Middle Pleistocene glaciation, alluvial fan development, and sea level

change in the Bay of Kotor, Montenegro

K. R. Adamson1*, J. C. Woodward2, P. D. Hughes2, F. Giglio3, F. Del Bianco3

1 Geography and Environmental Management, School of Science and the Environment, Manchester

Metropolitan University, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK. *Corresponding author (e-mail:

k.adamson@mmu.ac.uk)2 Geography, School of Environment, Education and Development, The University of Manchester,

Manchester, M13 9PL, UK3Institute of Marine Science - National Research Council, ISMAR-CNR, Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129

Bologna, Italy

Abstract

A coarse-grained alluvial fan at Lipci in the Bay of Kotor, western Montenegro, was

deposited in the Middle Pleistocene by a high energy, steep gradient proglacial stream

draining an outlet glacier on the Orjen Massif. Today the fan apex is about 50 m above

sea level but the majority (c. 60 %) of this landform now lies offshore. Field mapping,

sedimentological analysis, and uranium–series dating have been combined with marine

bathymetric survey and seismic profiling to explore the morphology and history of the

entire fan complex. Lipci fan was deposited on the margin of a large polje downstream

of moraines that formed during the Middle Pleistocene (MIS 12). During the glacial

stages of the Middle Pleistocene, sea level may have been more than 120 m lower than

present. The sediments on the terrestrial portion of the fan are strongly cemented by

secondary calcite and the oldest uranium-series ages show that the fan was deposited

before 320 ka. These ages are consistent with a larger uranium-series dataset (n=39)

from other glacial and glaciofluvial formations surrounding Mount Orjen. Seismic

profiling of the submerged portion of the fan in the Bay of Kotor shows well preserved

palaeochannels with inset terraces. The Lipci fan is unusual because even its distal

segments are well-preserved after exposure to multiple post-MIS12

regression/transgression cycles. This is probably due to strong cementation of the fan

sediments and its sheltered location in the Bay of Kotor.

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Introduction

Alluvial fans are a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean landscape (Macklin et al.

1995; Harvey et al., 1999; Crosta & Frattini, 2004; Pope & Wilkinson, 2005). They are

especially well developed where steep channels deliver large quantities of coarse

bedload at mountain fronts. In some settings alluvial fans can include large volumes of

sediment generated by Pleistocene glaciation in the upstream catchment (see Nemec &

Postma 1993; Fontana et al. 2008; Pope et al. 2008; Adamson et al. 2014a). Thick fan

deposits are found in all parts of the Mediterranean including karst settings on the

margins of large poljes (Lewin and Woodward, 2009; Adamson et al. 2014a; 2015).

Quaternary-age coastal fans may form a record of long-term interaction between

terrestrial sediment supply and fluvial and marine erosion under conditions of changing

sea level during glacial/interglacial cycles (Harvey et al. 1999; Andreucci et al. 2009). As

eustatic sea level rose at the end of glacial periods, many coastal fans were eroded by

wave action to reveal deep exposures in the fan deposits – the Lefka Ori fans of

southwest Crete are a particularly good example (Pope et al. 2008). Where karstic

processes are active, however, fan sediments may be strongly cemented by secondary

carbonates and this can increase their resistance to coastal erosion and reworking.

Coastal fans in glaciated Mediterranean catchments

The Venetian-Friulian Plain of northern Italy (Fontana et al. 2008) and the landscape

downstream of the Lefka Ori massif in Crete (Nemec & Postma, 1993; Pope et al. 2008)

are perhaps the best known examples of glacially-fed coastal alluvial fans in the

Mediterranean region although it is important to note that the nature and extent of

glaciation on Crete is still open to debate (Hughes and Woodward, 2009). The

Pleistocene megafans of the Venetian-Friulian Plain do not extend offshore, but the

geomorphology, sedimentology, and radiocarbon (14C) dating of the fan sequences show

clear links with the upstream glacial record. Maximum aggradation occurred between

24-15 ka, close to the global Last Glacial Maximum, when Alpine glaciers advanced into

the foreland and delivered large volumes of sediment to the Venetian-Friulian Plain

(Fontana et al. 2008). Later phases of aggradation and incision have been linked to sea-

level fluctuation and, more recently, catchment land-use change (Fontana et al. 2008).

In a rather different setting in southwest Crete, a large alluvial fan complex extends to

the coast downstream of the Lefka Ori limestone massif. Nemec and Postma (1993)

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suggested that major phases of alluvial fan deposition were associated with meltwater

and glaciofluvial sediment delivery from the massif. Over two decades ago Nemec &

Postma (1993) identified three phases of alluvial fan aggradation in this part of Crete.

More recent work has correlated these phases – largely on the basis of luminescence

dating – to the Early Pleistocene; the Middle-Late Pleistocene (MIS 6-2); and the

Holocene (Pope et al. 2008). The bulk of the fan complex is believed to have

accumulated during the Pleistocene, when glacial meltwater supplied large volumes of

sediment (Nemec & Postma, 1993). It is, of course, well established that glaciation is not

necessary to produce sustained increases in sediment supply and valley-floor

aggradation in Mediterranean catchments (Macklin et al., 2002; Macklin and

Woodward, 2009). Many catchments in Crete that were not glaciated contain extensive

alluvial fans so further work is needed to test the proposed links between mountain

glaciation and fan evolution in coastal settings.

Fans play an important role in buffering downstream sediment transfer. Where fan

preservation is good, they can form extended records of fluvial processes (sediment

deposition, channel incision etc.) and landscape evolution. Establishing the timing of fan

formation in a variety of settings is therefore important for understanding long-term

landscape change in the Mediterranean (Macklin and Woodward, 2009) and – in the

context of the present study – for elucidating links between glacial activity and

landscape change downstream of the glaciated upland zone. This study examines the

evolution of a coarse-grained, glacially-fed Pleistocene alluvial fan at Lipci that currently

lies at the coast in the Bay of Kotor, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea in western Montenegro

(Figs. 1 and 2).

Study area

The Orjen massif and its Quaternary glacial history

The Orjen massif is an upland limestone plateau (>1,000 m a.s.l) that rises steeply above

the northwestern end of the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro (Fig. 1). The highest peak on

the massif is Zubački kabao at 1,894 m a.s.l. The Orjen massif is one of the wettest parts

of Europe with annual rainfall exceeding 4,000 mm (Ducić et al. 2012). The highest

recorded annual precipitation of 8,063 mm was measured on the eastern slope of Orjen

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at Crkvice (940 m a.s.l.) in 1937 (Mağas 2002). The massif has been intensively

karstified and is characterised by dolines and poljes, as well as caverns linked by an

extensive subterranean drainage network (Groupe Spéléologique Muséum National

d’Histoire Naturelle Paris 2003).

During the cold stages of the Pleistocene, large ice caps and valley glaciers developed on

the Orjen massif leaving evidence for at least four phases of glaciation. Secondary

calcites from tills have been uranium-series dated and correlated to MIS 12, 6, 5d-2, and

the Younger Dryas (Hughes et al. 2010). During the most extensive glacial phase (MIS

12), meltwater channels delivered large volumes of coarse- and fine-grained limestone

sediment from the glaciated uplands to the surrounding basins including what is now

the Bay of Kotor (Adamson et al. 2014a, b). During this glacial stage, the poljes on the

flanks of the Orjen massif were filled with thick deposits of coarse-grained limestone-

rich proglacial sands and gravels (Adamson et al. 2014a, b, Adamson et al. 2016). In the

cold stages that followed MIS 12, sediment supply was greatly reduced, and meltwater

was largely channelled through the subterranean karst networks. There is only limited

evidence of fluvial deposition at the land surface since MIS 12. The Pleistocene fluvial

record in these poljes has been documented by Adamson et al. (2014a, b, 2016).

Palaeogeography of the Bay of Kotor

The Bay of Kotor consists of three shallow, interconnected basins (Herceg Novi, Tivat,

and Morinj-Risan-Kotor Bay) that reach maximum depths of c. 60 m. During Pleistocene

glacial maxima, when sea level was c. 120 m lower than the present day (Shackleton,

1987; Rohling et al. 1998), the Adriatic coastline was located about 15 km west of the

Bay of Kotor. The inner bay would have been disconnected from the Adriatic Sea, and

subaerially exposed as a large dry polje (Fig. 1).

Several large alluvial fans – which today extend below sea level along the modern

coastline – formed along the steep margins of this now drowned polje. Some of these

fans were fed by meltwater and sediment from the ice caps on Orjen and Lovćen (Fig.

1). At least three large glacially-fed alluvial fans developed on the southern margins of

the Orjen massif (Fig. 1). The Kameno fan (c. 1 km long) terminates in a steep upland

basin, downstream of a large lateral moraine complex in southwest Orjen. Its

sedimentary sequence has been discussed elsewhere (Adamson et al., 2014a;b). The

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Lipci and Risan fans are situated at what is now the coast of the innermost basin, the

Morinj-Risan Bay, and both extend offshore (Fig. 1 and 2). This part of the Bay reaches

maximum depths of c. 45 m, and is connected to Tivat Bay by the Verige Strait (Fig. 2).

Lipci (42.4981°N, 18.6556°E; decimal degrees) is a large, relatively shallow gradient

(6%) alluvial fan that has formed at the lower end of a steep bedrock ravine (Fig. 3) in

the Morinj-Risan sector of the Bay of Kotor (Fig. 1 and 2). This ravine was an important

outlet for meltwater draining the southeastern part of the Orjen ice cap during MIS 12

(Fig. 3). On the other side of the Bay, two large fans flanking the medieval town of Kotor

(Fig. 1) drained part of the Lovćen ice cap (Žebre & Stepišnik, 2014) but these records

have not been dated.

Methods

Terrestrial field mapping, sedimentology, and uranium-series dating of the Lipci fan

The dimensions of the Lipci fan were recorded in the field onto 1:25,000 base maps and

checked using satellite imagery. The fan sediments were observed throughout the

deeply incised reach of the onshore sector of the fan (Fig. 3c) and logged in detail at four

locations – from close to the fan apex (c. 45 m a.s.l.) to c. 23 m above sea level (Fig. 4).

The sections were logged using standard techniques noting changes in features such as

sedimentary structure, contacts, fine matrix characteristics, bedload clast size and form.

Uranium-series dating has been widely used in the glaciokarst terrain of the

Mediterranean (see Kotarba et al. 2001; Hamlin et al. 2000; Woodward et al. 2004,

2008; Hughes et al. 2006, 2010; 2011; Woodward and Hughes, 2011; Adamson et al.

2014a). Seven horizons from the terrestrial part of Lipci fan that were strongly

cemented with calcite were sampled for uranium-series dating – each calcite profile was

described in the field using standard nomenclature (see Gile et al. 1966, Netterberg

1969). The position of each sample in the exposed fan stratigraphy is shown in Figure 4.

Samples were prepared in the laboratory following standard procedures (Edwards et al.

1987). The crystallography of each sample was observed using a low-power light

microscope and checked for any evidence of recrystallization, overprinting or re-

cementation of calcite macrofabrics, which could indicate open-system conditions

(Edwards et al. 1987). Observations via light microscopy also ensured that any multiple

5

calcite layers could be identified and separated in the laboratory. Large format thin-

sections of the calcite sample blocks were produced so that micromorphology could be

used to inform the selection of the secondary carbonate samples for uranium-series

dating (Adamson 2012, p. 192).

Sub-samples of calcite crystals were cleaned in 10% HCl and deionised water before

crushing to a fine powder using an agate pestle and mortar (Adamson 2012, p. 82-83).

Chemical preparation and isotope analyses were carried out at the Open University

Uranium Series Facility (OUUSF) with a Nu Instruments MC-ICPMS (see Adamson, 2012

and Adamson et al. 2014a). The 232Th/238U ratios of two detritus samples from Lipci and

Kameno fans were used to monitor detrital contamination and provide a basis for

sample correction. To test for open system behaviour, a simplified inversion model was

used following the methods of Villemant and Feuillet (2003). The model uses 230Th/234U

and 234U/238U ratios within the contaminated samples, plotted with reference to open–

and closed–system isochrons (Adamson 2012, Fig. 8.4).

Offshore bathymetric survey and seismic profiling

High-resolution morpho–bathymetric surveys of the Montenegro/North Albania

Continental Margin (MACM) were completed during six oceanographic cruises between

2008 and 2010. The surveys employed a combination of geophysical (swath bathymetry

and seismic reflector) and sediment sampling (box corer) techniques. The reports from

these surveys are available from the Instituto di Scienze Marine (ISMAR; Del Bianco et

al. 2014). A detailed bathymetric survey of the Bay of Kotor, which formed part of the

wider MACM assay, was completed in 2009 (Bortoluzzi et al. 2009). Transects were

taken across the submerged portion of the Lipci fan allowing us to observe lateral and

longitudinal profiles of the fan surface. Sediments collected using the box corer were

used to assess the grain size and distribution of recent sediments and provide a basis

for calibration of the geophysical data (see Bortoluzzi et al. 2009).

Results

Lipci fan: terrestrial deposits and landforms

At approximately 1 km in length from apex to fan toe, and covering an area of almost 1.5

km2, the fan at Lipci is one of the largest in the Bay of Kotor (Fig. 1 and 2). Whilst the

6

total thickness of the fan deposits is not known, the fan apex sits at c. 50 m above

present sea level and the lower portion of the fan extends for at least 600 m offshore

where the distal sections lie c. 25 m below sea level. The fan surface has been incised by

a series of channels. The largest, in the centre of the upper fan, is about 10 m deep and

up to 6 m wide. This channel extends offshore and is a prominent feature of the two

bathymetric profiles described below. At the modern coastline, the terrestrial portion of

the fan has been modified by the construction of industrial storage facilities, and it is not

possible to trace all of the channels in this sector of the fan (Fig. 3c).

The terrestrial part of the fan contains at least 10 m of massive to weakly stratified open

framework limestone gravels (Fig. 4 and 5). The sedimentology and lithology of the

Lipci fan sequence is similar in many respects to the other glaciofluvial deposits, in

poljes, fans, and river terraces, surrounding Orjen (Adamson et al. 2014a, Adamson et

al. 2016). They share many similarities to the limestone-rich outwash in other

Mediterranean catchments where karst terrain has been glaciated (e.g. Lewin et al.

1991; Woodward et al. 1992, 1995, 2008; Žebre & Stepišnik, 2014). The fan also

contains a significant proportion of angular limestone clasts that have been reworked

from the scree slopes above the fan apex. The Lipci fan sediments are strongly cemented

by secondary carbonates. The sediment matrix component is either scarce or strongly

cemented. The gravels are cemented by vadose zone carbonates (Sections L1 – L3) and

flowing water carbonates (Section L4). The main features of the secondary carbonates

are detailed in Table 3. The nature of the fan deposits has been recorded in detail at four

sections on the upper fan (Fig. 4 and 5).

Section L1: This is a 4 m exposure which also lies close to the fan apex (42.4994°N,

18.6549°E, 41 m a.s.l.) and about 980 m downstream of the former (MIS 12) ice margins

(Fig. 1; Hughes et al. 2010). The sediments at this site are dominantly massive, clast-

supported limestone gravels. Clasts are typically sub-angular to sub-rounded cobbles

and pebbles with some boulders (clast density 70-80%). The deposits are heavily

cemented by fine-grained calcite, rich in detrital limestone granules, sand and silt grains

(Fig. 4 and 5).

Section L1: Further down-fan, at section L2 (42.4984°N, 18.6554°E) at 30 m a.s.l. and c.

1,090 m from the ice margins, sub-rounded clasts are more abundant and a thin and

7

gravel-rich soil has developed at the surface (Fig. 4 and 5). This is the only location

where a laterally continuous soil profile has been observed. Similar to section L1, the

sediments are massive and clast-supported, though some stratified horizons are

present. The sequence is again strongly cemented by secondary carbonate, which has

developed as indurated benches (Hamlin et al. 2000) and as thick calcite rinds on clast

surfaces.

Section L3: This is a 6 m deep exposure (42.4981°N, 18.6556°E, 27 m a.s.l.) about 10 m

downstream of L2. In comparison to the sediments recorded up-fan, the clasts at L3 are

dominantly sub-angular with only a minor angular component (Fig. 4 and 5). The

sequence is also well-cemented in the form of thick carbonate benches and calcite rinds.

Calcite crystals are typically larger than those observed at section L1, and are much

lower in detrital sediment content.

Section L4: This site is located within a shallow, 2 m-thick, channel cutting slightly offset

from the main transect (42.4982°N, 18.6552°E, 23 m a.s.l.) that includes the other three

sections (Fig. 4 and 6). In comparison to the exposures upstream, the sediments here

show clearer stratification and the clasts are more rounded (Fig. 5). Imbricated

horizons are common and dip up-fan. The sequence is heavily cemented, and calcite has

developed as rinds around clast surfaces. Unlike the other three exposures at Lipci,

flowing water carbonate horizons are also common and laterally extensive over several

metres. In these instances, calcite crystals form large and often elongate spar crystals,

which are free of detrital sediment. There is no clear evidence of unconformities or

buried soil horizons within the Lipci fan sequence. At the fan surface, soils are poorly

developed and laterally discontinuous.

Uranium-series chronology

Seven secondary carbonate samples from the Lipci fan deposits have yielded uranium-

series ages ranging from 320.6 ± 33.3 ka to 47.3 ± 1.2 ka (uncorrected ages). All

corrected and uncorrected ages are reported in Table 4 alongside the raw isotope data.

The samples had varying levels of detrital contamination with 230Th/232Th ratios ranging

from 1.3 (Lipci 2) to 326 (Lipci 6). The former age is therefore compromised by such

high detrital contamination resulting in a large difference between the uncorrected and

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the corrected age (47.2 ± 1.7 and 10.4 ± 0.4 ka, respectively). In contrast, for Lipci 6, the

difference between the uncorrected and corrected ages is very small (196.6 ± 10.7 and

196.3 ± 14.5 ka, respectively). The Lipci fan ages form part of a wider uranium-series-

based chronological framework (n=39) for the Pleistocene deposits of Mount Orjen.

This includes 12 ages from glacial deposits (Hughes et al. 2010) and 27 from the

glaciofluvial record (Adamson 2012, Adamson et al. 2014a). The corrected uranium-

series ages from the Lipci fan indicate that several phases of calcite cementation have

taken place during interglacials and interstadials over the last 320 ka. Six out of seven

of the corrected calcite ages correspond to interglacials (MIS 1, 7 and 9) or interstadial

MIS 5c (Table 4). This pattern is consistent with calcite precipitation being promoted by

warm ambient conditions with respiring soils on landform surfaces (Hughes et al. 2006;

Woodward and Hughes 2011), and depending on local hydrology, with calcite

redistribution from the upper soil profile and fan matrix under a seasonally humid

climate (see Woodward et al. 1994). The calcite ages provide minimum ages for host

glaciofluvial sediment deposition and the onset of secondary carbonate formation

(Hamlin et al. 2000; Hughes et al. 2006; 2010; Woodward and Hughes 2011).

The offshore sector of the Lipci fan

The submarine topographic imagery for the Bay of Kotor indicates that the modern bay

reaches average water depths of 20-40 m (Fig. 2 and 6) and contains submerged karst

depressions and spring lines (Bortoluzzi et al. 2009) which resemble the terrestrial

karst terrain. Beyond the Bay there is evidence of former river channels and fine-

grained (silt and clay) deposits extending onto the inner shelf of the Adriatic Sea (Del

Bianco et al. 2014). Seismic and bathymetric surveys reveal that the majority of the

Lipci fan is now up to 25 m below sea-level. It contains deeply incised (up to 10 m)

palaeochannel forms that are larger but similar in morphology to those exposed

onshore (Fig. 5). These palaeochannels are very well-preserved. The outer limits of the

Lipci fan are tracked by the 25 m depth contour on Figure 6. Two cross sections show

very clearly the form of the submerged portion of the fan.

Profile A-A'

This profile is approximately 2.5 km long and, for most of its length, it shows the profile

across the fan about 250 m from the modern coastline (Fig. 6). The fan has a

9

pronounced convex cross profile sloping to the NE and SW from a high point on the

right bank of the Lipci palaeochannel. In the central part of the profile either side of the

Lipci fan palaeochannel, the Middle Pleistocene fan surface lies close to the modern sea

bed. This prominent surface is covered by a thin veneer of fine-grained Holocene

sediment. These fine-grained sediments thicken to the NE and SW moving towards the

lateral margins of the Pleistocene fan. These fine sediments are about 20 m thick in the

southern part of this sector of the bay and probably originate from the much larger

Morinj Valley catchment (Fig. 1) that drains a substantial part of the southern Orjen

massif. Note how the A-A' profile sweeps round to the east and runs alongside the

southern limit of the fan complex. This part of the bay may be best described as a fan-

delta complex where the more recent fine-grained deposits overly the coarse-grained

Middle Pleistocene fan sediments.

There are two prominent palaeochannels on the A-A' profile. One of them is the

downstream equivalent of the incised Lipci fan channel observed onshore (Fig. 3c). The

palaeochannel to the south is the downstream equivalent of a stream that now enters

Morinj-Risan Bay further to the south of Lipci draining the Morinj Valley on the

southern margins of the Orjen Massif (Fig. 2 and 6). Both palaeochannels are filled with

fine-grained sediments. The Lipci fan palaeochannel is about 10 m deep and about 60 m

across at its base. There is also a clearly preserved terrace feature on the left side of this

channel. The Morinj Valley palaeochannel cuts though the southern portion of the Lipci

fan and probably joins with the Lipci Fan palaeochannel further downstream. It is

interesting to note that this palaeochannel also contains well preserved terrace

features. On the most northerly portion of cross section A-A', there is evidence of a

smaller palaeochannel that probably connects onshore to a small fan to the NE of the

Lipci fan (Fig. 6).

Profile B-B'

This profile is about 750 m long – it runs parallel to the modern coastline further down

the fan about 500 m offshore (Fig. 6). This profile shows a steeply-sloping lateral fan

margin and thick fine-grained clastic deposits to the NE. The Lipci fan palaeochannel is a

prominent feature here, about 200 m downstream of its expression in profile A-A'. The

channel is now even wider with evidence of paired Pleistocene terraces that are buried

10

by fine-grained clastic sediments. The terraced sediments probably owe their good

preservation to calcite cementation during sea level low stands. We have used the term

palaeochannel to describe this feature but palaeo-ravine could also be used given its

size and the evidence for such well-preserved terracing within it.

Discussion

Depositional history of the Lipci fan

The record of alluvial fan formation and cementation at Lipci presented here is in good

agreement with the broader model of Middle Pleistocene glaciation and river behaviour

on the Orjen Massif and surrounding basins set out in Hughes et al. (2010) and

Adamson et al. (2014a). Glacial deposits in the Ubli Valley above Lipci have yielded a

uranium series age of >350 ka. In common with all the other large bodies of glaciofluvial

deposits on the margins of the Orjen Massif, the fan sediments at Lipci were deposited

during MIS 12 (Adamson et al. 2014a). This was the most extensive phase of glaciation

on Mount Orjen – when large volumes of meltwater and limestone-derived glaciofluvial

sediment were transferred from the Orjen plateau to the surrounding basins. Several

large fans built up on the margins of the Bay of Kotor at this time (Fig. 1). Later

glaciations were much less extensive and meltwater was mainly routed through the

subterranean karst drainage (Adamson et al. 2014a). The oldest uranium series ages

show that cementation of the fan sediments was well advanced by 320 ka (Fig. 4) – but

cementation also took place during later interglacials/interstadials. The sedimentology

of the fan at Lipci indicates that angular scree deposits were incorporated into the fan.

These may have been transported by fluvial processes following reworking of talus

slopes above the fan during high energy meltwater floods – it is also likely that slope

processes delivered angular limestone clasts directly onto the upper fan surface. The

northern sector of the Lipci fan – where the meltwater channels are less well developed

(Fig. 6) – contains a greater proportion of colluvial material. Colluvial sediments make

an important contribution to other large-scale fans in the Bay of Kotor (Lewin and

Woodward, 2009).

The offshore survey shows that the form of the now-submerged sector of the fan is well

preserved with deeply incised and buried palaeochannels (Fig. 6). It is very likely that

the steep sides of these incised channels have been maintained by strong cementation

of the coarse-grained deposits as we have observed in the sections (L1 to L4) on the

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terrestrial portion of the fan (Fig. 4 and 5). The cementation of these deposits must have

taken place during low sea level stands when most, if not all, of the fan was above sea

level. These channels are now buried by fine-grained Holocene sediments (Fig. 6). It is

likely that they were also buried in this way during earlier interglacials (MIS 5, 7, 9 and

11) but these deposits would have been removed during later regression cycles when

the now submerged channels on the fan surface were exhumed. It is important to

appreciate that the flux of fine sediment to the Bay of Kotor has probably been much

higher during the present Holocene interglacial due to various human modifications to

hillslopes including forest clearance, grazing and road construction (Woodward 1995;

Thornes et al. 2009).

The exposures in the fan apex reveal thick sequences of clast-supported, sub-angular to

sub-rounded cobbles and boulders (Fig. 5). Some imbrication is present at Section L4,

and dips up-fan (Fig. 5). Such large volumes of coarse material are indicative of the high-

energy transport environment associated with meltwater flows; glaciofluvial sediments

would have been funnelled into the steep bedrock ravine above the fan apex when a

large ice lobe occupied the valley above (Fig. 3). Prominent sediment unconformities or

stratigraphic boundaries have not been observed at Lipci. This suggests that the

majority of the sediments were deposited during a single cold stage. On the basis of the

uranium-series ages from secondary calcite cements (Table 4), this deposition occurred

prior to 320 ka and is correlated to MIS 12. This is consistent with the depositional

history of the other alluvial records at Orjen (Adamson et al. 2014a, Adamson et al.,

2016) and corresponds to the most extensive phase of glaciation on Orjen (Hughes et al.

2010) and elsewhere in the Balkans, such as Greece (Woodward et al. 2004; Hughes et

al. 2006; 2007; Woodward and Hughes 2011) and central Montenegro (Hughes et al.

2011) during MIS 12. There is evidence of at least four glacial phases on Orjen, during

MIS 12, 6, 5d-2, and the Younger Dryas (Hughes et al. 2010). In contrast to the glacial

record, the alluvial depocentres surrounding Orjen were filled with large volumes of

coarse and fine grained alluvium during MIS 12, and there is only very limited evidence

of later aggradation (Adamson et al. 2014a; Adamson et al., 2016).

Two of the uranium-series ages (99.3 ± 3.0 ka and 94.9 ± 2.9 ka), from sediments close

to the fan apex, are correlated to MIS 5 and the host alluvial sediments at these sites

12

may date from MIS 6. At section L2 the dated calcites are taken from the top metre of

sediment. At section L3, the calcites are located c. 3 m below the surface. These calcites

may be indicative of glaciofluvial deposition after MIS 12. This is possible because the

Ubli Valley, above the Lipci fan, contained one of the largest ice lobes on Mount Orjen

during MIS 6 (Hughes et al. 2010) (Figs. 1 and 3), which drained the majority of the

southern portion of the massif at that time. In most other areas, ice was restricted to the

plateau after MIS 12 (Hughes et al. 2010), and large areas of limestone karst were

exposed. Meltwater and sediment production were greatly reduced after MIS 12 and

runoff was preferentially channelled into the subterranean karst (Fig. 7; Adamson et al.

2014a). This may have also been the case for the MIS 6 glaciers above Lipci which

terminated in a large karstic polje at Ubli (Fig. 3). If meltwater and glaciofluvial

sediment was delivered to the Lipci fan during MIS 6, it would have been in much lower

volumes in comparison to MIS 12. It is also possible that all of the post 320 ka ages at

Lipci simply reflect later phases of calcite formation within pre-existing (MIS 12) fan

sediments during sea level low stands. As we have seen in other basins around Orjen,

there is no evidence of alluvial deposition in the last glacial cycle (MIS 5d-2), when

glaciers were absent from the catchments above the Lipci fan (Hughes et al. 2010).

The cold stage palaeogeography of the Bay of Kotor

The geomorphological and sedimentological evidence from Lipci has been used to

develop a model of Quaternary sedimentation in Kotor Bay (Fig. 7). During MIS 12,

global sea-level fell by >120 m (Shackleton, 1987; Rohling et al. 1998) and the floor of

the Bay of Kotor (maximum depth below modern sea level = 60 m, Bortoluzzi et al.

2009) would have been exposed as dry land several kilometres inland of the coast (Fig.

1 and 7a). The fan at Lipci would have been deposited subaerially on the margin of the

large cold stage Kotor polje. It would also have been exposed during all subsequent cold

stages (Fig. 7b). Channel forms up to 10 m deep at the fan apex extend for several

hundred metres down-fan (Bortoluzzi et al. 2009) and are clearly visible in the offshore

bathymetric imagery where they become much wider and contain well-preserved

terraces (Fig. 5). This suggests that these channels were incised subaerially, and have

since been submerged by rising Holocene sea level (Lambeck & Purcell 2005; Djurović

& Petrović 2007; Surić et al. 2009; Fig. 7c). The calcite cements would therefore have

13

formed when sea levels were more than c. 30 m lower than today – perhaps early in

interglacial periods (Table 4).

Despite their location at the foot of a steep mountain catchment, the Lipci fan and the

palaeochannels offshore are especially well-preserved for two key reasons. First, this

location in the sheltered Bay of Kotor means that, unlike other alluvial fans in the

Mediterranean, Lipci is protected from the higher energy wave action of the open sea

coast where fans are more likely to be reworked. Second, the strong cementation of the

fan and its channels has protected it from wave action during a series of regressions and

transgressions. The channel morphology has been retained with clearly preserved

terraces evident in the bathymetric profiles (Fig. 6). The submarine bathymetric

imagery indicates that the Lipci fan does not have a steep erosional cliff at the fan toe

and the distal portion of the fan, which is now submerged, is largely intact. This

contrasts with other alluvial fans in the Mediterranean, such as those in Crete (Nemec

and Postma, 1993), which are exposed to higher energy coastal processes and have

undergone considerable erosion in their lower and middle reaches. Lipci provides one

of the best-preserved Middle Pleistocene alluvial fans in the Mediterranean. It has

remained more-or-less intact for over 320,000 years, spanning multiple glacial-

interglacial cycles.

Conclusions

The Lipci fan is an unusually well-preserved Middle Pleistocene, glacially-fed alluvial fan

in the Mediterranean. Analysis of the terrestrial and submarine sectors of the fan

combined with uranium-series dating indicates that the fan formed during a major

phase of aggradation before 320 ka. This coincided with the largest Pleistocene

glaciation recorded on Orjen, and elsewhere in the Balkans, during MIS 12 (480-430 ka;

Hughes et al. 2010; 2011; Adamson et al. 2014a). There may have been some limited

fan aggradation during MIS 6 when there is also clear evidence of glaciation in its upper

catchment. There is no evidence of any fan aggradation during the last glacial cycle (MIS

5d-2). Clearly defined channels at the fan surface – on both the terrestrial and

submerged portions of the fan – suggest that the fan was incised during subaerial

exposure before submergence by sea level rise. The location of the fan in the Bay of

Kotor and strong cementation of the fan deposits and palaeochannel margins has

14

protected them from significant coastal erosion during all of the post-MIS 12

transgression-regression cycles.

Acknowledgements

We thank the two reviewers for their helpful comments on this paper. Uranium-series dating

was undertaken at the UK NERC Open University Uranium Series Facility (NERC Grant

reference: IP/1140/1109) under the expert guidance of Peter van Calsteren and Louise Thomas.

We also thank Nick Scarle of The University of Manchester for drawing the figures.

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Figure 1 - The study area in Kotor Bay indicting the maximum ice margins of the Orjen ice cap (Hughes et al. 2010) and the Lovćen ice cap (Žebre and Stepišnik, 2014). The largest alluvial and colluvial fans in the Bay of Kotor are indicated. The –100 m and –120 m bathymetric contours in the Adriatic Sea are shown.

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Figure 2 – Multibeam bathymetry of the innermost Bay of Kotor, showing Tivat Bay and Morinj-Risan-Kotor Bay. The two basins are connected by the Verige Strait; a 45 m deep, 350-600 m wide channel. Lipci and Risan fans are visible on the north and western margins of the Morinj-Risan Bay. During Pleistocene sea level low stands (>120 m lower than present), the Bay of Kotor would have been exposed subaerially. Image adapted from Bortoluzzi et al. (In Press).

20

Figure 3 – A) Lipci fan viewed from Kotor Bay showing the upper fan (above modern sea level) and the dominant surface meltwater and sediment transfer routes (arrows) from Ubli valley above. B) View looking to the northeast along Ubli valley which was glaciated during MIS 12 when ice reached the edge of the plateau (Figure 1). Ice was less extensive in this valley during MIS 6 but still formed one of the largest ice lobes draining the southern part of the Orjen ice cap; C) View looking downstream from close to the Lipci fan apex showing the deeply-incised (c. 10 m) channel on the upper fan. The seasonal stream that currently drains the Lipci fan is known as Inkov Potok (Vojnogeografski Institut, 1979).

21

Figure 4 - Top) Sediment logs of the sampled terrestrial exposures on Lipci fan. Representative clast roundness data (R) are indicated; Bottom) Long profile of Lipci fan showing the location of the sediment exposures (L1-L4) and modern sea level. Coarse clast roundness increases down fan as the proportion of scree material also decreases.

22

Figure 5 – Photographs of sections L1–L4 showing the coarse-grained, strongly cemented, and often steeply bedded fan sediments (tape measure, geological hammer, and Munsell colour booklet for scale). Section locations are shown on Figures 4 and 6.

23

Figure 6 – Google Earth image of the Lipci fan with bathymetric imagery of the submarine portion of the fan. Major topographic features and sediment units are indicated on the seismic reflector profiles (A and B). These profiles were recorded by Bortoluzzi et al. (2009) as part of a wider submarine survey of the Bay of Kotor. The thickest Holocene sediments on profile A-A’ are part of the delta-fan complex at the mouth of the trunk stream draining the Morinj Valley.

24

Figure 7 - Schematic diagram of hydrology, sediment delivery and fan formation during glacial stages and the Holocene. A) A major phase of fan deposition occurred during MIS 12 when a large ice cap developed on the Orjen massif and the Bay of Kotor was dry land. B) During MIS 6 ice was limited to the Orjen plateau (>1000 m) and subterranean karst flow was more dominant. There is no stratigraphic evidence for a significant phase of coarse sediment deposition on Lipci fan during MIS 6. C) During interglacials, including the Holocene, subterranean karst flow has dominated and the lower portion of the fan became submerged as sea level rose. During the present interglacial, land use change has increased fine sediment transfer from the steep hillslopes and catchments draining to the Bay of Kotor.

25

Tables

Location Author

Lowest elevation of glacial ice (m)

above modern sea level

Orjen, west Montenegro

Hughes et al. (2010) 500

Croatian coastMarjanac and Marjanac

(2004; 2016)Below modern

sea levelLovćen, west Montenegro

Žebre and Stepišnik (2014)

760

Venetian Friulian Plain,

ItalyFontana et al. (2010) 400

Table 1 – Low elevation Pleistocene ice masses in the Adriatic coastal zone.

Location Author Glacially-fed? Sedimentology Dating method

West Sardinia Andreucci et al. 2009 No

Alluvial fan unit with intermittent palaeosols within a coastal sequence containing aeolian deposits and shallow marine deposits. OSL

Lefka Ori, southwest Crete

Nemec and Postma 1993 Yes*

Coalescent alluvial fans. Three phases of development: Early Pleistocene debris flow sediments; Pleistocene alluvium attributed to headwater glacial activity; Holocene fans deposited by ephemeral streamflow.

U/Th -

-

Lefka Ori, southwest Crete

Pope et al. 2008 Yes*

A reappraisal of Nemec and Postma (1993). Also identified three fan units. 11 OSL ages have been used to date fan development - see paper for full dataset.

NanofossilsOSL

Archaeology

Po Plain, Italy Fontana et al. 2008 Yes

Alluvial megafans. Major phase of aggradation close in time to the LGM, before incision from the Late-glacial to the Early Holocene. Widespread aggradation during the Mid-Late Holocene. 250 radiocarbon ages indicate five phases of fan development - see paper for full dataset.

14C

Cabo de Gata, southeast Spain

Harvey et al. 1999 No

Major fan alluviation phases coincident with global glacial periods; incision during global interglacials. Fan incision is linked to sea level high stands and fan toe erosion. Fan aggradation extends onto the continental shelf during sea level low stands.

Existing U/Th ages

Table 2 - Studies of Pleistocene coastal alluvial fans in the Mediterranean. *Based on inferred headwater glacial activity.

Sampled exposure

U-series sample code* Description of secondary carbonate*

26

L2a Lipci 1 Vadose carbonate at 96-106 cm

L2a Lipci 2 Vadose carbonate at 96-106 cm

L3a Lipci 3 Vadose carbonate at 170-180 cm

L4a Lipci 4 Large sparitic crystals within a flowing water carbonate at 54-68 cm

L4a Lipci 5 Large sparitic crystals within a flowing water carbonate at 54-68 cm

L4a Lipci 6 Large sparitic crystals within a flowing water carbonate at 100-120 cm

L4a Lipci 7 Large sparitic crystals within a flowing water carbonate at 140 cm

Table 3 – Sample codes and sample descriptions of uranium-series dated secondary carbonates. *Based on data presented in Adamson (2012).

27

Sampled exposure

Sample code*

238U ppm (234U/238U) 234U ppm 230Th ppb 232Th ppb (230Th/232Th) (230Th/234U) Uncorrected Age (yrs)

% Error (2σ)

Corrected Age (yrs)

% Error (2σ)

Calcite age: MIS**

L2 Lipci 1 0.035141 1.065922 0.000002 0.000359 1.446345 48.248427 0.585289 94,930 3.09 93,551 4.37 MIS 5c± 0.000138 ± 0.006056 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000004 ± 0.261469 ± 2.081015 ± 0.006127 ± 2949 ± 4119

L2 Lipci 2 0.048254 1.045114 0.000003 0.000496 17.297911 5.526309 0.600765 99,336 3.01 86,455 4.25 MIS 5b± 0.000142 ± 0.004719 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000005 ± 3.126954 ± 0.235034 ± 0.005927 ± 3005 ± 3703

L3 Lipci 3 0.040645 1.043621 0.000002 0.000245 37.096290 1.306583 0.352549 47,287 2.61 10,434 3.67 MIS 1± 0.000116 ± 0.00459 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000003 ± 6.70585 ± 0.056713 ± 0.003787 ± 1237 ± 384

L4 Lipci 4 0.044960 1.069242 0.000003 0.000711 0.976989 138.813735 0.903919 239,201 5.79 238,310 8.14 MIS 7± 0.000169 ± 0.006305 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000007 ± 0.176665 ± 5.90363 ± 0.008907 ± 14203 ± 20095

L4 Lipci 5 0.093720 1.039572 0.000005 0.001529 5.408715 53.358399 0.958987 320,630 9.8 318,427 13.76 MIS 9± 0.000273 ± 0.004923 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000015 ± 0.977727 ± 2.274448 ± 0.009555 ± 33318 ± 47462

L4 Lipci 6 0.069504 1.074016 0.000004 0.001036 0.601300 325.906693 0.848237 196,604 5.3 196,317 7.17 MIS 7± 0.000177 ± 0.004188 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000011 ± 0.108732 ± 13.973645 ± 0.008641 ± 10685 ± 14471

L4 Lipci 7 0.054392 1.042278 0.000003 0.000875 9.338422 17.802572 0.943124 292,511 8.65 286,675 12.14 MIS 9± 0.000116 ± 0.00387 ± 0.000000 ± 0.000009 ± 1.688098 ± 0.759053 ± 0.009403 ± 26580 ± 37228

Table 4 - U-series ages of secondary carbonates at Lipci alluvial fan. *Samples codes based on Adamson (2012). **(MIS) Marine Isotope Stages are based on corrected ages. Six out of the seven corrected U-series ages fall within interglacials (MIS 9, 7, 1) or interstadials (MIS 5 c) (see Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). This pattern is consistent with calcite precipitation being promoted by warm ambient conditions with respiring soils on landform surfaces (Hughes et al. 2006; Woodward and Hughes 2011).

28