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An Investigation Into

Contemporary Composition

BSc Creative Music Technology

Student Researcher: Alexander Lawley 10022128

Supervisor: Ben Ramsay

Contents

Introduction Page 4

Literature Review Page 7

Musique Concrète Page 7

Language Grid Page 8

Reduced Listening Page 10

Spectromorphology Page 11

The ‘Something to Hold On to’ Factor Page 12

Serialism Page 13

Twelve-Tone Serialism Page 13

Total Serialism Page 14

Ambient Page 16

Drum & Bass Page 17

Method Page 19

Alexander Lawley 10022128 2

Track 1: Musique Concrète + Drum & Bass Page 19

Language Grid Page 19

Reduced Listening Page 20

Spectromorphology Page 20

The ‘Something to Hold On to’ Factor Page 21

Track 2: Serialism + Drum & Bass Page 22

Twelve-Tone Serialism Components Page 22

Drum & Bass Components Page 25

Track 3: Ambient + Drum & Bass Page 25

Ambient Components Page 25

Drum & Bass Components Page 27

Discussion Page 30


Project Amendment Page 30

Track 1: Musique Concrète + Drum & Bass Page 31

Track 2: Serialism + Drum & Bass Page 33

Track 3: Ambient + Drum & Bass Page 34

Overall Reflection Page 36

Results Page 36

Overall Reflection Page 36

Conclusion Page 38

Bibliography Page 39

Appendices Page 42

Acknowledgements Page 44

Introduction


This project shall analyse the compositional techniques of three avant-garde electronic music

genres – musique concrète, serialism and ambient - and employ these techniques into the

composition and production of four pieces of commercial dance music - drum & bass - to

create a hybridity1 that contains the fundamental stylistic features and compositional

methodology of the aforementioned commercial and avant-garde genres of music.2

The first piece of music shall be composed using techniques found in musique concrète, the

second serialism, and the third ambient. The fourth piece shall be a combination of the most

favourable aspects of each. The four works created shall be 4 – 6 minutes long, and shall be of

an acceptable industry standard of production (although this aspect is not a key to the project).

Piece 1 – musique concrète + drum & bass

Piece 2 – serialism + drum & bass

Piece 3 – ambient + drum & bass

Piece 4 – aspects from musique concrète, serialism and ambient + drum & bass

The overall aim is to create a hybridity of the two contemporary styles of music – avant-garde

electronic music and commercial dance music – that in some way appeals to all music

listeners regardless of musical interests, prior musical understanding or cultural background,

and prominently exhibits identifiable characteristics of the styles of music researched and,

1 Hybridity shall be the term used to describe the combination of avant-garde electronic music and commercial dance music as ‘hybrid’ implies the expulsion of various stylistic features of both styles of music when coalesced. In the case of this project this will be apparent, as it is impossible for the works created to incorporate every characteristic of each style of music – two ‘pedigree’ genres when combined will not make a new ‘pedigree’ genre as many of the stylistic features found in avant-garde electronic music and commercial dance music are in direct contrast to one another. To further explain and digress: in canine breeding terms, when breeding two dogs together - one with small ears and one with big ears – the mongrel dog will not have small AND big ears at the same time, it is impossible. Likewise, you cannot combine, for example, music concrète with drum & bass and expect to have a piece of music that is traditionally structured AND abstractly structured at the same time, so either the traditional structure of drum & bass, or the abstract structure of musique concrète must be employed, both can not co-exist in one piece of music.2 Throughout this project ‘commercial dance music’ shall be used as an umbrella-term for Drum & Bass. This is in reference to the fact that it is commercially released on CD/online stores for purchase. This term is not referring to big-name mainstream artists such as Calvin Harris or David Guetta whose careers are business orientated in order to generate large revenue; ‘Contemporary Styles of music’ shall serve as an umbrella-term for avant-garde electronic music and commercial dance music. (See Figure 1. in Appendices)


most importantly, has concrete academic theory underpinning the composition of the pieces

that can withstand academic scrutiny from individuals experienced in contemporary music

composition. The project shall be evaluated in the form of a discussion, objectively analysing

the compositions and critiquing appropriately. The primary focus shall be on a delineation of

the success of the employment of the methodologies found from research, the difficulty of

infusing drum & bass with the avant-garde styles of music and the consequent relationships

that occurred. It is important to note that the feelings regarding the music are to the decision

of the individual listener, and with music being based solely on personal opinion, different

results will occur and will not result in a definitive ‘success’ or ‘failure’ for the overall

project.

Literature Review


The following research is an exploration of the four aforementioned styles of music with

primary interest in their composition. It is important to note that each style of music is

incredibly vast subject matter in its own right, and investigating them to their fullest extent

would be a lengthy procedure largely unbeneficial to the project. The theories and concepts

explored are found to be the most fundamental and reoccurring methodologies that have been

specifically targeted to cover each aspect of the creation of the works for this project -

compositional technique, listener reception and post-compositional analysis. Additionally,

much of the research is an accumulation of ideas conceptualised by individuals considered to

be the leading authors or in some instances the credited founders of each compositional style,

suggesting that the understandings gained are based upon the most traditional methodologies

of each style and not any modernised or diluted derivatives.

Musique Concrète

Musique concrète is an avant-garde form of electronic music established in Paris in the early

1940s. Its conceptualisation was in part due to initial advancements in electronic music

production and was derived from the experimentation with new technology available at the

time. It is a subset of electroacoustic music, which has no universally accepted definition and

due to its abstract nature is often referred to as ‘sonic/sound art’ or ‘organised sound’.3

However, there are several definitions acknowledged, for the most part, to be an acceptable

summary of electroacoustic music. For example:

‘Electroacoustic music refers to any music in which electricity has had some

involvement in sound registration and/or production other than that of simple

microphone recording or amplification.’ (Landy, 1991, p. 61)

It is important to understand that traditional methods of musical composition such as pitch,

rhythm and meter are not key elements in works of an electroacoustic or ‘concrete’ nature.

Instead, experimental electronic and acousmatic sounds are strung together using various

3 Sound Art/Organised Sound refers to the presentation of sounds as a series objects. (Landy, 2007).


compositional techniques to create an abstract soundscape often with a distinct flow from

beginning to end.

‘One of the key revolutions in the birth of sound-based music was that virtually every

parameter of sound traditionally used in a musical context is thrown open.’ (Landy,

2007)

An example of this recontextualisation of musical parameters could be:

‘C, C#, D, or half note, quarter note, eighth note, or p, mp, mf, f, and so on can now

be found in continua: in hertz, in microseconds (ms), in decibels (db)’ (Landy, 2007)

Language Grid

Developed by Simon Emmerson, the Language Grid (Figure 2.) is a table that can be utilised

in the description of variegated types of sonic materials and their intended discourses.

‘It juxtaposes the syntax of sounds (abstract or abstracted) with the type of discourse

(aural or mimetic)...the grid allows a third hybrid for both continuums, that of a

combination of abstract and abstracted syntax and a combination of aural and

mimetic discourse, creating nine compartments within the gird in total.’ (Gatt, 2011)

Figure 2. (Emmerson, 1986)

To elaborate:

‘Syntax’ refers to the sonic material (sounds) used in a piece.


‘Abstract syntax’ means that the sounds exist outside of real world physics. For example,

notes on a stave being played by an instrument are not mimetic of natural sonic material,

whereas ‘abstracted syntax’ refers to sounds that can be heard in a physical, natural

environment, such as leaves rustling or water dripping.

‘Discourse’ defines whether or not a piece of electroacoustic music is, as a whole, aurally or

mimetically carried.

‘Aural discourse’ is a term that defines the syntax of a piece to be accepted by the listener as

sonic objects and nothing more. Therefore, the sonic material in the piece in question must

have no cultural, mimetic or timbrel properties familiar to the listener, and should be a

soundscape of frequencies accepted for as they are – sonic frequency.

‘Mimetic discourse’ has multiple subcategories of its own:

‘Syntactic memesis’ describes sonic material which has behavioral properties found in reality.

For example, a car going past has behavioral properties immediately apparent to a listener

when heard, whether or not the sound is recognisable as the sound of a car or not.

‘Timbrel mimesis’ is the recreation of an abstracted sound via a different sound source. For

example, Beethoven’s Symphony Number 6 uses a flute to mimic the sound of birds singing,

the birds singing being the abstracted sound and the flute being the alternate sound source.

‘Cultural mimesis’ – as discovered in Emmerson’s re-visitation of the Language Grid

(Emmerson, 2013) - defines sonic material that has certain cultural connotations attached. For

example, in drum & bass music, the Amen Break is a drum loop heavily featured and is

synonymous with the genre. Before drum & bass incorporated the Amen Break, the drum loop

was merely a four second section of a drum solo played in the 1960s with no cultural

reference or recognition whatsoever. However, since the break became the ‘staple sound’ of

drum & bass, its actual sound has gained an association with drum & bass as a style of music


and its culture that was established in the early 1990s. Since then, the Amen Break’s

recognisable sound and attached cultural history prompts specific imagery and reference

attached to it as a piece of sonic material, regardless of its incorporation or timbrel properties.

In summary, the nine possible combinations available on the Language Grid explicitly define

the syntax in works of an electroacoustic nature, and in turn delineate the effects and

implications certain sonic material can have on the listener and how these different types of

syntax can alter the translation between composer intention and listener reception. However,

consistent or parallel listener reception will not be an expected outcome of the project.

‘We will remain concerned here with the choices open to the composer of

electroacoustic music, rather than the possible interpretation of those choices by the

listener.’ (Emmerson, 1986, p. 18)

Reduced Listening

As a continuation of the language grid, ‘reduced listening’ is a method of listening explored

by French composer Pierre Schaeffer in which the listener must dismiss all implications

implied by the sounds heard.

‘In Schaefferian theory, reduced listening is the attitude which consists in listening to

the sound for its own sake, as a sound object by removing its real or supposed source

and the meaning it may convey.’ (EARS: ElectroAcoustic Resource Site, 2001)

With musique concrète, reduced listening is often a beneficial practice as the sounds involved

can often be foreign or disconcerting. Taking the sounds for what they are (i.e. the frequencies

they contain), not for what object/instrument has created them or what connotations are

attached (i.e. “it sounds like a water dripping”), means that the listener is free to concentrate

on the sounds themselves and not be distracted by their apparent sources or causes. Therefore,

the pieces can be interpreted with less misguided or unnecessary imagery, leaving the mind

clear to evaluate with no preconceptions.


Reduced listening is an important factor that could need to be addressed when composing

electroacoustic works as a sound that has an unmistakable source may draw the listener’s

focus away from what is intended by the composer. However, the sound sources of objects

may be something that the composer would like the listener to understand, for example Steve

Reich’s ‘Different Trains’ intentionally features train-related sounds as a focal point for the

composition, and the accompanying imagery is purposely influenced by the piece.

In contrast to Schaefferian theory, it is argued that the concept of ‘reduced listening’ simply

cannot be achieved, as the related imagery and cultural references a listener associates with a

sound cannot be ignored or dismissed. Furthermore, when combining drum & bass with

musique concrète for this project, it is important to note that drum & bass as a genre is not

intended to be listened to in a ‘reduced’ manner, and consideration must be given as to how

the drum & bass components of the piece are intended to be listened to, whether it be in a

reduced manner or not.

Spectromorphology

When a listener is practicing reduced listening, and they are hearing the sounds with no

imagery or reference, they are left hearing just the sonic properties of the sound for exactly as

they are – frequencies of sound. This sonic spectrum, and its evolving manipulation, is known

as spectromorphology.

‘Spectromorphology is an approach to sound materials and musical structures which

concentrates on the spectrum of available pitches and their shaping in time.’

(Smalley, 1986, p.63)

Spectromorphology is not to be confused as a compositional method: it is a term used to

describe the aural perception of the sonic objects without any connotative imagery.

‘Spectromorphology is not a compositional theory or method, but a descriptive tool

based on aural perception. It is intended to aid listening, and seeks to help explain


what can be apprehended in over four decades of electroacoustic repertory’ (Smalley,

1997)

Applying reduced listening methodology to electroacoustic works and allowing for true

spectromorphology means that the sonic material must be heavily manipulated in order to

completely isolate the sounds from all reference. With the works created for this project being

a hybridity of avant-garde electronic music and commercial dance music it will be difficult to

achieve spectromorphology, as the stylistic features from drum & bass that are incorporated

will have to be recognisable in order to deem the piece a ‘hybrid’. Therefore,

spectromorphology is arguably more realistically feasible via works of complete

electroacousic nature.

The “Something to Hold On To” Factor

When creating works of organised sound, it is important to ensure that the intentions of the

composition are coherent and that the listener, especially one less-experienced in

electroacoustic listening, is not alienated or confused by the abstract nature of an

electroacoustic soundscape. This will be an important aspect of all the works created for the

project, as the ‘something to hold on to’ will be a key element that will keep listeners engaged

throughout each piece. It will also ensure that both types of audience members surveyed –

academics and commercial music listeners – experience a similar ‘journey’ through the

works. Potentially, the successful inclusion of the ‘something to hold on to factor’ could

dictate the overall success of the project.

Landy (2007) states that:

‘Accessibility can occur spontaneously; it can also be triggered by offering listeners

some form of tips, stated or simply by implication, concerning how to find their way

through a piece.’ (Landy, 2007)

In order to achieve this, various compositional techniques can be employed to ‘guide’ the

listener through the piece. For example, the exploration of new sounds throughout a piece can

keep a listener captivated.


‘The listener will typically focus on these new timbres and how they evolve and

interact in such works.’ (Landy, 2007)

Therefore if a piece can include a constant, even if subtle, shifting in frequency content, a

listener well practiced in electroacoustic listening or not could be kept captive throughout the

duration of a piece, achieving the ‘something to hold onto factor’.

Serialism

Serialism is a method of composition first pioneered by Austrian composer Arnold

Schoenberg in the 1920s. It is composed using ‘rules’, which are often basic mathematic

patterns, to dictate the values of various musical parameters i.e. which note to play and when.

‘A piece of music is serial if in some respect it is determined by a strict pattern of

recurrence. In classical serialism it is pitch classes that are ordered this way, and the

series states every note of the chromatic scale once and once only.’ (Cook, 1994, p.

296)

The early forms of serialism primarily belonged to the twelve-tone method of serialism,

however, due to serialism’s natural progression and evolvement from its original state over

the years this is not the only ‘type’ of serial music that can be found.

Twelve-Tone Serialism

Twelve-tone serialism is widely considered the original form of serialism, founded by Arnold

Schoenberg in the 1920s. Pieces of this nature have no defining key signature, meaning they

are atonal.4

‘The basis for serial composition is Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, where the 12

notes of the basic chromatic scale are organized into a row. This "basic" row is then

used to create permutations, that is, rows derived from the basic set by reordering its

elements.’ (Bochner, 1967)

4 Lacking a tonal centre or key; characterized by atonality. (Oxford University Press, 2012)


However, although the pieces are atonal, it is argued that this implies a lack of organisation,

and instead, in this instance, the appropriate term would be ‘dodecaphony’.

Composing using this methodology means that all twelve semi-tones from the octave need to

be included to confirm atonality, and if following traditional twelve-tone compositional

methodology, all twelve semi-tones would feature in a reoccurring sequence known as a

‘series’. These series are often slightly varied as they reoccur, however there are only a few

parameters available to be altered, as the pitch has already been determined and the rhythm

must be similar in order to qualify as a sequence.

‘In twelve-tone serialism (also called dodecaphony – a term which in practice implies

serial organisation, as opposed to ‘atonality’ which implies the lack of it) it is only the

order in which the pitches come that distinguishes one series from any other.’ (Cook,

1994)

Using the twelve-tone method in the second piece created for this project could potentially be

unwise due to the foreign nature of atonal music, especially to those not experienced in the

listening process. Furthermore, the key element of serial music – its structure - may be

completely overlooked by many listeners, leaving the individual with a seemingly chaotic

piece of atonal music and possibly disengaging them completely.

Total Serialism

‘Total serialism may be generally defined as “the extension of the serial concept over

all aspects (or parameters) of the musical process.”’ (Meyer, 1994, p. 238)

This means that every parameter - i.e the pitch of the notes, the rhythm of the notes or the

dynamics of the notes - are dictated by the serial concept or ‘serialised’. It is also common to

find that the rules set for each parameter are related to one another in some way. For example,

the number for the pitch of the note may correspond to the number to the dynamic of the note.


Total serialism came as an evolution of twelve-tone serialism. ‘Mode de valeurs et

d’intensities’ by French composer Olivier Messiaen, is considered to be one of the first pieces

to utilise the methodology of what is known to be ‘total’ serialism, as the dynamics,

articulations and durations for each note were dictated by the serial concept. Pierre Boulez, a

student of Messiaen developed the concept of total serialism by experimenting with

serialising parameters other than pitch, as found in his piece ‘Structures I’.

‘One of the principle concepts of total serialism is the avoidance of repetition at all

levels and in all domains. This avoidance prompted a need for a pre-compositional

creation of “scales” to determine features not previously determined. This was done

so even if the choice made from these “scales” was not always in accordance with any

serial procedure. This type of composition is much maligned because it restricts the

performers ability to interpret the piece.’ (Bice, 2010)

In summary, as long as all the musical parameters of a particular instrument are being

controlled by the serial methodology, it can be considered total serialism.

There is no real disparity between creating a piece of twelve-tone or total serialism for this

project, as both are equally respected and sound very similar to an untrained ear. However,

the majority of listeners will overlook most compositional aspects of total serialism, as they

will be unaware of the involvement that the composer has when serialising the elements of the

piece, especially if they are unfamiliar of serialism as a concept. Therefore, it is felt that the

twelve-tone technique is probably the most beneficial as it will simplify the process and allow

for more time dedicated to other tasks.

Ambient

Unlike most other forms of music, ambient music is not composed with the intention to be

listened to in a traditional way; in fact, it is best defined as ‘background music’ designed to


enhance the atmospherics of the listener’s sonic environment in some way. Ambient music

was first developed in the 1970s and British composer Brian Eno is regarded to be its founder.

Although background music was already established prior to the creation of ambient, it was

Eno’s infusion of environmental and electronic - primarily synthesiser-based - sounds that

have deemed it to be a separate genre entirely.

‘Ambient music is intended to induce calm and a space to think…it must be able to

accommodate many levels of listening attention without enforcing one in particular; it

must be as ignorable as it is interesting’ (Eno, 1996, p. 296)

Rather than melodies and rhythms being the focus of the music, dense textures and heavily

reverberated soundscapes are created in order to create a spacious atmosphere in which the

listener can reside.

‘Ambient music - a gentle music of low dynamics, blurred edges, and washes of sound

color, produced primarily through electronic means.’ (Tamm, 1995, p. 1)

In order to create this, the layering of sounds is imperative to build a harmonically rich

soundscape, and the use of heavy reverb will help to achieve the desired sense of

spaciousness. Because it is primarily a soundscape (although rhythmical elements are

incorporated), its tempo/time signature could be considered as of low importance, as the

gradual ebb and flow of the textures drive the music more so than traditional beat-based

structures.

A feature relatively unique to ambient music is the effect it can subconsciously have on a

listener when used as a ‘background soundtrack’, especially when intentionally composed to

induce a desired feeling or ambience. Brian Eno’s ‘Music For Airports’ (1978) is an excellent

example of this, being an album of ambient music composed specifically to relieve the

stressful atmosphere of an airport terminal and subconsciously sooth travellers by subtly

enhancing the sonic atmosphere. It is not uncommon for ambient music and its desired

application to be predetermined before its composition or production, and is often very well

thought out. Criteria such as: the space it is intended to be played in, the feelings it is intended


to induce or how prominent of a listening experience it is intended to be (background or

foreground music) are key features to consider when creating ambient music.

For example, Brian Eno’s initial thought process for Music for Airports involved some of the

following:

‘“It has to be interruptible (because there’ll be announcements), it has to work outside

the frequencies at which people speak, and at different speeds from speech patterns

(so as not to confuse communication), and it has to be able to accommodate all the

noises that airports produce. And, most importantly for me, it has to have something to

do with where you are and what you’re there for – flying, floating and secretly, flirting

with death.”’ (Eno, 1996, p.295)

Such consideration is important when composing works of an ambient nature and the criteria

must be defined pre-composition/pre-production in order to create a successful piece that

fulfills the composer’s intentions and translates seamlessly in practice, creating the desired

effect on listeners.

Drum & Bass

Described as ‘frenetic, schizophrenic, urban and always evolving’ by producer Rob Playford

(Sound On Sound, 1998), drum & bass is a ‘commercial’ genre of dance music first

established in the early 1990s at the height of the British rave culture and is still growing in

popularity. 5 Originally known as ‘jungle’ music, the existence of drum & bass came as an

evolution of ‘breakbeat’ music; a harsh, aggressive genre of music that was heavily

influenced by hip-hop and acid house.

‘It’s the incorporation of sped up hip-hop breakbeats to double time, with dub

basslines and samples from techno and house music’ (DJ Bailey, 2012)

5 As a reminder: Drum & Bass is only commercial in the sense that it is commercially released on CD/online stores for purchase. It is not referring to big-name mainstream artists such as Calvin Harris or David Guetta whose careers are business orientated in order to generate large revenue. Drum & Bass is still considered a niche genre/market.


However, in the mid 1990s it was coined simply as drum & bass for simplicity, as its sound

was (and still is) ever evolving and many sub-genres have since branched out - often by

fusing drum & bass’s stylistic features with those of other genres of music such as gospel,

funk or jazz.

The main stylistic features of drum & bass are most obviously the inclusion of heavy bass/sub

bass and intricate, fast-paced (usually found between 160 - 180 beats per minute) looped drum

breaks, often sampled from real acoustic drum kits. These looped breaks are considered the

focal point of drum & bass and one drum break in particular is regarded to be the foundation

of the staple drum & bass sound - the ‘Amen Break’. The ‘Amen Break’ is a 4 bar loop

sampled from a drum solo performed by Gregory Cylvester "G. C." Coleman in 1969, which

was a part of the song ‘Amen Brother,’ by funk/soul group ‘The Winstons’. This break still, in

some way, features in most drum & bass songs to this day, whether it is the replicated pattern

of the groove, replicated timbre of the drums, or the actual Amen loop itself.

The inclusion of heavy sub-bass frequencies and up-tempo drum breaks such as the ‘Amen

Break’ shall be a key element in the works created for this project, as this is what will give the

distinct drum & bass ‘sound’, fitting with the genre’s generic conventions that many listeners

will be familiar with.

Method

Track 1: Musique Concrète + Drum & Bass

Language Grid


With the Language Grid better serving as a post-composition analytical tool than an

implement to aid composition, its use is arguably more valid during the post-composition

phase. With this being said, pre-compositional thought undertaken suggests the likelihood of

the piece to be both ‘on’ and ‘off the grid’ regarding the syntax, featuring a mixture of the

various continuums of the Language Grid. The syntax incorporated shall be a mixture of

musical and environmental sounds – manipulated instruments and field recordings –

accounting for abstract and abstracted syntax respectively. The inclusion of both forms of

syntax is not a necessity, but analysing many works of an electroacoustic nature reveals that

both are often featured, and with the piece possibly under scrutiny regarding its validity as a

piece of musique concrète, it is felt that as many traditional components should be

incorporated as possible.

At this stage of the project it is difficult to specifically define the types of discourse that shall

occur in the piece. This is due to the prior decision to take a more spontaneous compositional

approach, manipulating the syntax over time and allowing the piece to dictate its own

direction, allowing a much more natural progression and organic ebb and flow. However, one

type of discourse will inevitably be evident – mimetic discourse - more specifically - cultural

mimesis. As discussed in the Literature Review, the drum & bass components included shall

need to be relatively un-manipulated to facilitate the required association with the genre. This

means it is probable that people with any knowledge of drum & bass or the general 1990s UK

music culture will have some amount of cultural reference prompted by the traditional drum

& bass drum breaks, conjuring imagery and reference stereotypical to drum & bass, regardless

of the incorporation method or timbrel properties of the components.

Reduced Listening

As discussed in the Literature Review, reduced listening is not a method of composition,

therefore there is little to say at this stage of the project. However, as successfully practicing

reduced listening involves removing all connotations and imagery from the syntax and

listening to it purely as sonic objects and the frequencies they occupy, consideration will be


taken when composing the piece to ensure there are long sections featuring little or no beat-

based syntax in order for the listener to be left with pure electroacoustic material to allow the

opportunity for reduced listening. Even within pure musique concrète, a type of music often

featuring abstract sounds with no familiar origin, there is a strong argument against the

validity of reduced listening and its practicability, mainly due to its difficulty and the

unrealistic amounts of brain training and discipline needed to perfect such a technique. This

suggests that when incorporating elements from drum & bass – a genre featuring real

instrumentation and immediately familiar syntax – it is going to be difficult to achieve, even

for a well practiced listener, regardless of their individual musical or cultural background and

understanding of the syntax.

Spectromorphology

Similarly to the language grid and reduced listening, spectromorphology, as previously

explored in the Literature Review, is not to be confused as a compositional tool - it is a

method of aural perception and with this being the case, its implementation is again, more of a

post-composition analytical tool. Analysis of existing works of musique concrète shows that

works of an electroacoustic nature are often built on naturally evolving soundscapes with no

obvious rigid structure, this being one of the crucial defining features included in the works of

this project to constitute its validity as a piece of musique concrète.6 However, during

composition, spectromorphology can be utilised in such a way that the individual syntactic

components can be understood in a spectromorphological manner before their incorporation

into the works, allowing the composer to hear them in a different context, ignoring the content

of the sound - whether it is a drum loop or perhaps a recording of leaves rustling – and

focusing on its frequency content alone, enabling a completely different compositional

outlook. Therefore, it is arguable that the syntax included in the composition will, at times, be

‘treated’ in a spectromorphological manner, even though it is not specifically a method of

composition. Furthermore, during the arrangement of the piece, the evolution of the

spectromorphologically-considered syntax shall, in part, dictate the direction of the

6 This is based on observation and analysis of existing works, and although there was no documentation to support this theory discovered, it is a reoccurring concept within works of musique concrète.


composition to ensure the most natural progression possible and an identifiable, organic ebb

and flow.

The ‘Something to Hold On to’ Factor

The ‘something to hold on to’ factor, as covered in the Literature Review, is an important

feature of the composition, its incorporation will be imperative as it serves as a method to

keep the listener thoroughly engaged throughout the duration of the composition, providing a

constant familiar piece of sonic material as a focal point to guide the individual through the

foreign syntax.

In the instances of the works created, pre-compositional thought has already been undertaken,

with the decision made to center the composition around a four-minute recording of NASA’s

Apollo 13 radio communications, which shall be manipulated using various audio processing

techniques to maintain interest. This audio track of pure speech shall be employed specifically

as the ‘something to hold on to’ as it is felt that it is the best type of sonic material for this

task. The human voice is familiar syntax to any listener, which means that it will be easily

‘picked out’ of the mix amongst the soundscape, due the brain’s natural ability to identify the

percussive plosives, vowels and consonants speech provides amongst background noise, due

to the fact, as stated by biological scientist C.J. Darwin:

‘…we almost always listen to speech against a background of other sounds which we

are adept at ignoring.’ (Darwin, 2008)

In addition, speech has a distinct quality of being rhythmically erratic due to the irregular

plosives, which shall create a bridge between the rhythmically constant, beat-based sections

of audio and the non-rhythmic acousmatic soundscape whilst still maintaining a naturally

flowing, organic structure - confirming the lack of prominent grid-based repetitive patterns

and aiding the works validation as musique concrète.7 Throughout the duration of the piece,

the vocal shall be noticeably featured, however it is ultimately dependent on the individual 7 Plosives are the transient percussive ‘popping’ sounds made when speaking – ‘Denoting a consonant that is produced by stopping the airflow using the lips, teeth, or palate, followed by a sudden release of air.’ (Oxford University Press, 2012)


listener as to whether or not its inclusion as ‘something to hold on to’ is successful or is even

necessary.

Track 2: Serialism + Drum & Bass

Twelve-Tone Serialism Components

The works created for this project shall employ the twelve-tone compositional methodology

of early serialism, blended with traditional elements of drum & bass. Akin to the early forms

of serialism, inspired by Schoenberg’s ‘Suite for Piano Op. 25, Part 1’ (1921), the piano will

be the most predominant instrument, and shall play the parts most immediately identifiable as

‘serial’. The piano shall be employed due to its well-rounded capabilities and ability to

perform any style of written notation - from loud, fast paced, staccato rhythms to slow,

elongated, soft drones.

The first necessary step to composing serial music – undertaken prior to the start of

composition – is to establish the fundamental tone row, known as the prime. This is a

rearranged order of the twelve-tone chromatic scale (numbered 0 - 11) that shall be used as

the basis upon which any component of the music can be serialised. The first number (number

0) is the reference pitch, used as a start point in which to calculate the remainder of the prime.

The row of numbers dictate the order in which the twelve semitones shall be played, and also

corresponds to how many semi-tones above the reference pitch the consequent note is.

The twelve semitones in the chromatic scale are as follows:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

C C♯ D D♯ E F F♯ G G♯ A A♯ B


The tone row used for this project shall be the same as used in Schoenberg’s Suite for Piano

Op.25 Part 1. However, the reference pitch shall be C as opposed to E. Therefore, starting

with the chosen reference pitch of C, the prime can be calculated:

PRIME:

0 1 3 9 2 11 4 10 7 8 5 6

C C♯ D♯ A D B E A♯ G G♯ F F♯

Once the prime is established, a grid, known as a ‘Twelve Tone Matrix’, can be used to

calculate the derivatives of the prime that can be made, the most fundamental of which are

known as the inversion, the retrograde and the retrograde-inversion. The prime is highlighted

in yellow. 8

Twelve-Tone Matrix

Figure 3. Calculated by: http://www.musictheory.net/calculators/matrix

INVERSION

The inversion is the prime with the semitone intervals between each note inverted - as

depicted by the left-most vertical column in the twelve-tone matrix.

8 It is of important note that early forms of serialism composed by the likes of Schoenberg in the 1920s probably would not have utilised a twelve-tone matrix as shown above. The twelve-tone matrix was supposedly created much later in order for theorists to reverse engineer and study the early works of serialism, although the origin of the twelve-tone matrix is unknown and is not credited to any specific individual.


http://www.musictheory.net/calculators/matrix

‘The inversion form is the melodic inversion of the original, all intervals written

upside down, all interval directions changed’ (Kenneth R. Rumery, 2010)

For example, between notes 0 and 1 from the prime, there is a one-semitone interval

increasing in pitch. The inversion of this would be a one-semitone interval decreasing in

pitch. This is applied to all the notes in the prime until the full inverted tone row is complete:

0 11 9 3 10 1 8 2 5 4 7 6

C B A D♯ A♯ C♯ G♯ D F E G F♯

RETROGRADE

The retrograde is simply the prime but in reverse order. Therefore:

6 5 8 7 10 4 11 2 9 3 1 0

F♯ F G♯ G A♯ E B D A D♯ C♯ C

RETROGRADE-INVERSION

The retrograde-inversion is the inversion of the prime, in reverse order. Therefore:

6 7 4 5 2 8 1 10 3 9 11 0

F♯ G E F D G♯ C♯ A♯ D♯ A B C

According to the ‘rules’ of traditional serialism, all other parameters of the notes, for example

rhythm, duration and velocity can be chosen at will during composition. Additionally, notes

can be repeated infinitely as long as the tone row is not disobeyed. For example, according to

the prime, a D can be played multiple times in a row as long as it succeeds an A and is

followed by a B.


Drum & Bass Components

In terms of incorporating drum & bass elements, serialism is relatively ‘open’ - being a

compositional practice rather than a genre of music - with the main focus on the order and

pitch of the notes being played. Therefore, all of the traditional components of drum & bass

music can be successfully incorporated without disrupting the serial nature of the piece.

Furthermore, the twelve-tone matrix can be applied, even if arbitrarily, to any other

constituents of the composition. For example, traditional drum & bass drum loops shall be

dissected into twelve separate pieces, and rearranged following the tone rows to create

spontaneous loops of erratic drum rhythms that require no logical compositional order,

offering an interesting and fresh use of traditional drum & bass loops that have been a

fundamental feature since the nascent stages of the genre. Assigning sections of any desired

component to the numbers 0 to 11, and ordering the sections according to the basic serial laws

shall be a vital compositional technique used throughout, and although possibly unbeknownst

to the listener, shall contribute to the serial nature of the piece.

Track 3: Ambient + Drum & Bass

Ambient Components

In terms of the overall composition and sonic characteristics of the works created, a spacious,

reverb heavy soundscape will be constructed, typical to ambient music, to create a distinct

atmosphere the listener can reside in throughout, as delineated in the Literature Review.

Utilising various production techniques, for example the heavy automation and modulation of

parameters such as panning and reverb-sends, shall create a textured and evolving atmosphere

that upon repetition remains crucially subtle yet still fresh to the ears, maintaining the

listener’s interest throughout.

‘…development of the texture of sound itself as a focus for compositional attention,

and the ability to create with electronics virtual acoustic spaces (acoustic spaces that

don’t exist in nature)’ (Eno, 2004, p. 95)


It is important to note that the conditions in which ambient music is most likely to be

consumed in is of high significance: the hypothetical notion that the listener could be listening

to works of an ambient nature whilst reading, working, sleeping or in a public place (Eno’s

‘Music For Airports’ (1978)) must be a maintained consideration throughout the composition

of the piece.9

This means that slow, repetitive drones and swells should be used as the main syntax to

induce a sense of calm and to ensure (if being consumed in a public place) important sonic

information in the listener’s surroundings such as speech is not masked by the music.

Therefore, the composition will be based upon a repetitive two-chord sequence, employed to

allow the listener to gain a familiarity with the syntax, aiding the likelihood of a successful

fulfillment of its nature as ‘background music’.

This is achieved due to the human brain’s ability to filter out and ignore familiar and

repetitive sounds heard in background surroundings - such as traffic or crowd noise - in order

to focus solely on the important sonic information, most commonly being speech. This is

known in neuropsychology as ‘the cocktail party effect’:

‘the cocktail party effect -- the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single

talker among a cacophony of conversations and background noise…This specialized

listening ability may be because of characteristics of the human speech production

system, the auditory system, or high-level perceptual and language processing’

(Arons, 1992)

9 This is based on the general application of ambient music as background music. However it has since been discovered that this was not Eno’s original intent and was a misinterpretation by the press that caught on and has since stuck. To Eno, the term ‘ambient’ in fact meant (as quoted in Eric Tamm’s book ‘Brian Eno. His Music and the Vertical Colour of Sound’):

‘ “Music that allows you any listening position in relation to it’ […] ’that can be background or foreground or anywhere.” ’ (Tamm, E. 1995)


Therefore, the listener establishing an acquaintance with the syntax (via the repetitive

compositional structure) allows the individual to, to some extent, disengage from the music,

allowing the desired subtle enhancement of the sonic environment and subconscious

stimulation of the brain with the calmative nature of the piece.

Commonplace in many examples of ambient music, the building and dismantling of the

texture and layers of the syntax will drive the composition. The introduction will be an

establishment of the overall tone of the piece, achieved through an exploration of swelling

synthesised pad sounds with heavy spacious reverb. Unlike works of musique concrète, the

clear delineation of the direction of the composition is vital, so as to not alert the listener to an

abrupt change in any musical or compositional parameter. Assisting the fluidity of a natural

and intuitive compositional progression will be the employment of numerous sonic indicators,

such as rising white noise filter sweeps, to create a subtle implication of a forthcoming

climatic event or a change in compositional direction. Maintaining a presence of subtle and

suggestive sonic material rising and falling, bridging between firm, distinguishable anchor

points, will mean that the listener is almost subconsciously guided through the progression of

the composition, facilitating the most instinctive and autonomous listening experience

possible.

Drum & Bass Components

Similarly to the first two works created for the project, the drum & bass components

incorporated shall be the traditional 174bpm drum breaks and heavy sub bass, safely ensuring

the piece has immediately identifiable drum & bass constituents.

The maintained focus when composing the drum & bass sections of the piece is to ensure they

are not overpowering or distracting in comparison to the ambient syntax, merely rhythmical

enhancements to the existing soundscape. This is to ensure the works maintain the

fundamental purpose of ambient music – to be played in the background to enhance the sonic

atmosphere. This can be achieved by employing space as a compositional tool, creating ‘space

frames’ - a concept explained by experimental electronic music composer Simon Emmerson.


Emmerson (1998) states that a sonic object can reside in a particular space, and the

parameters of this space defined by the composer via various recording and production

methods.

‘I suggested the simple application of the idea of the frame (a defined area of interest)

applied progressively from the largest to the smallest scale: from a landscape

(bounded by the acoustic horizon), part of which we designate an arena, within which

we find a stage, upon which we frame an event.’ (Emmerson, 1998)

Figure 4. (Emmerson, 1998)

Emmerson goes on to delineate the differences between each field of space available, for

example:

‘The sound landscape is projected into the listening space becoming the new

environment within which the listener perceives. Sometimes additional material is

superimposed, effectively defining a near-stage area.’ (Emmerson, 1998)

In terms of Emmerson’s theory, the largest frame, a landscape, shall be fashioned using

swelling synth and pad ambient syntax to realise a perceived acoustic horizon within which

the drum & bass constituents can reside - forming their own smaller sub-space frames such as

an arena or stage. This shall create a three dimensional relationship between the ambient and

drum & bass syntax, however delicacy is required when incorporating additional syntactical

components so as to not obscure or blur the individual frames. For example, analysis of


existing examples of drum & bass indicates that the drums are traditionally heard in the center

of the stereo field and specifically compressed to be present in the most forefront point of the

mix – embodying an ‘event’ space frame. This is too conflicting with the nature of ambient

music and, in terms of Emmerson’s space frames, creates too drastic of a disparity between

the ambient ‘landscape’ and heavily compressed drum & bass ‘events’. The automation of

space-related parameters such as panning and reverb wet/dry mix will allow an effect to be

created to allow the drums to be heard as a more atmospheric entity, resembling a more

‘background’ space frame within the mix. This will enable the drum & bass components to

better adhere to the generic conventions of ambient music yet still remain a directly

identifiable constituent of traditional drum & bass. Furthermore, using sub bass comprised

from pure sine waves will, to some extent, allow the bass to be ‘felt’ rather than heard as a

prominent element in the mix. This is due to its monophonic, low amplitude and very low

frequency content (sub-100Hz), making it difficult to pinpoint in the stereo field and thus

maintaining a subtle presence, enhancing the lower frequencies of the sonic atmosphere rather

than being a disruption to the higher registers.

Discussion

Project Amendment

The original intent of the project was to create four pieces of music, the first three as created

and discussed previously, and the fourth piece being a combination of all the aforementioned


research genres – musique concrète, serialism, ambient and drum & bass. However, during

the process of the project, research, experimentation and new found understanding of the

styles of music meant that it quickly became apparent that a successful infusion of all of the

research genres (infused into one piece) would make little compositional sense in the way that

the majority of the theoretical underpinnings would be arbitrarily implemented or too unclear,

prompting the decision to not create the fourth piece of music for this project. This is due to

the conflicting ‘rules’ and parameters crucial to each genre discovered and understood from

research. One of many examples lies within the conflicts found between ambient music and

serialism. Ambient music uses textures to build a dense soundscape – one of the few defining

features of the genre – containing hardly any rhythmic or beat-based material, the least

suitable type of syntax to be serialised in a noticeable or worthwhile fashion. Therefore, one

fundamental element of either serialism or ambient would have to be discarded in favour of

the other, meaning that an infusion of all four styles is not going to adequately portray each

genre equally. This problem of multiple conflicting parameters is apparent between all of the

researched genres of music, and to successfully infuse them all would mean creating a piece

that would be disorganized, cluttered, lacking in compositional intelligence and more than

likely unpleasant to listen to. Furthermore, it would most definitely not withstand academic

scrutiny and the theoretical underpinnings would be extremely trivial, difficult to identify and

hard to validate.

With this, it was decided that the fourth piece of music shall not be created for the project, a

decision made based on what has been learnt throughout the process on the back of extensive

research and practical experimentation.

Track 1: Musique Concrète + Drum & Bass

Language Grid

The language grid can be utilised to its proper extent as a post-composition analytical tool,

and as predicted in the ‘Method’ section of the project, the works created appeared to include

a mixture of abstract and abstracted syntax. Furthermore, the piece as a whole can be


identified as being both aurally and mimetically carried in terms of the discourse, which

again, was predicted in the ‘Method’ section. This is owed to the abstract nature of the heavily

manipulated syntax creating a foreign soundscape, underpinned by the drum & bass

components possessing the aforementioned cultural reference, which is in fact imperative to

the works to create the intrinsic relationship with the drum & bass genre, a primary objective

felt to have been achieved. Therefore, it is of the opinion that the piece could be catagorised

as a ‘number five’ on Emmerson’s language grid - a mixture of abstract and abstracted

discourse both aurally and mimetically carried, suggesting a successful infusion of musique

concrète and drum & bass - the primary objective for the composition.10

Reduced Listening

Sections were created to allow the possibility for the practice of reduced listening, particularly

the ending (2:57 – 4:00), in which no beat-based syntax is featured and is instead replaced

with an evolving soundscape of heavily manipulated field recordings designed to create an

eerie atmosphere in which the listener can reside. As previously discussed in the Literature

Review, it is of the opinion that reduced listening is in actual fact, not probable, however this

is wholly dependent on the listener and their personal ability. The composer’s experience with

the piece and the established relationship with the syntax – recording, manipulating and

arranging the sounds – mean that the sound’s sources and original timbrel properties are too

difficult to be ‘unheard’ or ignored, resulting in reduced listening being very difficult to

achieve. In terms of the composition created for this project, reduced listening, its validity and

achievability is better left to be decided by an external listener with no previous relationship

or understanding of the piece.

The ‘Something to Hold On To’ Factor

The inclusion of the NASA communication audio file was the first syntactic component

acquired, and it was immediately decided to be employed as the ‘something to hold on to’ for

the reasons aforementioned in the ‘Method’ section. The inclusion of this is felt to be

successful in terms of having a captivating piece of continuously evolving, non-repetitive 10 Figure 2 in Literature Review – Page 6.


syntax. However, its effectiveness as ‘something to hold on to’ or even its necessity is

ultimately to the decision of the individual listener. It is felt however that its incorporation

does contribute something to the composition, if only basic interest or the fulfillment of an

empty gap in frequency content.

Spectromorphology

The composition as a whole can be aurally perceived in a spectromorphological manner, with

a distinct ebb and flow guiding a natural relationship between identifiable and foreign drum &

bass and electroacoustic syntax. Treating the initial recordings and sounds with a

spectromorphological approach prior to their incorporation into the composition greatly aided

new and interesting relationships to be created between the syntax, and facilitated a much

more natural structural evolution felt to be unattainable by the already familiar methods of

traditional composition. Maintaining this natural structural evolution was still found to be

problematic at times, especially when trying to incorporate beat-based syntax, as the content

naturally implies a structure of some variety. For example, when introducing a drum & bass

loop, there are various production methods that can be utilised (such as filter sweeps or gain

automation), but these naturally create an indication of the direction of the piece and point

towards the possibility of a climactic event. The only ways found to avoid this is to ‘trick’ this

listener with a false climax or extend the introduction of the drum loop until its climactic

implications are lost, which is not always the most compositionally interesting approach.

However, when composing and arranging the piece, treating the drum & bass components as

pure sonic material and ignoring their rhythmical characteristics helped to avoid the inevitable

establishment of a permanent grid-based structure, although it was found to be almost

impossible to avoid completely. Therefore, arguably, the piece created is not fully

electroacoustic, which was in actual fact to be expected, as the drum & bass elements

incorporated are inherently not of an elecroacoustic nature, implying that a piece of ‘pure’

musique concrète was perhaps never possible in the first place. It is ultimately to the decision

of the listener whether or not the piece qualifies as musiqe concrète in a general sense, or if it

is music of uncategorised hybridity featuring drum & bass constituents and electroacoustic

compositional methodology.


Track 2: Serialism + Drum & Bass

Found to be the most challenging composition, it is felt that although they are not directly

contradictory, drum & bass and serialism do not coincide harmoniously with one another. As

discussed in the Method section, twelve-tone serialism methodology has been applied to a

piano, featuring varying examples of the four tone rows – prime, inversion, retrograde, and

retrograde inversion – with moderate success. However it was found that this method of

composition is very complex, especially when attempting to compose and arrange within

multi track recording software such as Logic, resulting in a complex project file that works

against a natural compositional flow. Additionally, at the time of composition, the lenience of

the serial order was not fully understood. Upon further research due to initial compositional

failings, composers such as Schoenberg would not have employed a twelve tone matrix, and

analysis of his early serial compositions suggest that a strict following of the serial order is in

fact not present, and comments have been found (although not from concrete sources) that

state that Schoenberg himself admits to incorporating chords and extra notes outside of the

serial order to create harmony and supplementary melodies.11 This is possibly the case, as the

limitations of the tone rows, even when all occur simultaneously and feature massively

diverse rhythmic and structural qualities played across multiple pianos at once, counteracts

any interesting compositional flow more complex than a primitive and tedious 1/8th or 1/16th

note repetition of the tone rows. Therefore, when incorporating different rhythms and

permutations of the tone rows, the erratic nature of the composition is ultimately far too

sporadic and inconsistent to facilitate any structural sense or interest.

Additionally, the opportunity for incorporating drum & bass components into the serial

environment was thought to be relatively straightforward due to the style’s non-conflicting

rules and parameters. However, underneath the aforementioned rhythmically erratic piano

parts, an equally erratic (or even a basic 1/8th note) drum pattern disrupts the piano part to the

point of it lacking compositional integrity. This resulted in an identifiable and undesirable

separation between the serial and drum & bass components. Additionally, the serialisation of

11 Previously enlightened in the footnotes of page 22.


other parameters - for example the dissection of drum loops into twelve separate portions,

followed by the application of the serial order to the individual sections as if they were the

twelve tones of the chromatic scale - resulted in an effect that was much more trivial than

originally expected and was in actual fact not very interesting at all. The achieved sound was

an erratic and confusing spasm of drum & bass breaks that, to a presumable majority of

listeners, would have been completely overlooked as being serialised or even intellectually

contemplated in any way.

To improve the existing composition, or to create a better infusion of serialism and drum &

bass, it is probable that a better understanding of the composition of serial music is necessary,

and perhaps a first hand experience of composing with a more knowledgeable individual

would be beneficial in order to become more proficient in serial composition before

reattempting an infusion.

Track 3: Ambient + Drum & Bass

Ambient music and drum & bass have been found to be relatively good bedfellows due to

their somewhat lenient and non-conflicting ‘rules’. Additionally, to fully qualify as works of

an ambient nature, the list of criteria to be met is relatively short and non-specific. Unlike

musique concrète or serialism, the key compositional (and technical, production related)

techniques employed to create works of an ambient nature all ultimately contribute to the

construction of a spacious and fluid soundscape with high importance on the general

atmospherics of the piece rather than the specifics of the syntax or musical parameters (i.e.

pitch or tempo). With this being the case, drum & bass components have been incorporated

relatively easily, blending the genre’s traditional syntax – fast paced drum breaks, percussion

and heavy sub bass with an existing ambient soundscape. It is common for pieces of drum &

bass to already use this ‘formula’ of textured ambient soundscapes driven by drum & bass

compositional and syntactical components, and there are many examples of existing works

that explore an infusion of the two genres, such as Etherwood’s remix of ‘Jakwob – Fade’

(2013), having this existing reference material is thought to have allowed the composition of

the piece to come together much quicker than with the other works created for the project.


Furthermore, with the drum & bass constituents undertaking a more subtle and spacious role

than in the other works, primarily employing space-related compositional methodology, it is

felt that a successful infusion of ambient and drum & bass music is created. Additionally,

experiencing traditional drum & bass breaks projected in a panned, spacious and atmospheric

environment is an unusual and relatively fresh approach - with most drum & bass music

focusing on high amplitude, aggressive drum loops in the center of the stereo field - and

creates an interesting and natural relationship between the varying spaces of the mix, invoking

an overall sense of ambience that further contributes to a successful infusion with perceptible

characteristics. The conditions ambient music is predominantly consumed in was a

maintained consideration throughout the compositional process in order to not lose sight or

neglect the foremost purpose of the piece.

These maintained focuses are believed to be a significant contributing factor to the successful

completion of the composition, as having relatively precise general objectives to fulfill

allowed for a more straightforward approach than found with the other works created.

Overall Reflection

Results

It is important to understand that there are no specific ‘results’ of the project, and therefore no

conclusive ‘success’ or ‘failure’. The results are the resulting relationships that occurred when

infusing each avant-garde style of music with drum & bass, with the final output being the

music itself. The above discussion highlights, analyses and evaluates these relationships, the

majority of which were observed during the course of the composition of the three pieces of


music or in some cases predicted from research. The succeeding sections shall discuss the

project in an overall sense, outlining the relationships between the subsequent three pieces of

music and how they resemble or differ each other compositionally. Additionally, the nature of

the project allows for an infinite combination of chosen methodologies, steering the project in

a number of directions with the potential to drastically alter the final compositions. Therefore,

it is important to understand that the works created for the project are the result of the

personal understanding and interpretation of the research subject matter, and not deemed to be

a ‘definitive answer’ to the infusion of the explored styles of music. Furthermore, the success

of the infusion of the investigated avant-garde styles of music with drum & bass is ultimately

to the decision of the individual listener, and it is important to note that all music is subject to

personal opinion and the musical interests and understandings are unique to each individual,

which will likely result in significantly diverse feelings and conclusions regarding the three

pieces of music created for this project.

Overall Reflection

Although the three compositions differ in a general sense - featuring different genres,

compositional techniques and atmospheres to consequently invoke different moods and

imagery - interesting relationships between the compositional and analytical methodology of

each style of music have been discovered throughout the process of the project. For example,

analytical theory created for and primarily used within electroacoustic music can be applied to

serial or ambient music, a notion which was previously unknown and greatly unanticipated -

Emmerson’s space frames (1998) is an example of this, as space has been employed as a

compositional tool in all three pieces, with a shared, direct relation to Emmerson’s theory.

Further crossovers can be identified, employing outside concepts such as ‘the cocktail party

effect’ to all three pieces as a method of post-compositional analysis, as discussed in the

method section.

This has lead to the hypothetical conclusion that, music - no matter how experimental,

theoretically underpinned or dissimilar in compositional methodology - is still intrinsically

related in many ways, and the fundamental outcome remains a string of sonic information that


can still feature an undeterminable amount of underlying commonalities regardless of the

drastically diverse presentations possible, employed to create a composition which ultimately,

has been designed to appeal to or stimulate the listener in a desired way.

Continuing research could be carried out to further improve the understanding of

experimental genres of music. This shall likely include the expanding research of atypical

compositional techniques now found to be applicable to any style of music - such as

Emmerson’s space frames (1998) or Harrison’s sound diffusion (1999) – or regarding the

more analytical domain: the continuing study of the psychological effects and uses of ambient

or background music regarding numerous neuropsychological theories.

Conclusion

As per the initial idea for the project, three pieces of music - minus the pre-discussed discard

of the fourth composition - have been created, applying compositional methodology found

from research to infuse drum & bass with the three avant-garde styles of music. The

exploration of the compositional techniques found in musique concrète, serialism and ambient

music exposed new and interesting methods of composition previously unaccustomed to,

enabling the creation of three experimental pieces of music that are theoretically underpinned

and felt to be innovative and exciting. The knowledge gained throughout the duration of this


project now takes form as permanent tools in the compositional arsenal and shall allow the

further creation of experimental and inventive music, reaching previously unattainable levels

of theoretical compositional intelligence that shall hopefully assist in the creation, inspiration

and advancement of innovative sub-genres of electronic music - more specifically, drum &

bass.

Overall the project was completed smoothly and efficiently, with the only amendment to the

project being the aforementioned abandonment of the fourth composition due to its

problematic nature and inevitable demise - a decision made based upon newfound

understanding of the four styles of music obtained from research and experimentation during

the creation of the initial three compositions.

Bibliography

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UK.

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Press LTD.

Emmerson, S. (1998). Aural Landscape: Musical Space. Organised Sound, 3 (2), 135-140.

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2014, from OREMA: http://www.orema.dmu.ac.uk/?q=content/wandering-uneasily-familiar-

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‘Why’ of Sound Diffusion. Composition and Electroacoustic Music, 117-127.


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Nothern Arizona University: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/krr2/12tone/12tone1.html

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Appendices

Portfolio (includes the music composed for this project): www.alexlawley.wordpress.com

Syntax


http://www.alexlawley.wordpress.com/

Figure 1.

Listening Research - Example Composers/Artists/Works

Musique Concrète

Steve Reich – Different Trains

Pierre Schaeffer - "Etude Aux Chemins De Fer"

Serialism

Webern’s Symphony

Stockhausen – Formel

Stockhausen – Kreuzspiel

Nummer 4

Messiaen - Mode de valeurs et d’intensities

Pierre Boulez – Structures I

Arnold Shoenberg – Suite for Piano Op. 25 – Part I

Ambient

Brian Eno – Music for Airports

Aphex Twin – Selected Ambient Words 85-92

John Cage

Drum & Bass


Etherwood - Liquid

Technimatic – Liquid

Noisia – Dark

Goldie – Traditional

Roni Size – Traditional

Works of Hyrbidity

Monolake – Internal Clock

Additional Reading

Adkins, Monty (2007) Schaeffer est mort! Long live Schaeffer! In: EMS07 - Electroacoustic

Music Studies, 12-15 June 2007, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.

Alwakeel, Ramzy (2009) IDM as a “Minor” Literature: The Treatment of Cultural and

Musical Norms by “Intelligent Dance Music” - Uuniversity of Leeds (UK)

Cascone, Kim (2000) The Aesthetics of Failure: “Post-Digital” Tendencies in Contemporary

Computer Music - Computer Music Journal.

Harrison, Jonty (1999) Sound, space, sculpture: some thoughts on the ‘what’, ‘how’ and

‘why’of sound diffusion - Composition and Electroacoustic Music.

Electroacoustic research: http://www.darrencopeland.net/survival.html

Sonic Art: http://www.synergiescanada.org/journals/erudit/circuit21/circuit3615/902282ar

Composing Serialism: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/krr2/12tone/12tone1.html

Composing Serialism: http://www.themusicespionage.co.uk/how-to-compose-serialism/

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Ben Ramsay for supervising the project, providing fantastic advice and support and

keeping this whole process light and funny.


http://www.themusicespionage.co.uk/how-to-compose-serialism/

http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/krr2/12tone/12tone1.html

http://www.synergiescanada.org/journals/erudit/circuit21/circuit3615/902282ar

http://www.darrencopeland.net/survival.html

Thanks to Bob Lewis for acting as secondary supervisor and providing solid initial advice.

Thanks to Staffordshire University and the Music Technology department for providing me

with great opportunities and for having me for the past three years.

Thanks to Richard Ryan and his ‘book hands’ for infinite proof reading and formatting

advice.

Thanks to skateboarding - you’re always there for me.

Thanks to Costa Coffee, Nantwich for putting up with my seemingly eternal presence and

providing me with a constant supply of coffee and Wi-Fi.

And finally thanks to my family and friends – including but not limited to - Stephen Lawley,

Judith Lawley, Ellis Lawley, Joan Lawley, Claire Jackson, Clive Jackson and Dorothy

Jackson – for their early musical influence and for always unconditionally supporting,

inspiring, and believing in me.

Without the aforementioned individuals none of this would have been possible, you have my

sincere gratitude.


BibliographyArons, B. (1992). A Review of the Cocktail Party Effect. Journal of the American Voice I/O Society , 12, 35.Darwin, C. (2008). Listening to Speech in the Presence of Other Sounds. Philosophical Transactions B: Theme Issue ‘The perception of speech: from sound to meaning’ , 363 (1493), 1011-1021.Emmerson, S. (1998). Aural Landscape: Musical Space. Organised Sound , 3 (2), 135-140.Eno, B. (2004). Audio Culture: Readings In Modern Music. Michigan: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. .Harrison, J. (1999). Sound, space, sculpture: some thoughts on the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of sound diffusion. Composition and Electroacoustic Music , 117-127.Kenneth R. Rumery. (2010, Jan). Twelve-Tone Composition. Retrieved 04 15, 2014, from Northern Arizona University: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/krr2/12tone/12tone1.htmlSound On Sound. (1998, June). Rob Playford: Producing Goldie. Retrieved from Sound On Sound: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun98/articles/goldie.html


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