximal.phalanx.3, proximal.phalanx.4, lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, plantar.interosseus.2, dorsal.interosseus.2, dorsal.interosseus.3, dorsal.interosseus.4, contrahens.pedis.4

3(ankle/digit 1 movement; shown in light orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.04554 fibula, calcaneus, talus, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.1, plantaris, gastrocnemius, soleus, extensor.hallucis.longus, flexor.hallucis.longus, extensor.hallucis.brevis, abductor.hallucis

4(hip-thigh-leg movement; shown in

TRUE 0 hip.bone, femur, patella, tibia, gluteus.medius, gluteus.minimus, ischiofemoralis, tensor.fasciae.latae, obturator.internus, obturator.externus, gemellus.superior,

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yellow in Fig. 3)

gemellus.inferior, quadratus.femoris, pectineus, sartorius, rectus.femoris, vastus.lateralis, vastus.intermedius, vastus.medialis, adductor.brevis, adductor.magnus, adductor.longus, adductor.minimus, biceps.femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, gracilis, popliteus

5(long flexor/extensor toes; shown in light green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.00013 middle.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.5, extensor.digitorum.longus, flexor.digitorum.longus, extensor.digitorum.brevis, flexor.digitorum.brevis, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.4

6(digit 5 movement; shown in dark green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.03602 metatarsal.5, proximal.phalanx.5, fibularis.tertius, abductor.digiti.minimi, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, plantar.interosseus.3, contrahens.pedis.5, opponens.digiti.minimi

7(axial-pelvic girdle; shown in light blue in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.1947 ribs, vertebrae, quadratus.lumborum, gluteus.maximus, piriformis, iliopsoas, psoas.minor

Supplementary Table 11. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1(ankle/digits 1-4 movement; shown in dark orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform, lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.1, metatarsal.2, metatarsal.3, metatarsal.4, proximal.phalanx.2, proximal.phalanx.3, proximal.phalanx.4, fibularis.longus, tibialis.anterior, tiblialis.posterior, opponens.hallucis, lumbrical.1, lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, flexor.hallucis.brevis, adductor.hallucis, plantar.interosseus.1, plantar.interosseus.2, dorsal.interosseus.1, dorsal.interosseus.2, dorsal.interosseus.3, dorsal.interosseus.4, contrahens.pedis.4

2(ankle/digit 1 movement; shown in light orange in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.03855 fibula, calcaneus, talus, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.1, plantaris, gastrocnemius, soleus, extensor.hallucis.longus, flexor.hallucis.longus, extensor.hallucis.brevis, abductor.hallucis

3(hip-thigh-leg

TRUE 0 hip.bone, femur, patella, tibia, gluteus.medius, gluteus.minimus, scansorius, ischiofemoralis,

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movement; shown in yellow in Fig. 3)

tensor.fasciae.latae, obturator.internus, obturator.externus, gemellus.superior, gemellus.inferior, quadratus.femoris, pectineus, sartorius, rectus.femoris, vastus.lateralis, vastus.intermedius, vastus.medialis, adductor.brevis, adductor.magnus, adductor.longus, adductor.minimus, biceps.femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, gracilis, popliteus

4(long flexor/extensor toes; shown in light green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.00013 middle.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.5, extensor.digitorum.longus, flexor.digitorum.longus, extensor.digitorum.brevis, flexor.digitorum.brevis, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.4

5(digit 5 movement; shown in dark green in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.03602 metatarsal.5, proximal.phalanx.5, fibularis.tertius, abductor.digiti.minimi, flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis, plantar.interosseus.3, contrahens.pedis.5, opponens.digiti.minimi

6(axial-pelvic girdle; shown in light blue in Fig. 3)

TRUE 0.1947 ribs, vertebrae, quadratus.lumborum, gluteus.maximus, piriformis, iliopsoas, psoas.minor

SUPPLEMENTARY RESULTS OF THE SKELETAL COMPONENT

Supplementary Table 12. Network parameters for every skeletal component.N K D C L H

Homo sapiens Head 39 78 0.105 0.442 2.671 0.805Pan troglodytes Head 41 76 0.093 0.382 2.775 0.819Pan paniscus Head 41 76 0.093 0.382 2.775 0.819Homo sapiens Forelimb 36 48 0.076 0.200 5.060 0.567Pan troglodytes Forelimb 36 48 0.076 0.200 5.060 0.567Pan paniscus Forelimb 36 48 0.076 0.200 5.060 0.567Homo sapiens Hindlimb 33 43 0.081 0.183 4.695 0.551Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 33 43 0.081 0.183 4.695 0.551Pan paniscus Hindlimb 33 43 0.081 0.183 4.695 0.551

Key connections. The higher the value of the edge betweenness, the more important is the link. The printed values are for the top ones.

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occipital vertebrae 28temporal.left sphenoid 36temporal.left malleus.left 54temporal.right sphenoid 36temporal.right malleus.right 54sphenoid frontal 30sphenoid ethmoidal 37sphenoid tensor.tympani.left 41sphenoid tensor.tympani.right 41malleus.left incus.left 54malleus.right incus.right 54incus.left stapes.left 28incus.right stapes.right 28

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occipital vertebrae 30temporal.left sphenoid 37temporal.left malleus.left 60temporal.right sphenoid 37temporal.right malleus.right 60sphenoid frontal 39sphenoid ethmoidal 32sphenoid tensor.tympani.left 44sphenoid tensor.tympani.right 44malleus.left incus.left 58malleus.right incus.right 58incus.left stapes.left 30incus.right stapes.right 30

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occipital vertebrae 30temporal.left sphenoid 37temporal.left malleus.left 60temporal.right sphenoid 37temporal.right malleus.right 60sphenoid frontal 39sphenoid ethmoidal 32sphenoid tensor.tympani.left 44sphenoid tensor.tympani.right 44malleus.left incus.left 58malleus.right incus.right 58incus.left stapes.left 30incus.right stapes.right 30

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sternum ribs 99sternum clavicle 128clavicle scapula 155scapula humerus 180humerus radius 196radius scaphoid 115radius lunate 127trapezium metacarpal.1 99metacarpal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 99metacarpal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 99metacarpal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 99metacarpal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 99

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ribs sternum 99sternum clavicle 128scapula clavicle 155scapula humerus 180humerus radius 196radius scaphoid 115radius lunate 127trapezium metacarpal.1 99metacarpal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 99metacarpal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 99metacarpal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 99metacarpal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 99

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ribs sternum 99sternum clavicle 128scapula clavicle 155scapula humerus 180humerus radius 196radius scaphoid 115radius lunate 127trapezium metacarpal.1 99metacarpal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 99metacarpal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 99metacarpal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 99metacarpal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 99

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hip.bone femur 90femur tibia 140tibia talus 156talus navicular 164medial.cuneiform metatarsal.1 90metatarsal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 90metatarsal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 90metatarsal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 90metatarsal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 90

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hip.bone femur 90femur tibia 140tibia talus 156talus navicular 164medial.cuneiform metatarsal.1 90metatarsal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 90metatarsal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 90metatarsal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 90metatarsal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 90

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hip.bone femur 90femur tibia 140tibia talus 156talus navicular 164medial.cuneiform metatarsal.1 90metatarsal.2 proximal.phalanx.2 90metatarsal.3 proximal.phalanx.3 90metatarsal.4 proximal.phalanx.4 90metatarsal.5 proximal.phalanx.5 90

Supplementary Table 13. Best partitions identified using the random walk-trap algorithm.# Modules Q value Expected error

Homo sapiens Head 8 0.4368015 0.0529441Pan troglodytes Head 8 0.4348165 0.0542833Pan paniscus Head 8 0.4348165 0.0542833Homo sapiens Forelimb 9 0.5000000 0.0797776Pan troglodytes Forelimb 9 0.5000000 0.0797776Pan paniscus Forelimb 9 0.5000000 0.0797776Homo sapiens Hindlimb 8 0.5359654 0.0809061Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 8 0.5359654 0.0809061Pan paniscus Hindlimb 8 0.5359654 0.0809061

Supplementary Table 14. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.07865 sternum, clavicle.left, scapula.left2 TRUE 0.00012 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left,

temporal.right, sphenoid, zygomatic.left, zygomatic.right, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, vertebrae,

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tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right3 TRUE 0.00885 thyroid.cartilage, arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right,

cricoid.cartilage4 TRUE 0.30854 incus.left, stapes.left5 TRUE 0.30854 incus.right, stapes.right6 TRUE 0.30854 clavicle.right, scapula.right7 TRUE 0.00017 frontal, ethmoidal, nasal.left, nasal.right, maxilla.left,

maxilla.right, lacrimal.left, lacrimal.right, palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer

8 FALSE 1 hyoid.bone

Supplementary Table 15. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 5e-05 premaxilla.left, premaxilla.right, frontal, ethmoidal, nasal.left,

nasal.right, maxilla.left, maxilla.right, lacrimal.left, lacrimal.right, palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer

2 TRUE 0.07865 sternum, clavicle.left, scapula.left3 TRUE 0.00012 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left,

temporal.right, sphenoid, zygomatic.left, zygomatic.right, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, vertebrae, tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right

4 TRUE 0.00885 thyroid.cartilage, arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right, cricoid.cartilage

5 TRUE 0.30854 incus.left, stapes.left6 TRUE 0.30854 incus.right, stapes.right7 TRUE 0.30854 clavicle.right, scapula.right8 FALSE 1 hyoid.bone

Supplementary Table 16. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 5e-05 premaxilla.left, premaxilla.right, frontal, ethmoidal, nasal.left,

nasal.right, maxilla.left, maxilla.right, lacrimal.left, lacrimal.right, palatine.left, palatine.right, vomer

2 TRUE 0.07865 sternum, clavicle.left, scapula.left3 TRUE 0.00012 occipital, parietal.left, parietal.right, temporal.left,

temporal.right, sphenoid, zygomatic.left, zygomatic.right, malleus.left, malleus.right, mandible, vertebrae, tensor.tympani.left, tensor.tympani.right

4 TRUE 0.00885 thyroid.cartilage, arytenoid.left, arytenoid.right, cricoid.cartilage

5 TRUE 0.30854 incus.left, stapes.left6 TRUE 0.30854 incus.right, stapes.right7 TRUE 0.30854 clavicle.right, scapula.right8 FALSE 1 hyoid.bone

Supplementary Table 17. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements

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1 TRUE 3e-05 trapezoid, trapezium, scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, hamate, capitate, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, metacarpal.4, metacarpal.5

2 TRUE 0.04318 sternum, ribs, clavicle, scapula3 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.54 TRUE 0.07865 metacarpal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.15 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.26 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.47 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.38 TRUE 0.09835 humerus, radius, ulna9 TRUE 0.30854 occipital, vertebrae

Supplementary Table 18. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 3e-05 scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid,

capitate, hamate, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, metacarpal.4, metacarpal.5

2 TRUE 0.04318 ribs, sternum, scapula, clavicle3 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.54 TRUE 0.07865 metacarpal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.15 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.26 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalax.47 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.38 TRUE 0.09835 humerus, radius, ulna9 TRUE 0.30854 occipital, vertebrae

Supplementary Table 19. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 3e-05 scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid,

capitate, hamate, metacarpal.2, metacarpal.3, metacarpal.4, metacarpal.5

2 TRUE 0.04318 ribs, sternum, scapula, clavicle3 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.54 TRUE 0.07865 metacarpal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.15 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.26 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalax.47 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.38 TRUE 0.09835 humerus, radius, ulna9 TRUE 0.30854 occipital, vertebrae

Supplementary Table 20. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00744 femur, patella, tibia, fibula, calcaneus, talus2 TRUE 0.00012 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform,

lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.2, metatarsal.3, metatarsal.4, metatarsal.5

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3 TRUE 0.07865 ribs, vertebrae, hip.bone4 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.55 TRUE 0.07865 metatarsal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.16 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.27 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.48 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.3

Supplementary Table 21. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00744 femur, patella, tibia, fibula, calcaneus, talus2 TRUE 0.00012 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform,

lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.2, metatarsal.3, metatarsal.4, metatarsal.5

3 TRUE 0.07865 ribs, vertebrae, hip.bone4 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.55 TRUE 0.07865 metatarsal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.16 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.27 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.48 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.3

Supplementary Table 22. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00744 femur, patella, tibia, fibula, calcaneus, talus2 TRUE 0.00012 navicular, cuboid, medial.cuneiform, intermediate.cuneiform,

lateral.cuneiform, metatarsal.2, metatarsal.3, metatarsal.4, metatarsal.5

3 TRUE 0.07865 ribs, vertebrae, hip.bone4 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.5, middle.phalanx.5, distal.phalanx.55 TRUE 0.07865 metatarsal.1, proximal.phalanx.1, distal.phalanx.16 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.2, middle.phalanx.2, distal.phalanx.27 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.4, middle.phalanx.4, distal.phalanx.48 TRUE 0.07865 proximal.phalanx.3, middle.phalanx.3, distal.phalanx.3

SUPPLEMENTARY RESULTS OF THE MUSCULAR COMPONENT

Supplementary Table 23. Network parameters for every muscular network.N K D C L H

Homo sapiens Head 118 80 0.012 0.503 3.096 1.320Pan troglodytes Head 113 88 0.014 0.452 3.061 1.160Pan paniscus Head 111 87 0.014 0.452 3.063 1.162Homo sapiens Forelimb 58 4 0.002 0.000 1.600 4.174Pan troglodytes Forelimb 63 5 0.003 0.000 1.545 3.615Pan paniscus Forelimb 59 5 0.003 0.000 1.545 3.491Homo sapiens Hindlimb 58 6 0.004 0.000 1.625 3.478Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 64 6 0.003 0.000 1.625 3.665Pan paniscus Hindlimb 65 6 0.003 0.000 1.625 3.695

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Key connections. The higher the value of the edge betweenness, the more important is the link. The printed values are for the top ones.

zygomaticus.minor.left orbicularis.oris.left 132zygomaticus.minor.right orbicularis.oris.right 132orbicularis.oris.left orbicularis.oris.right 236

orbicularis.oris.left 224orbicularis.oris.right 224

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orbicularis.oris.left 224orbicularis.oris.right 224

flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.1 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.2 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.3 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.4 4

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flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.1 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.2 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.3 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.4 4

flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.1 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.2 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.3 4flexor.digitorum.profundus lumbrical.4 4

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flexor.digitorum.longus quadratus.plantae 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.1 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.2 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.3 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.4 5

flexor.digitorum.longus quadratus.plantae 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.1 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.2 5

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flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.3 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.4 5

flexor.digitorum.longus quadratus.plantae 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.1 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.2 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.3 5flexor.digitorum.longus lumbrical.4 5

Supplementary Table 24. Best partitions identified using the random walk-trap algorithm.# Modules Q value Expected error

Homo sapiens Head 57 0.8194531 0.0356270Pan troglodytes Head 51 0.7389592 0.0440660Pan paniscus Head 50 0.7347735 0.0444858Homo sapiens Forelimb 58 0.0000000 0.0000000Pan troglodytes Forelimb 58 0.3200000 0.3000000Pan paniscus Forelimb 54 0.3200000 0.3000000Homo sapiens Hindlimb 52 0.2777778 0.2666667Pan troglodytes Hindlimb 58 0.2777778 0.2666667Pan paniscus Hindlimb 59 0.2777778 0.2666667

Supplementary Table 25. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 8e-05 occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, zygomaticus.minor.left,

zygomaticus.minor.right, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.left, orbicularis.oculi.right, procerus.left, procerus.right

2 TRUE 0.00017 platysma.myoides.left, risorius.left, zygomaticus.major.left, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left,

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levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.left

3 TRUE 0.00017 platysma.myoides.right, risorius.right, zygomaticus.major.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.right

4 TRUE 0.04318 buccinatorius.left, buccinatorius.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right

5 TRUE 0.02967 digastricus.anterior.left, stylohyoideus.left, digastricus.posterior.left

6 TRUE 0.02967 digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.right

7 TRUE 0.02967 temporoparietalis.left, auricularis.anterior.left, auricularis.superior.left

8 TRUE 0.02967 temporoparietalis.right, auricularis.anterior.right, auricularis.superior.right

9 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.left, temporalis.main.body.left10 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.right11 TRUE 0.09697 tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right12 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left13 TRUE 0.09697 omohyoideus.pars.superior.right,

omohyoideus.pars.inferior.right14 TRUE 0.09697 mentalis.left, mentalis.right15 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right16 TRUE 0.09697 mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right17 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.right18 TRUE 0.09697 levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right19 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.left,

salpingopharyngeus.left20 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.right, palatopharyngeus.right,

salpingopharyngeus.right21 TRUE 0.09697 arytenoideus.transversus, arytenoideus.obliquus22 TRUE 0.09697 geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right23 TRUE 0.09697 trapezius.left, trapezius.right24 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left,

constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right25 TRUE 0.09697 omohyoideus.pars.superior.left, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.left26 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left,

constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right27 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.left, styloglossus.left28 FALSE 1 stapedius.left

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29 FALSE 1 stapedius.right30 FALSE 1 auricularis.posterior.left31 FALSE 1 auricularis.posterior.right32 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.left33 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.right34 FALSE 1 corrugator.supercilii.left35 FALSE 1 corrugator.supercilii.right36 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.left37 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.right38 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.left39 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.right40 FALSE 1 cricothyroideus.left41 FALSE 1 cricothyroideus.right42 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.left43 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.right44 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left45 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right46 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left47 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right48 FALSE 1 genioglossus.left49 FALSE 1 genioglossus.right50 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.left51 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.right52 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.left53 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.right54 FALSE 1 sternothryroideus.left55 FALSE 1 sternothryroideus.right56 FALSE 1 thyrohyoideus.left57 FALSE 1 thyrohyoideus.right

Supplementary Table 26. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 6e-05 occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, auricularis.posterior.left,

auricularis.posterior.right, zygomaticus.major.left, zygomaticus.minor.left, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, auriculo.orbitalis.left, orbicularis.oculi.left, corrugator.supercilii.left, procerus.left, procerus.right

2 TRUE 0.02353 digastricus.anterior.left, digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.left, digastricus.posterior.left

3 TRUE 0.02791 zygomaticus.major.right, zygomaticus.minor.right, auriculo.orbitalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.right, corrugator.supercilii.right

4 TRUE 0.00428 platysma.myoides.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.right

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5 TRUE 0.00428 platysma.myoides.left, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left, levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.left

6 TRUE 0.04318 buccinatorius.left, buccinatorius.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right

7 TRUE 0.30854 stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.right8 TRUE 0.09697 mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right9 TRUE 0.09697 tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right10 TRUE 0.09697 sternothryroideus.left, thyrohyoideus.left11 TRUE 0.09697 sternothryroideus.right, thyrohyoideus.right12 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.left, styloglossus.left13 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left,

constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right14 TRUE 0.09697 omohyoideus.pars.superior.left, omohyoideus.pars.inferior.left15 TRUE 0.09697 cricothyroideus.left, cricothyroideus.right16 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.right17 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.right, palatopharyngeus.right,

salpingopharyngeus.right18 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left19 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right20 TRUE 0.09697 genioglossus.left, genioglossus.right21 TRUE 0.09697 trapezius.left, trapezius.right22 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.left, temporalis.main.body.left23 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.right24 TRUE 0.09697 levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right25 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left,

constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right26 TRUE 0.09697 omohyoideus.pars.superior.right,

omohyoideus.pars.inferior.right27 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.left,

salpingopharyngeus.left28 TRUE 0.09697 geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right29 FALSE 1 stapedius.left30 FALSE 1 stapedius.right31 FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.left32 FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.right33 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.left34 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.right35 FALSE 1 mentalis.left36 FALSE 1 mentalis.right37 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.left38 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.right

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39 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.left40 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.right41 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.left42 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.right43 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left44 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right45 FALSE 1 arytenoideus46 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left47 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right48 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.left49 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.right50 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.left51 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.right

Supplementary Table 27. Connectivity modules identified for the head of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 6e-05 occipitalis.left, occipitalis.right, auricularis.posterior.left,

auricularis.posterior.right, zygomaticus.major.left, zygomaticus.minor.left, frontalis.left, frontalis.right, auriculo.orbitalis.left, orbicularis.oculi.left, corrugator.supercilii.left, procerus.left, procerus.right

2 TRUE 0.02353 digastricus.anterior.left, digastricus.anterior.right, stylohyoideus.right, digastricus.posterior.right

3 TRUE 0.02791 zygomaticus.major.right, zygomaticus.minor.right, auriculo.orbitalis.right, orbicularis.oculi.right, corrugator.supercilii.right

4 TRUE 0.00428 platysma.myoides.right, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.right, levator.labii.superioris.right, nasalis.right, depressor.septi.nasi.right, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.right, orbicularis.oris.right, depressor.labii.inferioris.right, depressor.anguli.oris.right

5 TRUE 0.00428 platysma.myoides.left, levator.labii.superioris.alaeque.nasi.left, levator.labii.superioris.left, nasalis.left, depressor.septi.nasi.left, levator.anguli.oris.facialis.left, orbicularis.oris.left, depressor.labii.inferioris.left, depressor.anguli.oris.left

6 TRUE 0.04318 buccinatorius.left, buccinatorius.right, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.superior.right

7 TRUE 0.30854 stylohyoideus.left, digastricus.posterior.left8 TRUE 0.09697 mentalis.left, mentalis.right9 TRUE 0.09697 mylohyoideus.left, mylohyoideus.right10 TRUE 0.09697 sternothryroideus.left, thyrohyoideus.left11 TRUE 0.09697 sternothryroideus.right, thyrohyoideus.right12 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.medius.left,

constrictor.pharyngis.medius.right13 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.left, styloglossus.left

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14 TRUE 0.09697 constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.left, constrictor.pharyngis.inferior.right

15 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.right, palatopharyngeus.right, salpingopharyngeus.right

16 TRUE 0.09697 genioglossus.left, genioglossus.right17 TRUE 0.02343 stylopharyngeus.left, palatopharyngeus.left,

salpingopharyngeus.left18 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.left,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.left19 TRUE 0.09697 pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.superior.right,

pterygoideus.lateralis.pars.inferior.right20 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.left, temporalis.main.body.left21 TRUE 0.09697 tensor.veli.palatini.left, tensor.veli.palatini.right22 TRUE 0.09697 trapezius.left, trapezius.right23 TRUE 0.09697 hyoglossus.right, styloglossus.right24 TRUE 0.09697 geniohyoideus.left, geniohyoideus.right25 TRUE 0.09697 cricothyroideus.left, cricothyroideus.right26 TRUE 0.09697 levator.veli.palatini.left, levator.veli.palatini.right27 TRUE 0.09697 masseter.right, temporalis.main.body.right28 FALSE 1 stapedius.left29 FALSE 1 stapedius.right30 FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.left31 FALSE 1 auricularis.superior.right32 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.left33 FALSE 1 depressor.supercilii.right34 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.left35 FALSE 1 pterygoideus.medialis.right36 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.left37 FALSE 1 sternocleidomastoideus.right38 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.left39 FALSE 1 thyroarytenoideus.right40 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.left41 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.lateralis.right42 FALSE 1 arytenoideus43 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.left44 FALSE 1 cricoarytenoideus.posterior.right45 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.left46 FALSE 1 palatoglossus.right47 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.left48 FALSE 1 sternohyoideus.right49 FALSE 1 omohyoideus.left50 FALSE 1 omohyoideus.right

Supplementary Table 28. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 FALSE 1 subclavius2 FALSE 1 deltoid

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3 FALSE 1 supraspinatus4 FALSE 1 infraspinatus5 FALSE 1 teres.minor6 FALSE 1 teres.major7 FALSE 1 subscapularis8 FALSE 1 pectoralis.major9 FALSE 1 pectoralis.minor10 FALSE 1 serratus.anterior11 FALSE 1 levator.scapulae12 FALSE 1 rhomboid.minor13 FALSE 1 rhomboid.major14 FALSE 1 latissimus.dorsi15 FALSE 1 biceps.brachii16 FALSE 1 coracobrachialis17 FALSE 1 brachialis18 FALSE 1 triceps.brachii19 FALSE 1 anconeus20 FALSE 1 pronator.teres21 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.radialis22 FALSE 1 palmaris.longus23 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.ulnaris24 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.superficialis25 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.profundus26 FALSE 1 flexor.pollicis.longus27 FALSE 1 pronator.quadratus28 FALSE 1 brachioradialis29 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.longus30 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis31 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum32 FALSE 1 extensor.digiti.minimi33 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.ulnaris34 FALSE 1 supinator35 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.longus36 FALSE 1 extensor.pollicis.brevis37 FALSE 1 extensor.pollicis.longus38 FALSE 1 extensor.indicis39 FALSE 1 adductor.pollicis40 FALSE 1 adductor.pollicis.accessorius41 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.242 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.brevis43 FALSE 1 flexor.pollicis.brevis44 FALSE 1 opponens.pollicis45 FALSE 1 opponens.digiti.minimi46 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis47 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi48 FALSE 1 lumbrical.149 FALSE 1 lumbrical.2

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50 FALSE 1 lumbrical.351 FALSE 1 lumbrical.452 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.153 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.254 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.355 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.456 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.157 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.258 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.3

Supplementary Table 29. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00279 flexor.digitorum.profundus, lumbrical.1, lumbrical.2,

lumbrical.3, lumbrical.42 TRUE 0.09697 latissimus.dorsi, dorsoepitrochlearis3 FALSE 1 serratus.anterior4 FALSE 1 rhomboideus5 FALSE 1 levator.scapulae6 FALSE 1 levator.claviculae7 FALSE 1 subclavius8 FALSE 1 pectoralis.major9 FALSE 1 pectoralis.minor10 FALSE 1 infraspinatus11 FALSE 1 supraspinatus12 FALSE 1 deltoideus.13 FALSE 1 teres.minor14 FALSE 1 subscapularis15 FALSE 1 teres.major16 FALSE 1 triceps.brachii17 FALSE 1 brachialis18 FALSE 1 biceps.brachii19 FALSE 1 coracobrachialis20 FALSE 1 pronator.quadratus21 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.superficialis22 FALSE 1 palmaris.longus23 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.ulnaris24 FALSE 1 epitrochleoanconeus25 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.radialis26 FALSE 1 pronator.teres27 FALSE 1 contrahens.digitorum.428 FALSE 1 contrahens.digitorum.529 FALSE 1 adductor.pollicis30 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.231 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.332 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.433 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.534 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.6

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35 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.736 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.837 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.938 FALSE 1 intermetacarpal.139 FALSE 1 intermetacarpal.240 FALSE 1 intermetacarpal.341 FALSE 1 intermetacarpal.442 FALSE 1 flexor.pollicis.brevis43 FALSE 1 opponens.pollicis44 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis45 FALSE 1 opponens.digiti.minimi46 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.brevis47 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi48 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.longus49 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis50 FALSE 1 brachioradialis51 FALSE 1 supinator52 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.ulnaris53 FALSE 1 anconeus54 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum55 FALSE 1 extensor.digiti.minimi56 FALSE 1 extensor.indicis57 FALSE 1 extensor.pollicis.longus58 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.longus

Supplementary Table 30. Connectivity modules identified for the forelimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00279 flexor.digitorum.profundus, lumbrical.1, lumbrical.2,

lumbrical.3, lumbrical.42 TRUE 0.09697 latissimus.dorsi, dorsoepitrochlearis3 FALSE 1 serratus.anterior4 FALSE 1 rhomboideus5 FALSE 1 levator.scapulae6 FALSE 1 levator.claviculae7 FALSE 1 subclavius8 FALSE 1 pectoralis.major9 FALSE 1 pectoralis.minor10 FALSE 1 infraspinatus11 FALSE 1 supraspinatus12 FALSE 1 deltoideus.13 FALSE 1 teres.minor14 FALSE 1 subscapularis15 FALSE 1 teres.major16 FALSE 1 triceps.brachii17 FALSE 1 brachialis18 FALSE 1 biceps.brachii19 FALSE 1 coracobrachialis20 FALSE 1 pronator.quadratus

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21 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.superficialis22 FALSE 1 palmaris.longus23 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.ulnaris24 FALSE 1 epitrochleoanconeus25 FALSE 1 flexor.carpi.radialis26 FALSE 1 pronator.teres27 FALSE 1 contrahens.digitorum.428 FALSE 1 contrahens.digitorum.529 FALSE 1 adductor.pollicis30 FALSE 1 flexor.brevis.profundus.231 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.132 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.233 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.334 FALSE 1 interosseus.dorsalis.435 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.136 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.237 FALSE 1 interosseus.palmaris.338 FALSE 1 flexor.pollicis.brevis39 FALSE 1 opponens.pollicis40 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis41 FALSE 1 opponens.digiti.minimi42 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.brevis43 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi44 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.longus45 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.radialis.brevis46 FALSE 1 brachioradialis47 FALSE 1 supinator48 FALSE 1 extensor.carpi.ulnaris49 FALSE 1 anconeus50 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum51 FALSE 1 extensor.digiti.minimi52 FALSE 1 extensor.indicis53 FALSE 1 extensor.pollicis.longus54 FALSE 1 abductor.pollicis.longus

Supplementary Table 31. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Homo sapiens.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00091 flexor.digitorum.longus, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.1,

lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, lumbrical.42 TRUE 0.09697 extensor.digitorum.longus, fibularis.tertius3 FALSE 1 quadratus.lumborum4 FALSE 1 gluteus.maximus5 FALSE 1 gluteus.medius6 FALSE 1 gluteus.minimus7 FALSE 1 tensor.fasciae.latae8 FALSE 1 obturator.internus9 FALSE 1 obturator.externus

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10 FALSE 1 gemellus.superior11 FALSE 1 gemellus.inferior12 FALSE 1 piriformis13 FALSE 1 iliopsoas14 FALSE 1 quadratus.femoris15 FALSE 1 pectineus16 FALSE 1 sartorius17 FALSE 1 rectus.femoris18 FALSE 1 vastus.lateralis19 FALSE 1 vastus.intermedius20 FALSE 1 vastus.medialis21 FALSE 1 adductor.brevis22 FALSE 1 adductor.magnus23 FALSE 1 adductor.longus24 FALSE 1 biceps.femoris25 FALSE 1 semitendinosus26 FALSE 1 semimembranosus27 FALSE 1 gracilis28 FALSE 1 plantaris29 FALSE 1 gastrocnemius30 FALSE 1 soleus31 FALSE 1 fibularis.longus32 FALSE 1 fibularis.brevis33 FALSE 1 tibialis.anterior34 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.longus35 FALSE 1 tiblialis.posterior36 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.longus37 FALSE 1 popliteus38 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum.brevis39 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.brevis40 FALSE 1 abductor.hallucis41 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.brevis42 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi43 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.brevis44 FALSE 1 adductor.hallucis45 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis46 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.147 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.248 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.349 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.150 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.251 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.352 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.4

Supplementary Table 32. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan troglodytes.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00091 flexor.digitorum.longus, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.1,

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lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, lumbrical.42 TRUE 0.09697 extensor.digitorum.longus, fibularis.tertius3 FALSE 1 quadratus.lumborum4 FALSE 1 gluteus.maximus5 FALSE 1 gluteus.medius6 FALSE 1 gluteus.minimus7 FALSE 1 ischiofemoralis8 FALSE 1 tensor.fasciae.latae9 FALSE 1 obturator.internus10 FALSE 1 obturator.externus11 FALSE 1 gemellus.superior12 FALSE 1 gemellus.inferior13 FALSE 1 piriformis14 FALSE 1 iliopsoas15 FALSE 1 psoas.minor16 FALSE 1 quadratus.femoris17 FALSE 1 pectineus18 FALSE 1 sartorius19 FALSE 1 rectus.femoris20 FALSE 1 vastus.lateralis21 FALSE 1 vastus.intermedius22 FALSE 1 vastus.medialis23 FALSE 1 adductor.brevis24 FALSE 1 adductor.magnus25 FALSE 1 adductor.longus26 FALSE 1 adductor.minimus27 FALSE 1 biceps.femoris28 FALSE 1 semitendinosus29 FALSE 1 semimembranosus30 FALSE 1 gracilis31 FALSE 1 plantaris32 FALSE 1 gastrocnemius33 FALSE 1 soleus34 FALSE 1 fibularis.longus35 FALSE 1 tibialis.anterior36 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.longus37 FALSE 1 tiblialis.posterior38 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.longus39 FALSE 1 popliteus40 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum.brevis41 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.brevis42 FALSE 1 opponens.hallucis43 FALSE 1 abductor.hallucis44 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.brevis45 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi46 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.brevis47 FALSE 1 adductor.hallucis

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48 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis49 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.150 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.251 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.352 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.153 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.254 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.355 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.456 FALSE 1 contrahens.pedis.457 FALSE 1 contrahens.pedis.558 FALSE 1 opponens.digiti.minimi

Supplementary Table 33. Connectivity modules identified for the hindlimb of Pan paniscus.ID module p-value Elements1 TRUE 0.00091 flexor.digitorum.longus, quadratus.plantae, lumbrical.1,

lumbrical.2, lumbrical.3, lumbrical.42 TRUE 0.09697 extensor.digitorum.longus, fibularis.tertius3 FALSE 1 quadratus.lumborum4 FALSE 1 gluteus.maximus5 FALSE 1 gluteus.medius6 FALSE 1 gluteus.minimus7 FALSE 1 scansorius8 FALSE 1 ischiofemoralis9 FALSE 1 tensor.fasciae.latae10 FALSE 1 obturator.internus11 FALSE 1 obturator.externus12 FALSE 1 gemellus.superior13 FALSE 1 gemellus.inferior14 FALSE 1 piriformis15 FALSE 1 iliopsoas16 FALSE 1 psoas.minor17 FALSE 1 quadratus.femoris18 FALSE 1 pectineus19 FALSE 1 sartorius20 FALSE 1 rectus.femoris21 FALSE 1 vastus.lateralis22 FALSE 1 vastus.intermedius23 FALSE 1 vastus.medialis24 FALSE 1 adductor.brevis25 FALSE 1 adductor.magnus26 FALSE 1 adductor.longus

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27 FALSE 1 adductor.minimus28 FALSE 1 biceps.femoris29 FALSE 1 semitendinosus30 FALSE 1 semimembranosus31 FALSE 1 gracilis32 FALSE 1 plantaris33 FALSE 1 gastrocnemius34 FALSE 1 soleus35 FALSE 1 fibularis.longus36 FALSE 1 tibialis.anterior37 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.longus38 FALSE 1 tiblialis.posterior39 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.longus40 FALSE 1 popliteus41 FALSE 1 extensor.digitorum.brevis42 FALSE 1 extensor.hallucis.brevis43 FALSE 1 opponens.hallucis44 FALSE 1 abductor.hallucis45 FALSE 1 flexor.digitorum.brevis46 FALSE 1 abductor.digiti.minimi47 FALSE 1 flexor.hallucis.brevis48 FALSE 1 adductor.hallucis49 FALSE 1 flexor.digiti.minimi.brevis50 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.151 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.252 FALSE 1 plantar.interosseus.353 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.154 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.255 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.356 FALSE 1 dorsal.interosseus.457 FALSE 1 contrahens.pedis.458 FALSE 1 contrahens.pedis.559 FALSE 1 opponens.digiti.minimi


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