FIELD MANUALArchaeological Excavations at the Gottschall Site

A guide to our specific site and fieldwork techniques

IntroductionMost of you probably have some questions about

just exactly what we will be doing this summer at the Gott schall Site, and how we will be doing it; so I thought I would put some of the current plans down on paper so that you have an idea of what to expect.

If you have no prior field experience in archaeology, let me tell you that I have directed thirteen archaeological field schools and I am familiar with many of the fears that you may have. Do not worry. The crew will be small enough that the supervisors and I will be able to work closely with you to explain what is expected of you. Rest assured that I know that you will make mistakes. You can take some comfort in the fact that archaeological field work has a sufficient number of redundancies in it that we will be able to pick up on any errors and correct them. If you pay attention to instructions and stay alert, you will have no problems.

Those of you who already have field experience may find that our methods are different from those that you have learned on other "digs". I am one of those archae ologists who believes that there is no one "right" way to dig, and that field strategies and techniques must remain flexible and capable of adjusting to the specific, unique sorts of problems that are presented by each site that is investigated.

We have every expectation for another very produc- tive field season!

The SitePlan to arrive in Avoca at or before noon, on the

Sunday beginning your scheduled week. You should eat lunch before noon, and then meet me at the village gazebo across from the Avoca Post Office at 12:00sharp. After noses are counted, we will drive to our headquarters just east of Avoca for a short orientation, a look at our field lab, and some necessary paperwork. Then we'll all ride to the site in the field vehicle (my Suburban), and climb down to the excavation area to take a look at the paintings

and at the progress that we have made up to that point. This will be a good opportunity for you to ask questions and for me to fill you in about what we have done and what we hope to accomplish during the week.

The ceiling of the rock shelter is very uneven and in some places there is not enough room to stand up. Therefore, I will have a "bump hat'' for each of you to wear while you're working in the rockshelter, and this will protect your head from injury.

As we enter the rockshelter, you will find the paintings on the left hand side, near the back of the overhang. Please do not touch them, since they remain only be cause fragments of the original pigment are adhering to the sand grains that makeup the shelter's sand stone wall. The stone is decomposing, and we don't want to speed· up the erosion process.

There are several large rocks sticking up from (and embedded in) the floor deposit. These represent pieces of the roof of the rockshelter that have fallen down. It is possible that some of these rocks may have additional paintings on them, so we will want to examine them carefully when we dig around them.

We can expect to find a large number of things in our excavations: we commonly find fragments of broken pot tery vessels, whole and broken chipped stone tools, de bris ("flakes") resulting from stone tool manufacture, char coal, seeds, mussel shell, and animal bone. We have also found calcite, galena, ground stone tools, fish scales, pigment, snail shells, ceramic pipe fragments, lead-ore beads, bone beads, elk- and carnivore-tooth pendants, worked and engraved clam shell, and various Historic artifacts.

Bone and shell are often very well preserved at the Gottschall Site, and we have identified dog/coyote, tur key-sized bird, medium- and small-sized mammal, raccoon, white-tailed deer, and elk remains from the site. Jim Theler of the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse is ana lyzing the bones that we have recovered so far. We are concerned about which species are present, and which

specific bones are present, so we can gain some insights into prehistoric food preferences and food-preparinghab its. Also, animal bones can sometimes tell us the time of the year when the animal was killed, and therefore what time of the year the site was occupied.

A number of other rockshelters have been excavated in Iowa and Sauk counties, and the animal bones from these siteshavebeen identified. In mostcases, thebones are from animals killed in wintertime, and it is thought that such rockshelter occupations represent winter hunting camps for individual families. Perhaps we will find the same to be true of the Gottschall Site.

These and other rockshelters have also revealed that they were occupied many times, and in some·cases the occupations rangeback to as earlyas 8,000 B.C. Wemay find evidence of similar early occupations at the Gottschall Site. We do have multiple occupations at Gottschall, and these are stratified. That is, they arefound in a series of layers, one on top of the other. In such a situation, we can be certain about which occupation is early and which is late, since the earliest will be on the bottom.

Identifying the species of charred seeds, including com kernels, and charred wood that we find can tell us what the local environment was like in the past, and what sorts of wood the prehistoric occupants of the site pre ferred to use. We can also use charcoal for radiocarbon dating, to estimate when the various occupations oc curred.

We have already found thousands of pieces of broken pottery vessels inside the rockshelter, a.nd have been able to accomplish partial restoration of about 70 individ ual pots (about 30 more pots are represented by single sherds). We have reason to believe that all the pieces of these 100 or so pots are still somewhere inside the rockshelter. We can date pottery on the basis of styles of decoration, and these dates will support (or refute, in rare cases) any radiocarbon dates we may get. Styles of decoration on pottery, along with manufacturing tech niques, can tell us about the sorts of contact that the occupants of the site had with nearby and more distant peoples.

Stone tools can tell us about prehistoric trade for raw materials and design concepts. Microscopic wear pat terns and tissue residues on the toolscan tell us howthey were used. Even the "waste flakes" can tell us about the manufacturing techniques that were used.

The Gottschall Site is exceptional in terms of the degree of preservation of the remains of its prehistoric inhabitants, and in teITTls of the fact that it is essentially undisturbed. These qualities alone would make it worth while to conduct excavations. Add a truly extraordinary

and unique set of prehistoric pictographs of exceptional quality and detail, and we have a super archaeological site.

Research GoalsOur work at the Gottschall Site revolves around two

main research objectives. The first has to do withdiscov eringthe origin, meaning, and use of the paintings on the rockshelter wall. We are addressing this question by conducting excavations in the area near the paintings, where we may find special artifacts, special distributions of artifacts, or special cultural features, such as hearths used to view the paintings; in other words, evidence that the area was treated in some unusual manner, due to the presence of the art work. One of the things that our work may show us is how the paintings affected the people who saw them.

Our second research goal is to make the most of the Gottschall Site's potential for increasing what is known about the region's prehistoric cultures and culturehistory. Due to its unusually deep, well defined strata and its excellent preservation of materials, the site presents us with an extraordinary opportunity to refine, redefine, and/or add to that body of knowledge - not only for post-painting time, but all the way back to the rockshel ter's first occupation. We want to identify all of the occu pations that occurred at the site, and to gather all of the infoITT1ation that we can about each of them.

We will work toward answering such questions as: How deep are the deposits? How were those deposits laid down? How many occupations are present? Who occupied the rockshelter, and when? What activities took place there? When during the year was the site used? How did the various inhabitants of the rockshelter organ ize their activities within this space? How did thesepeople use their environment - did they ignore some available resources in favor of others? And so on.

The datathat we recover from the site will allow us to clear up some of the many ambiguities in current schemes of regional prehistory; and where the picture is already clear, we'll offer supporting data and add detail. For instance:

We will recover a great deal of material which, when analyzed, will provide information about past environ mental conditions at the site. Our stratigraphy will tell us who was at the site during each stage of this environ mental/climatic history.

We willprobably be able to construct or refine artifact chronologies, even within fairly narrow time spans. An example might be "Effigy Mound" pottery: if we find com plex decorations on the sherds from higher (later) strata, and increasingly simpler decorations on sherds found as

2 Gottschall Field Manual

GOTTSCHALL STRATIGRAPHY

Zone

A

B

sediment Description

thin dark brown clayey

tan and brown sandy, appears "marbled"

CUl tuJ:e/ Dat es

modern leaves, nut shells,

twigs recent washed in

C thick in southeast but lenses out in the after 1870 -front center of the shelter, grey clayeybottom of the zone has 19th Centurywith varve-like micro-strata artifacts

(disconformity)

D dark grey sandy with micro-strata

E more reddish brown than D, sandy and usually thin.

G black or red burned sand, discontinuous and very thin

Oneota 1100 -1400 AD

Late Effigy Mound and Oneota 1100-1400 AD

Aztalan collared, Early Oneota 900-1000 AD

H tan to peach (sometimes grey, white or yellow), powdery ( An th%'osed)

I like H but light grey-brown to medium brown, powdery (An t:hrosed)

J like H but medium to dark brown with some sand, powdery (All throsed)

K like H, reddish orange, powdery( An t:hrosed)

L sandy, gray, sometimes "swirls"

M reddish-brown sandy

N very dark greyish brown to almost black sandy

Early Effigy Mound 700-900 AD

Early Effigy Mound c. AD 700-?

Late Millville, 400-600 AD

Late Millville, 400-600 AD

Early Millville 250-350 AD

Early Millville before AD 250 to

AD 150? (ditto)

_ _ _ _ _ _ (disconformity)_

_ __ _ _ _

_ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _

0 white sand and yellow silt, distinctive, massive flooding in the shelter

Durst Phase Late Archaic 1000-600 BC

p reddish-brown to brownish-red sandy (Durst?) discontinuous, distinctive, easily recognized

Q

R

s

T

Roof-fall

dark grey to black sandy

dark brown sandy with some clay

mottled tan-grey "salt-and-pepper"

homogenous dark grey sandy-clayey like R

(Pre-roof fall = ?)

(Bedrock)

?

?

?

Late Archaic 1100-1500 BC

Gottschall Field Manual 3

we go down, we will havedefined (discovered!) a chrono logical sequence for Effigy Mound pottery. We can then compare Effigy Mound pottery from other sites to our series, and assign dates to those sites within the broader Effigy Mound time period, based on where their pottery fits into our sequence.

Our excavations will show us how each of the site's occupations was organized in termsof space-where the people did their cooking, their garbage-dumping, etc.

ResultsThe discovery of the more than 40 painted figures

on the east wall of the Gottschall site in 1974 was a major event. Such paintings are rare in Wisconsin and the site was only the 16th known example of any kind of rock art in the state. One of the workers at the sitein 1986, David Lowe, subsequently began a program of intensive searching for more suchsitesandhehasbrought thetotal up to more than 100. Also, our research has indicated that a large (10 acre) village is located downstream from the shelter, at a place where Morrey Creek enters the floodplain of the Wisconsin River. This is probably the place where the occupants of the shelter lived when they were not in the rockshelter. We have also found another, small, rockshelter near the Gottschall Site and this impor tant site may yet tell us more about what went on in the larger shelter. Information from the Gottschall Site is stimulating efforts to try to understand the nature and meaning of prehistoric art styles in the state and beyond.

We began excavations at the site in 1984 with a test trench that was designed to (1) discover if the floor deposits were undisturbed; (2) findout if the preservation of artifacts in those deposits was good; and, (3) find out if the deposits were stratified, which means that they had been laid down in a layer-cake fashion (see accompany ing table). We found that all of those criteria were pre sent, and we also found that the layers extended to a depth of more than 18 feet. Based on these discoveries, we decided to continue research and we developed ex cavation and recording procedures that would maximize the amount of information that we could recover.

Based on these preliminary data which have been supported by our later digging, we found that at least two small groups of peoples visited the site in Late Archaic times (1500-600 B.C.) and they camped along the east side of the shelter, which was the only place that was flat enough to live comfortably. The shelter was notoccupied again for many centuries. Then, around AD. 250, Late Middle Woodland (Millville) peoples visited the site and lived in the same area. These people continued to use the shelter until they were joined (replaced?) by Late Woodland (Effigy Mound) peoples at some time around

A.O. 700. Still later (around A.O. 1000-1300), other peo ples visited the shelter (later Effigy Mound, Mississippian and Oneota). Much later (around A.D. 1820-1870), a very small group of people spent a short period in the shelter. After that,the fieldabovethe shelter was opened to farming and sediment from that field (the "C" Zone) eroded into the shelter and covered the archaeological remains and protected them from modem disturbance.

We also discovered that one group of painted figures represented the main characters and a portion of the plot of the Legend of RedHom which the anthropologist, Paul Radin, hadrecorded for the Winnebago tribe shortly after the turn of the century. Alanson Skinner had reported a similar story for the closely-related, loway peoples, in 1925. We found debris under those figures that reflect the actual painting activities and, based on the stratigra phy and on radiocarbon dating, we were able to date the Red Horn composition to about A.O. 900-1000, thereby proving that at least some oral traditions can be handed down for that long and still be recognizable. We have subsequently confirmed that the artists were early Effigy Mound peoples.

The debris was found in the uppermost of a long series of unusual, fine-textured, dirts. Laboratory analyses revealed that these remarkable dirts (the H, I, J, and K zones) were made by humans who repeatedly laid them down in thin layers. This new kind of dirt, which we are calling anthroseds ("anthro-sed" means human made dirt) are mostly ashes from grass and (coniferous) trees, crushed and burned limestone, crushed clamshell and animal bone, and a few minor ingredients. We also discovered the earth oven where the limestone was "cooked". The anthroseds began to be laid down aroundA.O. 300 and ceased to be made in large quantities shortly after AD. 1000. Included in these layers are a series of postmolds (the soil discolorations left by de cayed wooden posts) which seem to define some sort of building activities. The anthroseds andthe postmolds are concentrated in the southeast corner of the shelter, in the area of the paintings. Although they are clearly "ceremo nial" in nature, we are continuing to learn more about them as our excavations continue, and it is beginning to look as if they were used to mark important things.

In 1992, while removing a pile of garbage (in square S23W13), we found a 10-inch-high carved and painted sandstone human head. It was found in the E Zone, on top of the latest anthroseds, but it has clumps of the man-made dirt adheringto its neck. It looks as if the head wasinserted intothe end of a log when it was in use. The garbage that was found in the same pile appears to be the remains of a feast.

The paintings, the clear evidence for a sequence of undisturbed layers of human occupations, the anthro-

4 Gottschall Field Manual

seds, the head, and the evidence for feasting activities, are extremely unusual and, together, indicate that the site was used as a shrine for a period of at least 700 years. This site is extremely important for understanding the archaeology of North America and, in 1978, it was suc cessfully nominated to the National Register of Historic Places, on a national level of significance.

In 1994,the sitewasvisited by vandals who attempted to steal the painted image of Red Horn. Thethieves were not successful, but public outrage over the incident re sulted in the formation of the Wisconsin Task Force for Rock Art PreseNation. This group made recommenda tions that have subsequently been implemented. Nota ble among these is a new law that provides stiff penalties for destruction of rock art. Also, a Wisconsin Rock Art Association has been formed to facilitate publiceducation to protect these priceless images from the past.

Over the years, hundreds of people, both non-native and Native Americans, have visited the site. Included in these groups are large numbers of young, college-bound students. The Gottschall Site has also helped to bring Wisconsin's rock art into focus as a highly significant part of our cultural heritage. Our research has also demon strated that rock art can be studied in a scientific way and that it is part of the data base used by archaeologists to gain understanding of prehistoric peoples. The project also demonstrates the important role that avocational, as well as professional, archaeologists can play in the recov ery and understanding of the remains of the past. And, the project, has become a source of pride in the local communities throughout the area.

Excavation in GeneralREAD CAREFULLYThe following section is a summarized "field

manual" describing our work in some detail. We will also explain these procedures to you during an orientation session at the site, but please read this section carefully, anyway. It really willhelp prepare you for your week at the site. Even after all our instruction, we know that there will be some things that remain unclear. Please ask any questions you may still have after the orientation and during the week. Remember, no question is "dumb"!!

There is little in field archaeology that can be called "heavy work". In fact, excavation is mostly done withhand tools and it is not strenuous. Probably the most tiring aspect of excavation is the result of monotony. A basic problem in the field, then, is not physical exhaustion, but a tendency for the fieldworker to have the mind wander and to lose concentration. Therefore, I ask that each of you make a special effort to keep alert when you are digging.

Another general suggestion is to set yourself a com fortable pace and try to keep to it. Working in "spurts" is very tiring and has a low net yield.

At the same time, I will ask you to make that pace as speedy as you can manage. Archaeology is "labor inten sive" and we calculate the amount of work that can be done in terms of "person-hours".I am assuming a certain level of yield tor each person-hour expended, and while my projections are not extremely high, I have developed an excavation strategy that will allow us to meet our research objectives which is based on that projection. I will tell you if you are working too fast or too slow, if you are being careful enough or perhaps too fussy.

Again, any time that you have questions as the work proceeds, ask them. The supervisors and I will be happy to help you out; that is what we are there for. There may be times, however, when we will be distracted by other problems - we are all deeply concerned about the devel opment of the excavation strategy - and sometimes our answers may seem abrupt. We hope that, if that should happen, you will not be discouraged or take it personally. Do persist until you get a satisfactory answer.

Our onlyscheduled break duringthe day is lunch,from noonto 12:30. You may, therefore, take a break whenever you need to. We of course hope that all will do this judiciously.

I would like to suggest that you not eat too big a lunch because, as you probably already know, this is likely to make you sleepy. Have a light lunch and a couple of snacks instead. Donottake food andbeverage into the rock shelter.

Another concern in archaeological excavation is re latedto getting one's body in and out of the square. When entering the square, keepyour feet at least onefoot back from the edge of the square. Do not jump into the square- this shakes the ground and breaks up the soil. This will become a problem as the squares get deeper, and we may have to use ladders. Similarly, be careful when you get out of the square so that you do not kick the wall.

Excavation EquipmentLet's now consider some of the excavation

equipment that we will be using. At the outset I want to urge you all to take care of it. It is not that it is so very expensive (although some of it is), but simply that it is so difficult to repair or replace damaged equipment while we are in the field.

The TroweL Although there areotherinstruments that are used in excavation, it is the mason's "pointing" trowel that is the basic, all-purpose tool. It is used to excavate levels, clean the floors of the excavation

units, slice walls

Gottschall Field Manual 5

for profiling, and pedestal specimens that are to be left in place until they are mapped and collected.

Should you want to get a trowel of your own, the Marshalltown brand has proven to be the very best, and we recommend it to you. The blade should be no more that 5 inches in length. We have a few of these to lend, as well as some of the small "Schmidt trowels" that we frequently u e.

Inorder for your trowel to function properly and easily, it mustbe sharp. Sharpening a trowel involves grinding or filing down the upper surface of the blade at a low angle so that it cuts well. A sharp trowel is able to move

go through.

At the end of each work day, we will clean all of the equipment, including trowels, scoops and dustpans, to prevent dirt and rust buildup that would render our tools useless.

Artifact BagsAll materials recovered from our excavations will be

placed in plastic bags for transport to the lab. Inside each bag, there is a 3"x5" file card witha stamp on it, calling for a variety of information. We write the same information onthe outside of the bag. Below is an example of the stamp:

smoothly through the dirt and cleanly slice it. A sharp trowel does not dragthe dirt and smudge the various soilcolors that we are trying to obseNe. Because it is sharp, it is not a good idea to carry it in a back pocket; sitting or falling downcould be "disastrous". It is, of course, an even

BEI.OIT COLLEGE

SI TE _ _ _ _ _ DATE. _

SQ# NAME. worse idea to carry it in a front pocket. And don't leave it

PROV.: HORIZ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

lying around loose. What do you do with it? Well, they actually make leather trowel holsters that you wear on

VERT._ _ _ _ FEA. ID. WASHED BY LABELED BY. _

your belt (and which are probably rather costly); some people have made their own corrugated cardboardguards for the blade, to make it somewhat safer for the pocket; and one person last year made a great trowel case from a wedge-shaped Tupperware pie keeper!

Since it is a nearly indispensable tool, you might want to paint the handle a bright color. Trowels really have a way of blending into the scenery, and are easily lost.

Shovels. We sharpen our shovel blades, too, and even though we don't use them for excavation at this site, we keep them there for moving backdirt, and we handle them daily - so they can be a menace to our lower extremities. That is why archaeologists always wear sub stantial footgear (boots) when they are digging, and I recommend that you do, too.

When not in use, a shovelshould be laidonthe ground with the toe of the blade down.

The Screen . All dirt from our digging, except for the soil samples that are taken for special analysis such as flotation, is passed through screens made of 1/4 inch mesh hardware cloth. This provides us with a stand ardized sampling device so that all items larger than 1/4 inch will collect in the screen and can be bagged. These screens, then, do not collect tiny items, and if we don't collect these while we are trowelling, they will not be recovered at all. In short, the screen should be regarded as a "backup" systemfor collecting data. Alwayscleanthe screen before and after use.

If you use your trowel to scrape across the screen, you will quickly wear a hole in it. When this occurs, we have lost our stan9ardized sampling device. Use your hands and the least amount of force necessary to get

the dirt to

"Site" calls for the name of the site. At Gottschall we will use a code to express the site name, "47 la 80", the official number of the Gottschall Site in the Wisconsin Archaeological Codification File System. The "47" stands for Wisconsin (it is 47th in alphabetical order of the list of states, excluding Alaska and Hawaii). The "la" stands for Iowa County. "80" denotes Gottschall as the 80th site recorded in Iowa County. This system is standard throughout the nation.

"Date" means the date when this is all being recorded, and we will write it as 22 July 84,2 Aug 88 (date, month spelled out, then year), so as to avoid the confusion that sometimes results from using only numbers.

"Sq.#" means "square number". We have establisheda grid system at the Gottschall Site and each square in

that grid is given a specific number. No two squares havethe same number. The square you are working in may be known as "S8 W5". This means that the southwest corner of the square is 8 meters south and 5 meters west of a specific, arbitrarily selected point ("datum") on the site.

"Name" calls for the name(s) of the excavator(s) of that square on that day, and sometimes the recorder's name as well.

"Prov." is an abbreviation of the word "provenience", and this portion of the label calls for two bits of information. "Horiz." refers to the horizontal location of the item within the square. Specific locations are determined for each specimen when we are doing "piece-plotting". "Vert.", on the other hand, refers to the vertical location of an itemor items. This will most often be expressed as the

6 Gottschall Field Manual

a

stratigraphic layer plus a level number (e.g., "Zone C, Level 4"). When we cannot be sure of the vertical prove nience for an artifact, we use the abbreviation "NVC" (no vertical control).

"Fea. No." refers to a specific number that has been assigned to a cultural feature that we have identified at the site. Thismight be a prehistoric garbage pit,a storage pit,a concentration of artifacts, a postmold, or some other physical phenomenon that we can identify as a result of a specific kind of former human activity. If we are not digging feature, we will leave this space blank.

The blanks for ''washed by'' and "labeled by'' will be filled in by the person who washes the contents of the bag, and by the person who labels and catalogs the items after they have been washed in our field laboratory.

Supervisors will fill out the bags for the excavation you are working on. Your task is to make sure that each bag has all of the required information correctly filled in. Simi larly, you should make a check of the 3x5 cards to make sure that they are legible. You will be participating in "piece-plotting" the excavated items, preparing the cards for every specimen.You will have an important duty to ensure that the supervisors assign the.correct numbers to each item.

Method"Method" is simply the strategy for accomplishing

our research objectives. I do not believe that any strategy should be writ in stone. Rather, it should be sufficiently flexible to adjust to the specific character of the deposit at the site so as to produce the highest return on our effort. It is even possible that, as our work progresses, we may decide that circumstances warrant abandoning our origi nal research problem in favor of a new and more impor tant one that is revealed by our excavations. I do not think that will happen, but I am prepared for the possibility.

The units involved in our excavations are only one meter-square, so can usually hold only one person at a time. The mini-team for each square willbe you and your supervisor.

Each square has its own Unit Book. This folder has the site number and the square number on the cover; it stays with its square until the unit is completely exca vated; and it contains just about everything that we will need to keep records on the excavation of the square. Inside, there are several blank sheets on which we record the date, the weather, the names of the excavators, the zones, levels, and features that were worked on, unusual things found, etc. The book also contains copies of the various record forms that we use: Level Forms, Feature Forms, Graph Sheets for pl_anview and profile wall maps, and Field Specimen Catalog Forms, for recording the

piece-plotting we will be doing. Before you begin to dig, read over the information that has been recorded in the unit book - this will tell you what has already been done in the square and it will alert you to any missing informa tion. The supervisors will do the actual recording, but you will play a crucial part in calling their attention to anything that needs to be recorded as you work.We will teach you what to look for·itwill not be a difficult job.

Full-Scale ExcavationsWe will call the surface of the floor deposit in the

rockshelter "Zone A", and start out by planningto remove the top 2 centimeters. We will call this first 2 cm. "Zone A, Level1". Zone A, Level 1 willbe no morethan 2 cm. thick. It may be less, because we will cease digging down as soon as we encounter dirt that is different in color or texture. At this point we will decide if we want to start a new "zone". If that is what we decide, then the level numbers start all over again: Zone B, Level1 (which is the first 2 cm. level in the secondzone). We do not necessar ily want to make the "levels" flat or level; rather the idea is to remove a uniform 2 cm. layer, which will result in the level's following whatever contour the top of the zonehad. The way we do this is to push small, red-painted nails into the surface of the new level and dig down around each to a depth of 2 cm., producing a series of little "wells". The bottom of each well marks the bottom of the new level. Then we just connect the wells by excavating between them. You can use as many of these nails as you want, spacing them close together or far apart, as needed.

There are also 2 to 4 very large nails stuck in the dirt near the corners of your square. Do not move these. We use these spikes for positioning the mapping grids, which must be done consistently from one level to the next.

When you begin to work a level, check to be sure that you are starting from the proper depth: if you are going to dig D Zone, Level 3, take some depth measurements along the profile walls to make sure that the surface is 4 cm. below the top of the D Zone already. It sometimes happens that others have previously dug too deep or not deep enough, and we'll want to adjust now.

Now all of this may sound confusing when you readit, but it is actually quite simple when you do it, and we will explain it at the site. The point of all of this is to preserve the stratigraphic information that the site contains.

If we encounter artifacts in any level, we will make every effort to leave them in place, removing all of the dirt above and around them, but not the dirt directly under neath. This willleave each artifact on a neat little vertical sided "pedestal". We will show you how to do

this in the most efficient manner, but at this point, I can tell you that it is best to begin excavation at the far side

of the square

Gottschall Field Manual 7

and work it toward you, rather than any other way.

Mentally divide your square into small sections, and work one section at a time. If you want to, you can take off the whole 2 cm. depth at once in eachsection; but it is generally easier to avoid gouging out the artifacts if you "shave" the section down (using a slicing motion of the irowel) until you reach 2 cm. depth; then move on to the next section. Do not leave a section until it is "perfect" - it is horribly difficult to go back and tidy up the square once the artifacts are all exposed on pedestals.

A "perfect'' job of excavation results (in this case) in a uniform 2 cm. of dirt being removed,everyartifactremain ing exactly in its original position (never having been moved at all) and excavation floorsand wallsthatare free of crumbs, tool marks, and smudges (these last are the result of not "slicing", but "dragging" the dirt with your trowel}.

When you excavate right nextto a "profile wall" in your square, you expose 2 new centimeters of that wall at its bottom edge. "Trim" this new portion of the wall so that it is straight, flat, and free of tool marks. If everyone who's dug in this square before had done the same,the wall will be very neat from top to bottom. Otherwise we must periodically take time out to trim up the whole wall.

When you are finished with your level, call one of the supervisors or me over and we willinspect your work, and tell you if additional cleaning is required. This cleaning isaccomplished only with a trowel: we do not sweep or

color and texture that the human eye cannot al'.'rays distinguish . Photographs also must be taken because when we begin the next level, we will be destroying the floor of the last level and a permanent record must bemade.

Mappingand Piece-PlottingAfte r the photography is done, one of the

supervisors will examine the floor of the level, to see if there are any variations in its soil color or texture. Since you have done the closest work withthe level, your input will be valuable here. If there are any disturbances or new dirts showing up, we will "scribe" their outlines right on the floor. Then we'll position a portable gridon the floor of the square, and record, on a sheet of graph paper, a map called a "plan view''. This map will show the precise location and orien tation of each artifact and soil color. When the map is finished, we remove the grid and collect the individual artifacts: each gets its own bag and unique "specimen number" and, using the map, we calculate its exact hori zontal provenience. Here is what a "piece-plotted" speci men's label might look like:

EB3/47BELOIT COLLEGE

SITE 47Ia80 DATE 18 July 92 SQ# S23W13 NAME M LindsleyPROV.: HORIZ. $22 .35 W12 68

VERT. EB Zone Leyel 3 FE'A. NO. _brush up dirt crumbs or mashthem back into the ground. Blowing dirt crumbs away may be worth a try, but let me repeat: do everything that you can to prevent having to go back and "de-crumb" a wholelevel. Have some one check your work as it goes along.

All of this neatness with excavation floors and walls really is mandatory, since it allows us to determine if there are any changes in soil color or texture which identify the presence of cultural features, natural disturbances (such as animal burrows) or a new zone.

When your square "passes inspection", it will be re corded photographically. I will be responsible for this since there are somespecial techniques and equipment required.

(Those of you who wish to take pictures as well may appreciate some advice. Use the fastest, finest-grained filmthat you can find. It is dark in the rockshelter, so you might want to consider flash pictures. 1 do not use flash because it is too difficult to control the resulting light with sufficient precision, so I rely on a tripod and time expo sures.)

Normally, both black-and-whiteand colorslide photos willbe taken. Photographic filmrecords differences in soil

WASHED BY RJS LABELED BY D Mj ller

sandstone sculpture

The letter/number combination in the upper righthand comer is the individual specimen number, or piece-plot number, in this case the one for the famous "Mr. Head". We can tell from this number that this is the 47th artifact collected from the EB Zone, Level 3, in Square S23 W13. No other artifact from this square will have the number "EB3/47". An artifact from a different square may have this number, but we will not confuse the two artifacts because of the different square numbers. Note the pre cisely calculated horizontal provenience. This all makes it theoretically possible to puteveryartifact rightback where we foundit. We don'thave any plansto do this(right away, anyhow . . .) but you can seethat we are gathering everybit of information that the site has to offer. We also note what we think the specimen is, although washing the artifact sometimes disproves our initial identification.

All of the information that is put on the label of the piece-plot bags is recorded again in the unit book on a "Field SpecimenCatalog form" before the artifacts

leave

8 Gottschall Field Manual

the site. This is just one of the many "backup systems" that we have to help us catch mistakes.

We can expect to encounter features in the course of our excavations. Features are forms of cultural informa tionthat cannotnormally betakenback (intact) tothelab. They include such things as burial pits, garbage pits, fire-places or hearths, clusters of artifacts, and even soil discolorations which mark the former locations of wooden posts that had been placed in the ground. Sometimes, animal burrows and other natural phenomena can be confused with cultural features, so we will do all of the identifications for you. The excavation of features re quires special mapping and digging techniques, and we'll teach them to you if the occasion arises.

All of the dirt that we remove will either becollected in trash-bag-lined pails for water flotation, or scooped into buckets and passed through 1/4 inch mesh screen. This way we'll recover just about anything that we might have missed in piece-plotting.

Water flotation is a simple laboratory procedure that involves placing the soil in a box that has a screen in the bottom. In this case, the screen is made up of 40 fine brass wires per inch. The whole thing is then placed in a tank of water and gently sloshed around. Charcoal and charredseeds float in wate,rso they willrisetothesurface to be skimmed off (the "light fraction"}. Heavy items will sink to the bottom of the box and these will also be collected (the "heavy fraction"}. Flotation allows us to recover very thin items that excavation does not catch.

We will take at least one flotation sample from each level of each square; and in somesquares we'll collect a ll the dirt this way. When you are assigned to a square, try to remember toask which we're doing forthat square and then tell the supervisor(who marks the float bags before they're filled} whenever youneeda fresh floatbag.Please do not just wait for it, or it may never arrive; and then we won't have all the samples that we wanted.

If some of the dirt from your squareis to be screened, rather than floated, make sure that you have an artifact bag marked just for your particular square, zone and level. Take your bucket of dirt and your artifact bag over to the screen but before you dump the dirt in, make sure that thescreenhas absolutely nothing in it already. Ifthere is something there, call a supervisor over and we'll see if we can find out where that material belongs. Once the screen is clean, you can "sift'' your bucket of dirt and put the recovered artifacts, sandstones, etc. into the artifact bag. We are keeping everything that does not pass through the screen. Make sure that you do not leave anything, even dirt, in the screen when you are done.

In screening you may find _ some very fragile items along with some large fragments of heavy rock from the

same excavation unit. In this situation, it is highly desir able to have two bags: one for the heavy stuff, and one for the fragile items. We also have toilet paper in the dig box to wrap and protect extremely fragile artifacts.

Assuming that all of the careful cleaning, mapping, recording, photographing and collecting has been com pleted, youcan now begin toexcavate the next level, and the whole procedure is repeated. We will continue to excavate each square downward in 2 cm. levels within each identified zone until we reach the bottom of the rockshelter and encounter bedrock. Our work will be complicated by the presence of chunks of rock that have fallen from the roof of the rockshelter, and it is possible that some squares will be "closed" before we reach bed rock as a result of this problem.

When we have reached the bottom of the square, we will tum to the walls of our excavation and do a very careful and neat job of straightening and cleaning them, making sure that they are flat and free of tool marks. These walls provide us with a profile of the various soil layers ("zones" or "strata"} that we have excavated, and this gives us a way to check to see if we have done our job as well as we think we have. It is generally true that the different layers of soil are more easily observed in the profiles than they are in plan view, which is the way we encounter them as we dig down, so we should be pre pared to see something new in the

profiles. If we have done our best in digging down and have stuck to our 2 cm. levels within each stratum, we should be able to correct any errors that we have made.

Profiles are also photographed and mapped, with the resulting maps alsobeingcalled"profiles". Theprocedure used in making the map iscalled"profiling", and if you are notalready confused youhavenotbeen readingcarefully.

Normally,I do notprofile all four walls of an excavation unit because the process istoo time-consumingto justify. But at the Gottschall Site, we will profile all four walls of each square.

Here are some hints on cleaning and straightening the walls of your square. You will notice that we defined your square by laying out string from one comer stake to another. Westretchedthestring onthe insideof thestake, with the result that our excavations have been slightly smaller than the actual size of the square (as this is measured from the centerof eachstake}. This procedure has left a small amount of "extra wal"l . We can now remove thisby cutting the walls back to the outside of the string. This gives us a fresh exposure of the profile wal,l which makes it easier for us to see each stratum.

Cutting a straight new wall is best done by carefully kneeilng along the side of the pit on the adjacent ground surface. Using the stretched string asa guide, startslicing

Gottschall Field Manual 9

downward with your (sharpened) trowel. Being on the top of the work, you can do a better job of "eyeballing" a straight and vertical cut. Be careful, though, not to kneel too close to the edge of the square since you may causethe wall to collapse, and that is most certainly not theobjective. When you cut down, you will likely encounter artifacts.Try to leave them in place in the wall by working around them. If they do fall out, make a bag for each of them,identifying the zone andlevelthattheywere inif thisis at all possible. If that is not absolutely certain, we will make out a bag with"NVC'' for the vertical provenience.

When you have done your best at cleaning the walls, call one of the supervisors over and they will inspect the wall and make sure that it is ready for photographing. It it is, we will take pictures and I will begin studying the walls to see if we can learn anything new from them. After I have done this, we will "scribe in" the boundary lines between each stratum, marking these lines right on the wall.

Now you can proceed with the actual mapping of the profile wall. We will demonstrate this procedure in the field. It is simple, but describing this process would take several pages. The supervisors andI willhelp in doingthe profiling.

When we have made profiles of every wall, we willbe able to join them up to make long profiles that reach from one end of our excavation to another, and these profiles are ve,y important.

Going HomeThere is a lot of tidying up to do at the end of the

work day, and we'llneed your assistance: make sure that there are no tools, nails, or other "debris" in the excavation area. If you know where something belongs, put it there - and if you don't, ask. If any of the equipment has dirt on it, clean it off, then put it away. Then, if you are willing and able to carry some artifacts up the hill in your backpack, you are welcome to do that. When we return to camp, we willneed helpto log in all of the bags that we brought back to the lab that day.

One more comment about fieldwork: we are excavat ing on private land and the Gottschalls have been ex tremely generous in allowing us to work there. It goes without saying that we should all respect their property and,in this way, we can demonstrate our appreciation for the privilege they have extended to us. We will try to cause them the least inconvenience that is possible and we will leave their land in at least as good condition as it was in before we arrived.

Incidentally, there are no latrines at the site, so when nature calls, be prepared to "rough it". (And bu,y your paper.)

The Field LaboratoryWe set up a laboratory at our field headquarters,

and you will be assigned to the lab for one day of the week. In the lab, the artifacts are carefully washed, sorted, counted, weighed, labeled, and catalogued. This is also where the water flotation is done. It, for any reason, we decide not to excavate on a particular day, we'll declare a "mass lab day", which will give us an opportunity to catch up on this necessary and vital work.

As soon as any kind of specimen reaches the lab (at the endof each day), it needsto be "registered" there. Forartifact bags, we remove the 3x5 card from inside each one and check it against the label on the bag. If all of the information matches, the bags of artifacts are put in a boxto await washing, cataloging, and labeling.

Flotation samples are recorded in a notebook, then stacked on shelves in the lab for later processing.

The field lab will concentrate on getting artifacts and flotation samples washed and dried, because we do not have facilities forthese "muddy" jobs back in Beloit. When we can, we will also catalog and label artifacts, and thismust be done before any analysis can be accomplished.

When you are washing an artifact, do get all of its surfaces very clean, but do not scrub it with a brush - this can introduce ''wear patterns" that would ruin an analysisof the item, or it could even break the specimen (the edge of a potsherd, or a clamshellspoon). Be especially careful of items that arrive wrapped in padding.

Some kinds of specimens are not to be washed: carbon-14 samples, wood samples, pigment samples, etc. We usually mark the bag if it is to get special treatment, but sometimes we forget. Ask the lab supervisor if you are in doubt.

When you are cataloging, you may find that the item bears a fieldidentification (e.g. "bone")that is incorrect (it is actually chert). Check with the lab supervisor and catalog it as it really is! You may make a note on the card about the misidentification if you want to.

When you are labeling the artifacts in the lab (which the supervisor will teach you how to do), please do not be upset if you are asked to re-do them. The writing simply has to be universally, unambiguously legible. If you find two pieces that fit together, glue them after you have checked with the lab supervisor.

Leave out interestingthings for the fieldcrew to see at the end of the day.

Please don't put away yourlabeled artifacts or catalog cards until the lab supervisor has checked them.

Keep your own eyes open tor mistakes that we may have made in the field!

10 Gottschall Field Manual

Your Responsibilitiesto the Research

Common sense tells you that it is going to be neces sary for you to be alert and thoughtful if the research is going to be successful. We will keep to our daily work schedule rather closely, which is necessary if we hope to meet the season's objectives. We will meet at field head quarters each day at 7:30 a.m. I will then drive us out to the site in "the Bourbon", and we will remai n at the site until 4:30p.m.You will needto bringyour lunchalongwith

, you eachmorning (sandwich makings willbeprovided for those rooming at headquarters) andsome water or what

. ever for drinking.

ering, so wecan all havesome.

We do not have a dishwasher, so we ask each of you to lenda handat doing thedishes. If we need aclean dish towel in thekitchen, ask for one or just look around a bit - wetryto keepa good supply. Someof themmay look like bath towels, but they dry dishes really well.

We may try to work out an arrangement where we leave instructions and whoever is in the lab that day can start dinner before the field crew gets back. /fwe can get so highly organized, it will increase "playtime" for us all!

That's about it. You will be expected to be ready to go at 7:30 each morning and to have yourself properly

**********************************************e*q*u*ip*ped tor the day's work. I also expect you to keepalert, and to ask questions it at any time you do not

NO ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES WILL BE CON SUMED BY MEMBERS OFTHE RESEARCH TEAM AT ANY TIME UNTIL AFTER 4:30. FURTHER, NQ ILLE GAL DRUGS OF At-lY KIND WILL BE PERMITTED AT ANY TIME, IN mY PLACE.

understand what you are supposed to do.

SummaryWow! I would not be surprised it you are now asking

yourself why you volunteered for this summer's work.*************************************************D*on't worry. Even though there is a lot to remember and

The clothing that you bring should allow you to dress in layers, since while the summer temperatures in south western Wisconsin can be very high and are usually associated with high humidity, it is quite cool in the rock shelter, even during the hottest days. The climb down to the site is very steep and slippery, so I recommend that you wear boots to provide ankle support, as well as for protection against our sharpened metal tools. The trail to the site also goes through some lush poison ivy and brambles, so long pants area goodidea. Although it does not rain into the rockshelter, you might want to bring a raincoat along. You might also want to get some sort of kneeling pad, especially if you have trouble spending much time in a squatting position. Also, while there has never been much of an insect problem at the site, we've found that bug repellant is highly desirable for the after dinner hours! Pack a swimsuit, too.

We have only one real "house rule": do not ever, ever go barefoot outside. EVER. There are, unfortunately,afot of rusty nails andbits of broken glass and other debris all over the ground at camp. On two occasions, peoplehave even been stuck right through ''wimpy'' shoes; so find yourself some of those sandals with the fat rubber soles, at least. Hard Leather soles are even better.

The house thatwestay inhas a"personality quirk" that perhaps bears mentioning at this time: the hot and cold taps at the bathroom sink are reversed (hot on the right, cold on the left); and in the shower, if you get only cold water, turn the knob towards "cold'' to get warm water ..

Try to save water (especially hot) when you're show-

a large number of "dos" and "don'ts" to be concerned about, I can assure you that a large number of people before you have quickly learned how to do field work in archaeology. A lot of it is just plain common sense. Most of it is slow, painstaking, and careful hand work that requires thought, precision and patience rather than strength.

We are all going to learn a great deal this summer. Every time I have gone into the field I have learned something new about how to dig because each site presents different sets of field problems. The learning process itself is pretty exciting and I suppose that this is part of the "charm" and "romance" of archaeology. Field work is rigorous and disciplined, but the process of dis covery is truly fascinating. Archaeology captures the in tellect andthe imagination atthe same time. Each scrape of the trowel produces some new bit of

information about some long-forgotten group of people who have gone before us on this planet, and that is a triumphant and humbling experience. Each archaeological site is like a "time capsule" that canprovide an overwhelming amount of detail about past people - who they were, what theydid for a living,and how they handled the problem of coping with the world around them. Archaeological techniques provide theonly mechanism thatI know of to tellus about the mundane details of everyday life experiences of past peoples - details which are at the same time familiar and exotic.

The Gottschall Site paintings add another dimension to all of this byalertingusto the fact that something out of the ordinary went on inside this rockshelter. Only archae ology can provide us with the facts that will permit us to

Gottschall Field Manual 11

discover what that something was.

This summer promises to be the most extraordinary field season that we have ever had. I hope that you can appreciate that our task is to get a research project completed. I also hope you will understand that we plan to treat each of you as a valued member of the research team that will work together to meet those objectives. I know that we are going to do a fantastic job, andI am truly looking forward to sharing this very special experience with each of you. Callme if you have any questions. After May 15, my residence will be at the field headquarters. If you need to reach me there, call(608) 532-6385, or write to P.O. Box 98, Avoca WI, 53506.

Some Additional ThoughtsAfter completing this field manual, I began reflecting

on the Gottschall Site and its paintings, and thought that I would share some of those thoughts with you.

The importance of the Gottschall paintings lies in the factsthat they are spectacular in form, generally well-pre served, highly detailed, rich in potential information, and unique. On these bases, the site has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places at the national level of significance, but it is of international importance.

Although there are many reported examples of rock paintings and carvings from other locales in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa and Illinois, the Gottschall examples are unusual in their abundance anddetail, and, especially in the precision of their execution. Nothing like them is known fromNorth America. Some of the specific animal formscan be favorably compared withsimilar rock paintings from northern Minnesota and adjacent portions of Canada, but the human forms at the Gottschall Site are unparalleled and clearly incomparable. Ourpaintings rep resent a very special and newly-discovered form of pre historic art.

And we do not know just why they were done, nor do we understand why they should have been done in a small, inconspicuous rockshelter in southern Wisconsin. In ways whi h are still unclear, these paintings provide us with a unique opportunity to gain detailed insights into the thoughts and ideas of people who themselves have long since passed away from human understanding.

The paintings are alsoimportant because of the many questions that they raise. In addition to the Red Horn group, there are many more panels. When were they done? Whodid them? Why werethey done in thisparticu lar rockshelter? Is there something special about this place? What do the pictographs illustrate? Are they de signed to record the activities of people in the area, or do they relate a sequence of stories of special mythological importance? Were they done simply to decorate the wall

of the cave? How were the paintings done? At what times were they done? Does their presence in this specific location testify to some special or unique ritual or event that occurred here? How do these paintings relate to other rock art found in other parts of North America? How can we use these paintings to gain new insights into the lives and times of the prehistoric peoples in the western Great Lakes area? What did the artists do in and around the rockshelter when they were not busy with the paint ings? Where did they live? What did the rockshelter look like when they were there? What kinds of plants and animals and climatic conditions did the painters have to cope with? Were the painters specialized artists? Were they common folk without formal training? Were they priests or chiefs? Are these paintings the last remaining examples of a once widespread art form which has been accidently preserved because of unusual or unique envi ronmental conditions in the rockshelter?

What modern values and special meanings do the paintings have for us in scientific, aesthetic, educational, social, and commercial terms? In their present condition and circumstances, how much longer will they be pre served? Do we have a responsibility to protect them? How can we reduce or eliminate vandalism? What are the possible ways to preserve them for future generations? Can modem technology be employed to enhance the information and value contained in the paintings? Will our work at the site call attention to the existence of the paintings and increase the potential for vandalism? Who should manage the site? How should it be managed? Isthere any way to reduce or stop the current natural erosion and deterioration?

And these are only some of the questions that the paintings raise.

The field season is not far away and I am busy purchasing the necessary supplies and working out the final details. This all makes me more excited about the upcoming research.

Some Final, Final Notes (I Promise)By way of helping us get organized for this

summer's "expedition", I've put together the following checklist of important "stuff":

WHAT TO SEND AHEAD: Please make sure that you have sent us:

•Proof of medical/hospitalizationinsurance

*Field fee of $125 per person per week

*The enclosed release form, dated and signed

• Also, if you are able to remit room-and-board fees

12 Gottschall Field Manual

before your arrival in Avoca, let us encourage you to do so. This allows us to buy the week's groceries ahead of time, before we get wrapped up in the week's work. $125 per person per week includes breakfast, "brown bag" lunch, and dinner, Sunday evening through Saturday morning, and "indoor" camping at headquarters.

Housing alternatives are the Avoca Lake Camp ground, (608) 532-6822; Muscoda Riverside Park Camp ground, (608) 739-3535; and the Nordic Motel in Muscoda, (608) 739-9140.

WHERE TO SEND IT:

Fan and extension cord

Camp shoes

Ear plugs (sometimes we have "night owls"; usually we have a loud whippoorwill)

WHERE TO BRING IT(AND WHEN)Meet me at noon on Sunday (beginning your week)

at the village gazebo across fromthe Avoca PostOffice. You can't miss it!

WEEKLY SCHEDULE

Robert J. Salzer Anthropology Department Beloit College700 College StreetBeloit, WI 53511

Office: (608) 363-2616Email salzerrj@beloit.edu FAX (608) 363-2718Home: (608) 362-8812

Sunday: Noon - Meet in Avoca

12:15 - Orientation at camp and tour of the lab

1:00 - Visit to the site

(Make check payable to Beloit College Account 04-1200-4101)

After May 1 s :

4:00 - Unpack, settle

in 5:00 - Dinner

7:00 - Slide show in AvocaRobert J. Salzer Gottschall ProjectP. 0. Box98Avoca, Wisconsin 53506

WHAT TOBRINGRequired equipment:

(608) 532-6385

Monday through Friday:

6:30 - Breakfast

7:30 - Leave for

site 4:30 - Back to

camp

Boots - high-top sneakers of sturdy leather are

okay Bedding - sleeping bag, pillow, air

mattress/cot

Clothes - some warm, some "summery". Prepare to dress in layers; include a jacket

Towel, toothbrush, sundries

Any funds or forms not already taken care of.

Optional:

Trowel (4- or 5-inch Marshalltown "pointing" trowel)

Canteen, thermos, etc.

Your favorite coffee mug (for your own use - our sup ply is short)

Backpack (for carrying lunch, artifacts -frees both hands for climbing the trail)

Raincoat

Bug repellant

Kneeling pad

S-.,i•msuit

6:00 - Dinner

Sunday : 7:00 p.m. - Slide show in Avoca

Tuesday: 7:00 p.m. - Staff Meeting for supervisors

Wednesday: 7:00 p.m. - Optional lecture/slide

show

Thursday: 7:00 p.m. - End-of-week summary, sched- uled here so that you may leave on Friday after work, if you wish

SUGGESTED READINGNews items about the Gottschall Site, including a

photograph of the sandstone sculpture, have appeared in several places including National Geographic magazine (December 1993): "Geographica: Going Head-to-Head with Indian Prehistory". Archaeology magazine ran an article in the 1993 March/April issue. In Canada, the June 1993 edition of Equinox magazine published "Revering the Ancestors" in its section entitled "Nexus: a Review of the Sciences".

If you want to learn more about the archaeology of Wisconsin; the Gottschall Site and its paintings; the

Red Hom legend which some of the paintings depict; or about North American rock art in

general, consult these

FieJd Manual 13

sources:

Grant Campbell1967 Rock Art of the North American In

dian. Thomas and Crowell Co., New York.

Green, William, James B. Stoltman and Alice B. Kehoe, eds.

1986 Introduction to Wisconsin Archaeology: Background for Cultural Resource Plan ning. The Wisconsin Archeologist 67 (3-4).

Green, William and Robert A. Birmingham, eds.1987 Wisconsin Rock Art. The Wisconsin

Archeologist 68 (4). (Includes a pre liminary report on our work at the Gott schall Site.)

Radin, Paul

Salzer, Robert J.1987 A Wisconsin Rock Painting Site.Wis

consin Academy Review 33 (2): 67-70.

Schaafsma, Polly1985 Form, Content, and Function: Theory

andMethod in North American Rock Art Studies. In Advances in Archaeologi cal Method and Theory (Michael B. Schiffer, ed.). Academic Press, New York.

Skinner, Alanson1925 Traditions of the loway Indians.

Journal of American Folklore 38: 425-506.

Theler, James L.1987 Woodland Tradition Economic

Strategies: Animal Resource Utiliza1948

1990

Winnebago Hero Cycles: a Study in Aboriginal Literature. Indiana Univer sity Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics. Waverly Press, Balti more.

The Winnebago Tribe. University of Nebraska Press,Lincoln. (Reprint of the 1923 Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology).

tion in Southwestern Wisconsin and Northeastern Iowa. Report 17, Office of the State Archaeologist, the University of Iowa. Iowa City.

Wellmann, Klaus F.1979 A Survey of North American Indian

Rock Art. Akademische Druck und Ver lagsanstalt. Graz, Austria.

14 Gottschall Field Manual

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