The Living WorldEcosystems are made up of:

-Living things (plants, animals and bacteria)= BIOTIC FACTORS

-Non-living things (such as climate and soil) = ABIOTIC FACTORS*They can be at a small scale e.g. a hedgerow or a large scale e.g. tropical rainforest*

Key words:

Ecosystem =The living and non-living components of an environment and the interrelationships that exist between themBiome = A global scale ecosystem.Habitat = Small areas of an ecosystem where a particular species may live.Adaptations = The ways that plants evolve to cope with certain conditions, such as lots of rainfall.Producers = Plants use sunlight, water and nutrients from the soil to produce their own food.Consumers = Animals get their energy by feeding on plants or each other.Food chain = A line of links between producers and consumers.Food web = A diagram that shows all the links between producers and consumers in an ecosystem.Scavengers = Organisms that eat dead animals or plants.Decomposers = Fungi and bacteria eat the dead/waste material and make things break down and rot. They recycle nutrients for the plants to use again.Nutrient cycling =The recycling of nutrients between living organisms and the environment

Food chain:

Food web:

An example of a small scale UK ecosystem to illustrate the concept of interrelationships within a natural system : A hedgerow

A hedgerow includes the plants that make up the hedgerow, the organisms that live in it and feed on it, the soil in the area and the rainfall/sunshine it receives.

The producers include hawthorn bushes and blackberry bushes The consumers include thrushes and ladybirds

The balance between components of an ecosystem and the impact on an ecosystem of changing one component:

Some parts of an ecosystem depend on the others e.g. consumers depend on producers for a source of food and some depend on them for a habitat. So if one part changes then it affects all other parts.E.g. Hedgerow

Hot dry summer reduced plants fewer berries for birds in winter number of sparrows and thrushes fall fewer birds for sparrowhawks to hunt so sparrowhawk numbers fall.

Factors that can change the balance in ecosystems:

1) Climate change: May cause droughts so plants may die2) Population growth: May cause more plants to be used as sources of food so less

plants around.3) Fertilisers Put on plants to grow but can be washed into the rivers and cause

eutrophication which can cause fish to die.

The nutrient cycle:

Ecosystems rely on two processes:1) Recycling nutrients Nutrients constantly go round the ecosystem.2) Energy flows Ecosystems work because there is energy flows in them. The

main source is the sun absorbed by plants in photosynthesis energy passed through system in food chain

An overview of the distribution and characteristics of large scale natural global ecosytems:

Distribution = where ecosystems are found and why

*Remember that if you get a map you need to use countries, continents and compass directions*

*You also need to know where ecosystems are located off by heart as you will not always get a map!*Tropical Rainforest

• They are found close to the equator (approximately 0°-20° north and south of the equator).

• Mainly found between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn• They are not found in Europe• The largest rainforest is the Amazon in South America.• Hot and wet all year around, dense canopy of vegetation

Hot Desert

• Close to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.• They are found 15° to 30° north and south of the Equator.• Mainly found in North Africa (the Sahara) and the Middle East (between the

Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn)• Little rainfall, hot during day and cold at night

Deciduous Forest

• They are found roughly between 40˚ and 60˚ north and south of the equator.• Mainly found over Europe.• There are none in South America.• Sherwood Forest is an example in the UK• Summers are warm; trees lose their leaves

Polar and Tundra:

• Found outside the tropics of cancer and Capricorn• Found mainly in the northern hemisphere e.g. Greenland • Not found near the equator • Little rainfall, hardly any trees, permafrost

Grasslands:

Found between the tropics Dry and wet seasons

Factors that affect where ecosystems are located:

TEMPERATUREEquator is warmer as the sun’s rays do not have to travel as far so they do not lose as much heat energyThe poles, it is colder as the sun’s rays have to travel further and spread over a larger area which makes it cooler here.

PRECIPITATIONAreas of low pressure = cold and wetAreas of high pressure = sun shinee.g. Between the Tropics is wet so it is rainy (hence rainforest)

Tropical Rainforests

CLIMATE:

• A tropical rainforest has a hot, wet climate with no definitive season. • They receive approximately 2,000mm rainfall a year and experience

temperatures at 27˚C on average throughout the year.• Temperatures are high and constant all year because the solar rays are

powerful over the equator and the Sun is overhead most of the time.• Rainfall is high because the global atmospheric circulation causes an area of

low pressure over the equator (so the air rises) which creates clouds.• Rainfall does vary throughout the year, with a distinct wet season lasting 6

months of the year (Dec-May).

SOIL:

• Soil is not fertile because the heavy rain washes away the nutrients, this is known as leaching.

• However a thin layer of nutrients is found at the top due to the leaf litter where many plants and animals decompose.

• This soil is known as red soil or latosol as it is rich in iron.

PLANTS:

There are 4 distinct layers in the stratification of a tropical rainforest:1. Emergent layer - Fast growing tree that sticks out above the main canopy

(approx. 45m tall). Here you will find the tallest trees and broad leaves.

LOCAL FACTORSAltitude – As you go higher, it gets colder. Continentality (Distance from the sea) Away from the sea, land is warmer in summer and cooler in winterNutrient rich environment – gives food for plants either from the soil or seaOcean currents: A cold ocean current flowing along the South American coast creates dry conditions because little evaporation happens when it is cold. This has created deserts like the Atacama.

2. Canopy layer - Provides a roof to the two layers below. Here you will find leaves that are oval and come to a point. Also there are lots of animals here.

3. Under canopy - The leaves here grow the biggest as they fight to find the sunlight. Here there are lots of insects.

4. Shrub layer/forest floor - There is little vegetation here are the sunlight rarely reaches the forest floor so plants quickly die here.

WATER:

Rainforest ecosystems are characterised by heavy convectional rainfall, high humidity, lushness of vegetation and nutrient-rich but shallow soil. These factors give rise to a unique water and nutrient cycle.

The roots of plants take up water from the ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls much of it at the canopy level.

As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates into the atmosphere and forms clouds to make the next day's rain. This is convectional rainfall.

PEOPLE:

The rainforests are home to many people who have adapted to life there over many generations. They make a living by hunting and fishing, gathering nuts, berries and growing vegetables in small garden plots.

ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS TO THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS:

ANIMAL CHARACTERISTICS ADAPTATION:JAGUAR Rosettes/spots

Large feetRosettes/spots for camouflage when hunting preyLarge feet – to walk through small streams and sand banks and not sink

CAPYBARA Webbed feetNose is high up on its head

Webbed feet – to swim through the many streams/riversNose is high up on its head – to help it swim in the wet environment

TOUCAN Colourful and strong beakEyes on the side of its head

Strong beak to crack food like nuts. This can also spread the seeds from a treeEyes to see prey

PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS:

PLANT CHARACTERISTICS ADAPTATIONButtress Roots these are very wide at the

base of a treeThe soil in the rainforest is red, not very fertile and quite shallow. The roots of this tree spread out wide to allow it to get more nutrients.

Dip tip leaves leaves often have a long pointed tip

Water can run off the leaf so it does not break off the branch during heavy rainfall

Kapok Tree Smooth bark the smooth bark allows the water to run down to it roots helping it grow

Rainforests are interdependent ecosystems:

1) The warm and wet climate means that dead plant material is decomposed quickly by fungi and bacteria on the forest floor. This males the surface soil high in nutrients, meaning that plants can grow quickly and easily.

2) Plants pass on their nutrients when they are eaten by animals. The dense vegetation provides lots of food so animal populations are high. Many plant and animal species have formed symbiotic relationships (where everything relies on each other) e.g.

Agouti (a rodent) cracks open brazil nuts and they can bury them into new seedlings. However, if the agouti become extinct then Brazil nut trees would decline and other animals who feed on them would decline. The people who also sell the Brazil nuts would lose money.

3) Changes to the rainforest ecosystem e.g. people reducing tree cover via deforestation could have knock on effects on the whole ecosystem e.g. reducing the amount of co2 would add to the greenhouse effect and warm the climate.

4) Trees also intercept and take up lots of water and release it back into the atmosphere, providing moisture for further rainfall. Deforestation means that the climate may change and drought may increase which affects the plants and animals in the ecosystem.

Rainforests have high biodiversity:

1) Biodiversity means the huge variety of plants and animals in an area2) Rainforests contain 50% of the world’s animal, plant and insect species.3) Rainforest are stable all year around the plants and animals don’t have to cope

with changing conditions.

4) Deforestation could lead to the loss of biodiversity e.g. the amount of extinct species was 628 in 2008.

CASE STUDY of deforestation: Amazon Rainforest (BRAZIL)

Key words:

Deforestation = Removing trees from a forest

Afforestation – Adding trees to a forest

The changing rates of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest:

The rate of rainforest deforestation is very high – 130,000 km2 per year Globally the rate of deforestation seems to be slowing down but there are still

hotspots where the rate of deforestation is increasing e.g. Borneo Overall deforestation in Brazil and Indonesia accounted for almost half of the

global total between 2001-2014 but Brazil has reduced its deforestation rate since 1990.

THE VALUE OF THE AMAZON RAINFOREST:

• It could reduce the effects of climate change as trees absorb C0² and release oxygen – the Amazon stores around 100 billion tonnes of carbon!

• 28% of the world’s oxygen comes from the rainforest• Rainforests are rich in biodiversity (contains ½ worlds plants and animals)• 25% of all medicines come from rainforest plants• The Amazon regulates the water cycle and without it some countries may risk

droughts.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION IN THE AMAZON RAINFOREST:

Logging – This is often of hardwoods which is to make furniture. Logging is also done by the government to repay the debts they made in the 1960s.

Mineral extraction – Mining is common with companies seeking gold.

Population growth – People move from Rio to the rainforest to the new capital = Brasilia

Commercial farming – Large spaces are needed for cattle ranches for example, McDonalds. Slash and burn is often done to create fertile soils.

Road building –Trans-Amazonian Highway has improved communications. Subsistence farming – Forest is cleared so that farmers can grow food for

themselves and their families. Energy development – Building dams to generate HEP which floods areas of the

rainforest.

THE IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION IN THE AMAZON RAINFORESTS:

Companies will pay taxes to the

government to improve public services (multiplier effect – economic development)

Farming creates money e.g. $6.9 million/year trading cattle with McDonalds (economic development).

Improved transport infrastructure opens up more industry and tourism.

3,100 people are employed in mines and minerals like gold are valuable

X Pollution from the Carajas mine of water sources resulting in water shortages.

X Farming mean 55 million tonnes of top soil are lost every year (soil erosion). This is because there are no trees to hold the soil together so the soil gets washed away by the rain.

X Plants that could be used for medical benefits may become extinct.

X Deforestation will release carbon dioxide which causes global warming/ climate change contributes to 15% of global co2 emissions per year.

LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS:

LOCAL - Agro-forestry - Growing trees and crops at the same time to prevent soil erosion. Replanting in deforested areas by a project called REGUA

LOCAL -Selective logging and replanting – Trees are only felled when they reach a particular height/mature. This maintains a strong gene pool of hardwoods. Replant 3 trees for every 1 cut down.

LOCAL - Ecotourism – Yachana Eco lodge in Ecuador only allows 36 people in at any time and people get there by 54ft canoes. They only use sustainable sources e.g. solar panels, locally produced food and locals for tour guides

GLOBAL - Inter-government agreements on hardwoods and endangered species – the FSC put their logo on sustainably logged hardwood and CITIES bocks the illegal trade of endangered animals

GLOBAL – Conservation and education - Protect-An-Acre teaches children about conservation work and tourists can volunteer in the rainforest

GLOBAL – Reducing the debt – Debt for nature swaps are done by the WWF; they pay some of Brazil’s debts in return for protecting the rainforest. The USA have also paid £13.5 million of debt in 2010 so they protect the rainforest

Cold Environments

Cold environments (polar and tundra) have a range of characteristics

POLAR CLIMATE TUNDRA CLIMATE• Temperatures are never normally

above 0˚C• Winters range from -40˚C to -90˚C• Cold summers and even colder

winters• Rainfall/snowfall = <100mm a year

• Temperatures range from 10˚C in summer months to -50˚C in winter months

• Cold summers and even colder winters

• Rainfall/snowfall = <380mm a year

POLAR SOIL:• Covered in ice sheets so there is

no soil exposed

TUNDRA SOIL:• Thin, acidic and not very fertile• A layer of permafrost

POLAR PLANTS:• Very few plants – lichens and

mosses and some grasses on the coast of Antarctica where it’s warmer

TUNDRA PLANTS:• Plants grow slowly and don’t grow

very tall• Some small, short trees can grow

here

POLAR ANIMALS:• Polar bears, penguins, whales,

seals and walrus

TUNDRA ANIMALS• Lemmings, Arctic hares, wolves,

reindeer and caribou

POLAR PEOPLE• Almost uninhabitable except for

scientists some of the year in Antarctica

TUNDRA PEOPLE• Home to many people including

indigenous people and oil/gas workers in larger towns

Cold environments are fragile, interdependent ecosystems:

The biotics and abiotic features in a cold environment are closely related.1) Plants gain their nutrients from the soil and provide nutrients to the animals that

eat them. In turn, the animal spreads seeds through their dung, helping the plants to reproduce.

2) Plant cover is low – the cold climate causes plants to grow slowly and also to decompose very slowly. This means that the soil is low in nutrients and further reduces the ability of plants to grow.

3) Herbivores like reindeer rely on plants like mosses to survive must migrate to areas where plants are able to grow to find food. Carnivores like wolves follow the herbivores.

4) In summer, when the tundra has greater plant cover, the surface plants absorb heat from the sun and prevent the permafrost below from thawing. The permafrost provides water for plants.

5) Changes to component of the ecosystem e.g. plants damaging plant cover, can have knock on effect on the whole ecosystem e.g. by causing permafrost to melt. Melting permafrost can flood and prevent plants from growing. It also releases trapped greenhouse gases which leads to increased global warming and changes the climate of cold environments which threatens plants and animals.

PLANTS AND ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS TO PHYSICAL CONDITIONS:

ANIMALS CHARACTERISTIC ADAPTATIONSNOWSHOE HARE White fur Can’t be seen by predators

against the snowMUSK OX and CARIBOU Two layers of fur

Large hooves

Protects against winter cold

To help them to travel over the soggy ground and break through ice to drink drinking water in the winter months

SEALS Lots of blubber To keep it insulatedPLANTSBEARBERRY The plant hass red berries

and waxy green leaves. They are very low growing and have a thick stem

To enable it to survive strong winds. The waxy leaves allow the leaves to be water resistant. The stems are also hairy so they retain heat in the low temperature and the red berries can be eaten by birds to help distribute the seeds.

ARCTIC POPPY Their cup shaped flowers face upwards to the sun

High latitudes mean that the light is weak leaving snow covering the plants for the aortic of the year. Plants have adapted to make maximum photosynthesis in the short periods = SUN GOES INTO THE CENTRE OF THE POPPY

MOSSES Hairy leaves and small leaves

High air pressure causes strong, cold winds. Plants have adapted to ensure minimal transpiration – keep plant warm.

LICHENS Shallow roots To enable the plant to grow because of the layer of

permafrost beneath the soil layer.

Cold environments have low biodiversity…

1) Cold environments have very low biodiversity (particularly Antarctica) because there are fewer species of plants and animals in cold environments than most other environments.

2) Low biodiversity means when the population of one species changes it can affect the population of dependent species e.g. changes in the number of lemmings affects the number of Arctic foxes (their predators).

3) Global warming is causing some species to move towards the poles, where it is cooler, to cope with temperature rises elsewhere. Species already adapted to polar environments can’t go anywhere colder so are at risk of decline or extinction if climate change causes polar areas to warm up.

Developments and challenges in cold environments case study = ALASKA

Alaska is a cold environment that’s part of the USA. The northern parts of Alaska are inside the Arctic Circle. Development opportunities in Alaska:

Fishing – There are 3,000 rivers in Alaska and commercial fishing (for salmon) provides 78,500 jobs and creates $6 billion. Lots of native communities rely on fishing (subsistence fishing) for food, fuel and the bones for clothing and tools.

Mineral extraction – One fifth of the area’s income comes from mining, mainly gold. It contributed £2.2 billion to Alaska’s GDP in 2013.

Energy – 50 HEP plants provide a lot of jobs and one fifth of Alaskan electricity. Geothermal energy is also being harnessed in the tourist resort of Chena.

Tourism – 2 million tourist visit a year, which provides seasonal jobs. There are numerous National Parks and monuments of the Yup’ik heritage. 60% of people come from cruise ships and people often hike, ski and rock climb.

Challenges of developing cold environments:

1. Extreme temperatures

It is very cold, especially in the north with extreme weather Extreme cold can cause injury or death In Prudhoe Bay is it -9c

2. Inaccessibility

Some areas are extremely remote, covered with snow/ice. Frost heave pulls parts of the roads up which makes it hard to drive on. There are not many roads, especially to small towns and villages The population is small and scattered across Alaska

3. Buildings and infrastructure

Construction work only takes place in summer as days are longer and warmer Melting permafrost means building can subside and no crops can be grown. Dark surfaces can melt the permafrost

Managing the challenges:

High, steep roofs means snow can run off Triple glazed windows to keep the heat in Buildings raised on piles which prevents the permafrost melting Roads built on 1-2m of gravel to stop heat transfer taking place Utilidors are piles above ground to carry water and gas so they do not freeze. Airport runways are painted white to reflect sunlight, stopping them warm.

Cold environments are at risk from economic development

The value of cold environments as wilderness areas:

What is a wilderness area?

• Wilderness areas are wild, natural environments that haven’t been changed significantly by people.

• They are undeveloped, uninhabitable and undisturbed.• Large parts of cold environments are wilderness areas

Why are they worth protecting?

• Scientists can study wild plants and animals in their natural habitat• They are the last remaining areas that haven’t been altered by human activity• They can be used to compare to managed ecosystems as they are natural

Cold environments are fragile and can take a long time to recover…

Cold environments are very fragile and can be interfered with Plant growth is very slow – if plants are damaged e.g. by vehicle tyres then they

can take a long time to recover Species are highly specialised to find it difficult to adapt to change e.g. polar

bears are adapted to hunt on ice and their numbers are decreasing as sea ice melts earlier each year.

Strategies used to balance the needs of economic development and conservation in cold environments:

USE OF TECHNOLOGY:

Modern construction methods can minimise environmental impacts e,g, elevating

ROLE OF GOVERNMENTS:

• This can cause conflicts between different interest groups. For example in Alaska, some politicians want to increase oil production to

buildings on piles or gravel beds can prevent buildings from warming the ground.

Facebook have located in the Arctic as the cold air cools the generators so not as much energy is used.

increase income for the country. • However, Barack Obama anted to maintain the

wilderness of the environment. He banned oil exploration from taking place in 12 million acres if the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

• The US government has been involved with the protection of Alaska since oil was discovered in the 1960’s

• The National Environmental Policy Act ensures companies involved with the extraction and transportation of oil protect and recognise the rights of native people

• The NOAA oversee sustainable fishing and protection of marine habitats

• Just over 10% of the Arctic's land now has some level of special protection and it is the responsibility of the country with hold the claim to that area to look after it ecosystem e.g. National Park. Each country has its own laws

• However these laws are not always followed e.g. Norway continues to hunt for whales

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS:

• There has been a global ban on whaling from the International Whaling Convention in 1986 and bowhead whales have increased by 3% since then

• The Treaty of Antarctica was signed in 1959 by countries. It banned mining, drilling extraction of oil and wars on shore.

CONSERVATION GROUPS:

• A recent campaign for the native Alaskan against Pebble Mine as it would have been owned by North America. Greenpeace sent campaigners to Russia’ Arctic Ocean to protest about oil exploration and the Russian government arrested some members of GP.

• Greenpeace called for ‘global sanctuary’ to be established in the Arctic by wanting a ban on oil drilling and fishing. However this approach limits indigenous people’s freedom to use the Arctic’s resources.

UK Physical Landscapes:

Relief describes the shape of the land:• Height above sea level• Steepness of slopes• Landscape features e.g. mountain range.

Relief is determined by the lands geology – more resistant types of rocks such as granite will be harder to break down, this is why they tend to form mountain ranges.

Physical landscapes in the

UK: Coasts

In the UK in the North there are highlands (areas where there are mountains) and in the South lowlands (areas where the land is flat).

Coastal landscapes in the UK

Wave types and characteristics:

What forms a wave?

• Waves are formed by wind blowing over the sea.• The friction between the surface of the water and the wind causes ripples which

form into waves.• The distance the wind travels is called the ‘fetch.’ • The longer the fetch the more powerful the wave.

What happens when a wave reaches the coast?

When a wave travels inland, rushing up the beach, it is called a ‘SWASH’ When a wave travels back towards the sea it is called a ‘BACKWASH’

Types of waves and characteristics:

CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTIVE Low wave that surges up the beach Powerful swash, weak backwash This type of wave ‘spills’ onto the

beach Deposit large amounts of sand and

pebbles Powerful swash, weak backwash

Weak swash, strong backwash Formed by storms close to the

coast High frequency (10-14 waves per

min) Destroys beaches – removes sand

and pebbles. Destroys beaches – removes sand

and pebbles. Formed by storms close to the

coast

Coastal processes:

1) Weathering

2) Mass movement:

What is mass movement?Movement downslope of any loose material (soil, mud, loose rock) under the influence of gravity.

Causes of mass movement:

Steep gradient

Water content (lots of water)

Human activity (puts pressure on the land)

Lack of vegetation

Types of mass movement:

ROCKFALL:Bare rocks are prone to freeze-thaw weathering, which results in individual rocks breaking off the cliff face. On vertical cliffs, due to gravity they fall. At

MUDFLOW:Mudflows are often rapid and occur when slopes are steep (10 o).They usually occur after heavy rainfall. There is little vegetation so cannot hold the

the bottom of the cliff they fan out to form scree.

soil together. At the base, the soil forms a lobe.

LANDSLIDE:A landslide is when a large amount of rock blocks slide down a cliff. This happens along a fairly steep slide plane, where rocks maintain contact with the cliff. These collect as a pile of rocks at the bottom of the cliff.

ROTATIONAL SLIP:A slump of saturated soil or weak rock along a curved slip plane. When material slumps, it is rotated backwards into the cliff face as it slips.

3) Erosional processes: The wearing away of the coastline

Hydraulic power = Powerful destructive waves smash into the base of the cliff. Water is forced in and out of the cracks in the rock. Air pressure changes as waves go in and as they go out, pressure is released causing the rock to break apart. This is called cavitation. This process is aided by weathering. Abrasion (corrasion) = Destructive waves hurl rocks at a cliff. The scrapes the rocks like sand paper on the cliff, causing it to become smoother and is more erosive in storm conditions. Attrition = Rocks carried by the sea knock against one another causing them to become smaller and more roundedRates of erosion will be higher where

The coastline is exposed to a large fetch (area of water wind can blow over to create a wave)

• Stronger winds • There are soft rocks

4) Transportation = the movement of material on the coast

Traction - Large pebbles rolled along the seabedSaltation - A ‘hopping’ or ‘bouncing’ motion of particles too heavy to be suspendedSuspension - Particles carried (suspended) within the waterSolution - Dissolved chemicals often derived from limestone or chalk

Longshore drift = Longshore drift is the movement of material along a beach by wave action

1) The swash moves in the same direction as the prevailing wind2) Backwash goes back to the sea at a 90 degree angle due to gravity3) This process is repeated to create a zigzag movement of material along a beach

5)Deposition – the dropping of material at the coast due to:

• Loss of energy• Mainly constructive waves• Large flat beaches so the swash spread over a large area• Material gets trapped behind a spit or engineered structures e.g. groynes

Distinctive coastal landforms are the result of rock type, structure and physical process

*The geology (rock type) affects the coast as if the area is made of soft rock then it will erode very quickly*

CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATION OF LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM EROSION

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS FORMATIONHEADLANDS AND BAYS

• Headlands and bays happen at DISCORDANT coastlines.

• This means there are bands of hard and soft rock that meet at right angles to the

1. There is a discordant coastline where there is hard rock (e.g. sandstone and chalk) and soft rock (e.g clay). The

coast.Headlands:

• It is a cliff that juts out into the sea surrounded by water on three sides.

• Made of hard rock, such as granite, chalk or limestone.

• They have near vertical cliff faces.

Bays:• They are crescent shaped

and are found between two headlands due to the erosion of soft rock, such as clay.

• They have a beach made of sand or shingle.

• They have low energy constructive waves making them.

waves start to attack it

2. The waves start differential erosion. The soft rock is eroded by hydraulic action and attrition.

3. The less resistant soft rock is eroded at a faster rate which causes a bay to form.

4. The hard, resistant rock forms a headland that sticks out into sea.

5. Sand is deposited into the bay to form a beach.

LANDFORM CHARACTERISTICS FORMATION

CLIFFS WAVE CUT PLATFORMS

Cliffs1. Made of sandstone2. Horizontal bedding3. Rocks at the base

Wave cut platforms1. Deep cracks in the rocks2. Slope down to the sea at

3-4° angle3. Smooth rock due to

attrition4. Covered at high tide and

exposed at low tide.

1.Freeze-thaw weathering weakens the upper part of the cliff. 2. Waves cause most erosion at the foot of the cliff, undercutting it through hydraulic action and abrasion. This forms a wave-cut notch, which is enlarged as erosion continues.3. This makes the cliff above the notch unstable and it eventually collapses.4. The collapsed material is washed away by destructive waves and a new wave-cut notch starts to form.5. Repeating collapsing results in the cliff retreating.6. A wave-cut platform is the platform that’s left behind as the cliff retreats. This will be continuously smoothed by shingle grinding over it.

HEADLAND, CAVE, ARCH, STACK AND STUMP:

Headland = Reistant rock e.g. chalkCave = Can be made of limestone and are very darkArch = Very tall ceiling Stack – Isolated rock in the seaStump = Very small

CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATION OF LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM EROSION

1) BEACHES

Characteristics of beaches:PEBBLE SANDYSteep because the weak backwash can’t move material down the beachDestructive wavesLarge pebbles at the back

Almost flat because the backwash moves the sand back down the beach creating a gentle slope.Constructive wavesWet sand, rippled appearance look

Beach profiles:

Formation:

SANDY BEACH: In sheltered bays, low energy constructive waves transport material onto the shore. The swash is stronger than the backwash, so sediment is slowly moved up the beach. Once the tide has gone out, there is more sediment on the beach than before.PEBBLE BEACH: Exposed beaches have a large fetch. The destructive waves have a stronger backwash so pebbles are not moved far up the beach, making a steep profile. A storm beach may form when there is stormy weather and waves hurl large pebbles to the back of the beach.

How do beaches change throughout the seasons?

WINTER = berms and sand dunes at the back of the beach are eroded by destructive waves which drag beach deposits offshore. This creates an offshore bar which LOWERS the beach.

WINTER = Winter profiles are narrower and steeper.

SUMMER = Constructive waves rebuild the beach.

2) SAND DUNES:

Characteristics:1. Unstable steep slope (30-34°)2. Crests (heights of 15m)3. Gentle slope on the windward side

How do sand dune change inland?

MY DOG SAMMY GOES YAPPY FOR EXERCISE

Characteristics and key points:

• Embryo dunes only a few metres high but mature dunes can be up to 15m high.• The dunes get bigger towards the back of the beach because the marram grass is

long and binds the vegetation roots together so it cannot move any further.• Dunes close to the beach are yellow, whereas dunes at the back of the beach are

grey.How are sand dunes formed?

1) Wind is blown inland by onshore winds.2) Large obstacles, such as driftwood, along the beach cause the grains of sand to

become trapped. The heavy grains will build up behind them, but the lighter grains may be transported over the obstacle and settle on the other side.

3) The sand cannot continue to build in height because it becomes unstable and collapses under its own weight. The top is called the crest.

4) When this happens, the lighter grains fall down the leeward side.5) The cycle repeats, with wind blowing up the windward side and slipping down the

leeward side causing the sand dune to migrate inland over time.

3) SPITS AND BARS:

SPIT BAY BAR:

Characteristic: • This land form has a hooked end.• Large pebbles can be found where

it is attached to the land and smaller ones further out.

• It is created by longshore drift and is covered in salt marshes and mud flats

FORMATION:As a wave approaches a sharp bend in the coastline it loses energy so deposits material. Longshore drift causes the sand and shingle to move past the bend parallel to the land, out to sea and deposits the material in the sea. Strong winds and waves can curve the end of the spit (forming a recurved end). The sheltered area behind the spit is protected from the waves and lots of material accumulates to form a salt marsh.

Characteristic:This landform is visible at all times and is attached to the land

FORMATION:A bar is formed when a spit joints two headlands together. The bar cuts off the bay between the headlands from the sea. Longshore drift moves sediment from one side of the bay to the other. This eventually reaches the other side to form a ridge of sand and a lagoon forms behind the bar.

SUBMERGED BAR

Characteristic:• This landform is not attached to

the land and runs parallel to the land.

• It is several metres long

FORMATION:They form in shallow waters where there is a lot of sediment on a raised seabed. During a storm, material is taken from an offshore barrier out to sea via destructive waves. Constructive waves bring the material back.

OFFSHORE BARRIER ISLAND

Characteristic:• This landform is not attached to

the land and runs parallel to the land.

• It is covered in salt marshes, and dunes and mud flats

FORMATION:These are visible offshore bars which often form in chains when waves take sand out to sea. They can be made onshore (barrier beach) by ice melt.

An example of a section of coastline in the UK to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition = JURASSIC COAST

Different management strategies can be used to protect the coastlines from the effects of physical processes:

There are 3 types of management used to defend the coast:1. Hard engineering – artificial structure e.g., sea wall2. Soft engineering – more environmentally friendly method e.g. beach

nourishment3. Managed retreat – allowing the sea to flood over low-lying land

HARD ENGINEERING WHAT IS IT AND SEA WALL It is a concrete or rock

barrier against the sea. It is placed at the foot of cliffs or the top of a beach. It has a curved face to reflect the waves back into the sea.

The sea walls can last for years which is good economicallyOften has a promenade for people to walk alongThey do not stop longshore drift so they don’t disadvantage other beaches £10,000 per metreCan look ugly and they can stop people getting to the beach.Very expensive to build and repairs are expensive.

GROYNES They are timber or rock structures built out to sea from the coast. They trap

Creates a wider beach, which can be popular with tourists.Provide useful structures for people interested in fishing.

DURDLE DOOR = ARCH CHESIL BEACH = LAGOONLULWORTH COVE = BAYOLD HARRY = STACKOLD HARRY’S WIFE = STUMPSWANAGE BAY = BAY AND HEADLAND

sediment being moved by longshore drift and enlarge the beach. The wider beach acts as a buffer to reduce wave damage.

Last for 40 years£150,000It stops longshore drift which can reduce sand on beaches They are unnatural and unattractive

ROCK ARMOUR Piles of large boulders dumped at the foot of a cliff. The rocks force waves to break which absorbs the energy and protects the cliffs. The rocks are brought by barge to the coast.

They are cheap and easy to maintainThey can be built in months rather than years. Can be used for fishing Rocks are usually used from other parts of the coastline or abroad e.g. Norway. Other countries can get annoyed about this.They can be a hazard for people getting to the beach.Do not fit in with the local geology (rocks)

GABIONS Wire cages filled with rocks that can be built up to support a cliff or provide a buffer against the sea.

Cheap to produce and it uses local pebbles.They can last for 20-25 years.Will eventually become vegetated (plants will grow there) and it will become part of the landscapeThey can cost £30,000 to repair.Cages only last 5-10 years before they rust and sea birds might trap their feet in them.Damaged gabions are unattractive and people might cut themselves.

SOFT ENGINEERING WHAT IS IT and

BEACH NOURISHMENT AND REPROFILING

Adding sand/shingle to a beach to make it wider or higher.

Relatively cheap and easy to maintain - £5000Blends in with beachCould increase tourism Needs maintenance unless structures are built to retain the beach like groynes.  Not that effective against high energy wavesTaking material from the seabed can destroy coral

DUNE REGENERATION Encouraging the creation and growth of sand dunes by planting marram grass.

Maintains a natural coastal environment (attracts tourists and wildlife)Relatively cheap - £200Wave energy is absorbed which stops flooding Time consuming to plant the marram grassCan be damaged by stormsProtection is limited to a small area

MANAGED RETREAT/ DO NOTHING

Managed retreat is when the sea is allowed to flood or erode an area of low-value land.

It may reduce the risk of flooding further down the coast. It is cheaper to use than any other strategy. It conserves and enhances the environment e.g. at Wallasey 38 species of bird have been recorded. Houses and roads are destroyed which costs money to build new ones elsewhere.When some areas are destroyed then some habitats can be ruined. Causes conflicts with landowners

An example of a coastal management scheme in the UK = MEDMERRY IN SUSSEX:

Reasons for the scheme:

• The scheme was needed as the area was considered to be at high risk of flooding due to the climate change.

• Before the management scheme, they only had a shingle ridge for protection which cost £200,000 to repair every winter.

• 348 homes, a water treatment plant and a main road to Chichester could be destroyed without any protection.

• The last breach cost the government £5 million damage in 2008Management strategy:

A new embankment was built, 2km from the shore which protected the houses behind it.A channel behind the embankment was built to take water away from the area.60,000 tonnes of rock armour was placed near the sea. 110m breach was made in the shingle bank to allow the sea to flood the land.The Environment Agency built a 7km flood embankment.Resulting effects and conflicts:

They built a new cycle route and 10km of footpaths Selsey now has a 1 in 1000 chance of flooding which is the best level of protection

in the UK Tourism in the area has increased and bird watchers come to the RSPB reserve Flooding is now planned so species like water voles are protected and 300

intertidal habitats are forming Newly flooded area will become a fishing nursery to boost fisherman’s income

X Three wheat and rapeseed farms were destroyed X Badgers habitats have been destroyedX Not many people live in this areaX Cost of £28 million

Urban issues and challengesThe growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas

The global pattern of urban change:

High Income Countries are more economically developed e.g. UK. Urbanisation has happened here years ago during the industrial

revolution so most people tend to live in urban areas. Low Income Countries are less economically developed e.g. Nepal and not

many live in urban areas. Therefore the fastest rates of urbanisation are in LICs.

Newly Emerging Economies are where economic development is increasing rapidly e.g. Brazil. Therefore urban growth is high here.

Why is this?Richer countries - Rural to cities where urbanisation occurred in 18th and 19th Centuries when industrial and agricultural revolutions meant that machinery replaced farm labour. More jobs were created in new factories in urban areas and people moved from farms to towns for work. In the late 20th Century people left run down inner city areas and moved to the country. You are likely to get a graph question for this – please remember the magic formula!:TREND (is the line increasing/decreasing/fluctuating)

DESCRIPTION (How quickly or slowly the line is increasing or decreasing) DATA (Give some data to prove what you are talking about. Give the very first and the very last pieces of data)SUM (Do some maths to work out the difference)

Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation:Key words:Urban sprawl/growth = Unplanned growth of urban areas which spread into rural areasUrbanisation = is the increase in the proportion (%) of people living in urban (towns and cities) areas and a decrease in those living in rural (countryside) areas”

This is caused by

1. Rural-urban migration = When people move from the countryside to the city due to push (war, drought, lack of food and poor healthcare) and pull factors (better healthcare, better education and more job opportunities).

2. Natural Increase = More people having more babies. More babies are born in cities and more will move to cities.

The emergence of megacities (a city with more than 10 million people in it):

There are currently 34 megacities. More than 2/3 of these are in LICs and NEEs. E.G. LA, Tokyo THEY GROW BECAUSE OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION AND

NATURAL INCREASE.

Urban sustainability requires management of resources and transportKey term:

• Sustainable city = A sustainable city is one that is designed to not impact the environment, use lots of renewable energy and not produce a lot of waste. They also want to reduce the amount of waste going to landfill.

Features of Sustainable cities:

CREATING GREEN SPACES:-Encourage people to exercise more-Make people feel happier-Reduce flooding via reducing runoff-Reduce air pollution

WASTE RECYCLING:-Less waste into landfill-Less co2 released-Collect household recycling-Websites e.g. Freecycle recycle items for free.

Examples:

SUSTAINABLE CITY = CURITIBASocial Sustainability

• 26 parks for recreation and exercise. They are also sued as natural flood defences

• Pedestrianised areas• 700 people moved out of the

slums into good quality housing• Recycling 5kg of rubbish for 1kg

of fruit and veg and bus tickets – The Green Swap Programme. 70% of households do this.

Economic Sustainability • There is an Industrial City 10

SUSTAINABLE URBAN LIVING/COMMUNITY = BEDZED

Social sustainability• 100 homes so people know

each other• The houses are affordable

housing. This means you only pay what you can afford to pay for them, based on your wage

• Roof top gardens to grown organic fruit and veg with no chemicals

Economic sustainability

WATER CONSERVATION-Collect rainwater for toilets.-Install water meters.-Encourage people to use less water.

ENERGY CONSERVATION SCHEMES:-Promote renewable energy-Government incentives to make homes energy efficient e.g. putting solar panels on houses.-Encourage people to be energy efficient.

km West of the city, to provide jobs for its citizens.

• 200,000 new homes were built in the industrial zone so people could cycle to work

• 550 factories built to provide a range of jobs e.g. Volvo

• Cheap buses circulate the city and arrive every 60 seconds

 Environmental Sustainability

• Sheep mow the 27 parks so petrol lawn mowers are not used

• Triple articulated buses come every 60 seconds which are used heavily in the city. They hold more passengers

• 1.5 million trees planted

• 500m from the nearest train station so people can access their jobs

• 81% less heating so the bills are cheaper

• A rated appliance so they used less electricity meaning cheaper bills

Environmental sustainability • Z Car Share Scheme. The cars

run on electricity• South facing homes so no need

for heating• 777m2 of solar panels • Recycle rainwater for toilet

water

How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestionTraffic congestion is when there is a huge amount of cars on the road. It has increased because more people have more disposable income to afford cars and there are on average 2 cars per family.ISSUES WITH CONGESTION:

1) Environmental problems = air pollution, release of co2 = global warming 2) Economic problems = Higher chance of accidents, people late for work,

delays of deliveries3) Social problems = Higher chance of accidents, health issues e.g. asthma

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE CONGESTION:

An example of an urban transport strategy to reduce traffic congestion = Transport for LondonAbout the scheme:

• The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is an automatic train system that connects the city centre of London with East London. It is used by 110 million people each year.

• The London Underground (tube) takes 3 million passengers each day which stops them going in their cars! A new underground line, the Crossrail is being built to increase the amount of tubes by 10%

• Self-service bikes (Boris Bikes) are cheap to hire for as little as 30 minutes and people can ride in bike lanes.

• Electronic oyster cards (to go on the tube) allow people to travel on buses, trains, the Underground and some boats without buying separate tickets.

• Any money made by the scheme is reinvested back into the services which saves tax payers money.

Is the traffic management strategy successful?

• Sometimes the train drivers go on strike which means people can’t get anywhere

• Some people can’t afford Oyster cards as they are expensive• People can get injured when cycling in Central London and they are

breathing in the nitrous oxides which causes 9,400 premature deaths a year

• Tubes can get overcrowded and there is the threat of terrorism. •

Urban growth can bring opportunities and challenges: Case study = Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) NEE!

Why has Rio grown?

Lots of rural-urban migration Lots of natural increase

The importance of Rio regionally:

• North – This area has heavy industry, ports and airports• Centro – This area is the main shopping and finance hub. There are also

HQ for big businesses like CVBB which is a mining company• South – This area has the most tourism due to Copacabana beach but is

also home to Rochina• West – This area is where the rich, luxury apartments are. This is also

where the Olympic stadium is located. The importance of Rio nationally and internationally:

National International

Heavy in resources such as oil and gold which provides jobs for locals

The Amazon is a carbon sink. This means is takes in carbon to reduce the amount in the atmosphere

Football stadiums and Copacabana beach

Rio exports the oil and gold globally to make lots of money

Own finance district for well paid jobs 2 million tourists visit the city each year

Urban growth has created social opportunities:Health Only 55% of people had access to a health clinic Growth of squatter settlements spread diseases e.g. cholera.

Medical kits in Santa Marta which nurses can treat up to 20 diseases have be distributedEducation Only 50% of children past the age of 14 go to school. Most get taken into drug trafficking Grants are given to schools and things like volleyball are included to encourage pupils into schools. Rochina has its own private university. Water12% of people have no access to running water and 37% of water is lost through leaky pipesBy 2014, 95% now have access to running water and there are 7 new treatment plants with 300m of new pipes to helpEnergyFrequent blackouts and illegal electricity supplies in Rochina in slums e.g as people move there as they think it will be better.60km of new cables and Simplicio HEP Plant creates 30% more energy for the city

Urban growth has created economic opportunities: Factories that have located in Rio have led to people having a job and better wages.3.5 million people in Rio work in the informal economy where there is not regulation and people do not pay taxThe government have funded the ‘School’s Today’ programme to give people basic training so they do not have to work in the informal economyMurder rate in Rio in 1999 was 36/1000 people. Many were involved in gangs and drug trafficking, including childrenUPP started in 2013 to reduce crime in slums e.g Rochina

Urban growth has created environmental opportunities and challenges:WATERGuanabara Bay is polluted with 200 million tonnes of raw sewage a day5km of new pipes have been installed and 12 new sewage works have been openedWASTEWaste in the river in slums spreads diseases like cholera. The steep slopes in the favelas mean it is hard for rubbish lorries to get in and collect rubbish

Power plant at the University of Rio turns 30 tonnes of rubbish a day into methane gas which powers 1000 homes.AIR5000 deaths a year attributed to heavy traffic which creates smogReducing traffic across the city with metros and making regulations for factoriesTRAFFIC40% increase in the use of cars as people do not feel safe in the cityOne way roads during rush hour, toll roads introduced and the Metro has been expanded in the South Zone

An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor: The Favela Bairro Project (Rio)

The Favela Bairro Project is a government plan to improve and upgrade the quality of life in the favelas. It ran between 1995-2008.It did the following:Helped 253,000 people in 73 favelas$1 billion project to improve infrastructure and public services like schoolsThere are new clubs for children e.g. Samba to keep them out of gangsPolice Pacifying Units (UPP) to reduce crimeFavela Bairro Project is a site and service scheme. This is where legal land has been given to the locals with basic facilities.

90% of homes are now built out of brick rather than wood which makes them warmerImprovements in sanitation and water facilitiesCable car has been added to Ipanema so people can move around easily800 new homes have been built£10 million has been spent on a new sewer.Day care centre for people with drug addictions

Economic futures in the UK:

Key words:

• Globalisation: the increasing links between different countries throughout the world and the greater interdependence that results from this.

• Interdependence: the relationship between two or more countries, usually in terms of trade.

• Industrialisation: the increase in the amount of manufacturing and decrease in the amount of farming (primary) 

• De-industrialisation: the decrease in the amount of manufacturing and an increase in the amount of tertiary (services)

The UK’s economy is split into four different sections:

• Primary – growing and harvesting natural resources• Secondary – making/manufacturing a product• Tertiary – services – shops, doctors, lawyers, teachers• Quaternary – research – medical

The UK’s economy has changed over time:

• We have moved away from a primary/manufacturing economy and moved towards the tertiary and quaternary sector.

• The tertiary and quaternary sector = A post-industrial economy is where manufacturing industry declines to be replaced by growth in the tertiary sector and quaternary sector.

The development of ICT has meant that we have a post-industrial economy because:

-Store and access lots of data and access it quickly

-The internet allows people to communicate with each other instantly

-Many people can access the internet on their smartphone

-People can work from home using the internet

Lots of people work in finance, research and the service industries.

The causes of economic change in the UK:

Government policy Deindustrialisation Globalisation1945-1979 – The government owned industries in the UK and they spent money keeping them open. This lead to strikes and power cuts.

1979-2010 – The industries were sold off to private companies (privatisation) causing old industries to shut down and high job

Deindustrialisation is the decline in manufacturing industry (manufacturing) and the growth in the service industry.

This has happened because:

-Machines and technology have replaced people

-Other countries like

Globalisation is the growth and spread of ideas around the world.

It has been made possible due to:

-Developments in technology and communications e.g. the internet

-Cheaper good and

losses. Privatisation did bring lots of new industries.

2010 – There has been a push in the manufacturing sectors and new policies have included: improving infrastructure (e.g. HS2), loans to small businesses and encouraging global firms to locate in the UK.

China can produce cheaper goods due to cheaper labour

-Lack of investment and high wages in the UK

services from abroad

-Foreign investment

-Migration

-Less manufacturing

-Inequality

-Outsourcing jobs

A feature of a post-industrial economy = SCIENCE PARKS

*They are big estates where lots of scientific research takes place usually on the outskirts of big cities near to housing and good rail/road links

They help to support new and growing business through research and new ideas

Universities, such as Cambridge works with them and this means they get a good reputation

We demand more products that need to be researched in science parks

E.G. Cambridge Science Park employs over 5000 people, is close to the M11 and close to Stansted Airport

Other features of post-industrial economies:

1) Services – retail is the biggest service sector in the UK employing 44 million people

2) IT – It is a massive part of the economy with 60,000 employed in it.3) Finance – The UK has global financial quarters e.g. HSBC4) Research – E.g. Science parks.

An example of how a modern industrial development can be made more environmentally sustainable: Quorum Business Park

Before Quorum Quorum is now sustainable 58% of the UK’s chemical

and steel industries were there

Significant air pollution

1. Car sharing scheme for workers2. 500 trees planted3. On site litter picking team4. A quorum shuttle bus – Euro 5

engine

Used to be a manufacturing plant

5.6% of air pollution comes from there alone.

5. 1000 solar panels6. Lights on sensors7. Glass to let in sunlight8. Two beehives

Social and economic changes in the rural landscape in one area of population growth and one area of population decline

Key term = Counter-urbanisation = This is when large numbers of people move from urban areas into the surrounding countryside/rural areas.

Push factors Pull factors Congestion in cities

Pollution in cities

High crime rates in cities

High land values in cities

Less congestion in rural areas

Less pollution in rural areas

Lower crime rates in rural areas

Lower land values in rural areas

An example of an area where there has been population growth in a rural area = SOUTH CAMBRIDGESHIRE:

• Commuters continue to use services in places where they work, for example, Cambridge – this has a negative effect on the local-rural economy.

• 80% car ownership is leading to increased traffic on narrow country roads and reducing the demand for public transport.

• Modern developments on the edges of villages and gentrification of abandoned farm buildings can lead to a breakdown in community spirit.

• Young people can’t afford the high cost of houses and move away.• A reduction in agricultural jobs as farmers sell their land for housing

developments.• Lack of affordable housing.• This area has some of the highest petrol prices in the country due to high

demand.• The increasing number of migrants from poor parts of Europe can put

pressure on services and increase costs.

An example where there has been population decline in a rural area = THE OUTER HEBRIDES:

• The number of school children is expected to fall over the next few years and this may result in school closures.

• With many people moving away there will be fewer people of working age living in the Outer Hebrides.

• An increasingly ageing population with fewer young people to support them may lead to care issues in the future.

• The main farming economy is breeding sheep on small farms called crofts.• Most crofts can only provide work for up to two days per week.• The development of fish farming has been limited due to concerns about

the environment.• In 1948, there were more the 900 fishing boats in the Outer Hebrides. By

2013, there were just a few boats catching lobsters and prawns.• Between 2007 and 2014, there was a 27% increase in visitors to islands.• The current infrastructure is unable to support the scale of tourism needed

to provide an alternative source of income.

Improvements and new developments in road, rail, airports and ports

ROAD = There will be 100 new roads by 2020 to ease congestion and ‘smart motorways’

RAIL = A new Crossrail will be build connecting Heathrow and Reading to West London at a cost of £14.8 billion.

PORTS = A new port is being built at Liverpool called Liverpool2. The cost is around £300 million and it going to double capacity to over 1.5 million containers a year so the economy of the north-west will be boosted and compete with other UK ports.

AIRPORT = Heathrow could expand by 2030 at a cost of £18.6 billion.

Example of an improvement in rail infrastructure (also something that reduces the N/S divide) = HS2

Example of an improvement in airport infrastructure = the proposed Third Runway at Heathrow

POSITIVES:

-Rising travellers – need it to cope with 2x demand.

-Boost the economy £7billion extra a year

-New planes e.g. Airbus A380 – not polluting

POSITIVES:

-Rising travellers – need it to cope with 2x demand.

-Boost the economy £7billion extra a year

-New planes e.g. Airbus A380 – not polluting

-10,000+ jobs -10,000+ jobs

NEGATIVES:

-Heathrow generated 6% of the Uk’s co2 emissions.

-Exceed EU regulations on nitrous oxide.

-200,000 extra flights asthma and high blood pressure

-Sipson – 700 houses knocked down.

The north-south divide:

“The North South Divide is often referred to as the cultural and economic differences between Southern England and Northern England”

Arguments for and against the North/South Divide:

FOREducation:

• OFSTED stated that there is a north south divide. The north has a lower % of good and outstanding schools

• On average, 70% of pupils attain 5A*-C in London. In Yorkshire, this number is 63%

• 13 out of 16 schools where less than 60% of pupils in the area attend a good or outstanding school are in the north

Pay:

• London and the South East are the only two places in England with wages above the national average

• North East has the worst pay in the UK• Average wage in the North East = £17,000 and in London = £35,000

Flood Defences:

• Government have been criticised for spending more money on flood defences in the south - £122 per person in the North and £167 per person in the South.

• North East worst hit by flood in 2016 and only has £30 per person spent on flood defences.

• Leeds barrier £180million (North) was cancelled and replaced by a smaller,

£45millon barrier

Money:

• Loss of industry e.g. mining and steel in the north = loss of money in the area and unemployment

• Slow economy growth in the North whereas the South is growing (prosperous) • Average savings = £9,000 in South• Average savings = £7,000 in North

Housing:

• Average home is £150,000 more in the South (3.5 times higher overall price) • Gap of housing continually widening.• Average home in London = £514,000 Average home in North = £154,000

Strategies used in an attempt to resolve regional differences (NORTH SOUTH DIVIDE):

1. The Northern Powerhouse Building things in the North to boost growth and balance the wealth e.g. the HS2 and upgrading the M62.

2. Enterprise Zones The government support businesses by improving a discount of up to £275,000 over a 5 year period and have superfast broadband and low taxes.

3. Local enterprise partnerships They are run between local authorities and businesses. They aim to get businesses to come into the area.

4. Assisted area The government give a loan for a business/ industry to be located in an area.

5. The HS2 (see above)

The place of the UK in the wider world. Links through trade, culture, transport, and electronic communication. Economic and political links: the European Union (EU) and Commonwealth.

1) TRADE: The UK trades with the USA, Europe and Asia. It exports £350 billion each year.

2) ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS: The internet allows the UK to trade e.g. 1 in 6 people run a business from home using the internet.

3) CULTURE: UK culture has spread in the commonwealth. A lot of other countries are modelled on the UK e.g. the BBC exports the news abroad.

4) TRANSPORT: The UK transports goods via ferry and rail e.g. across the channel tunnel.

5) COMMONWEALTH: The UK has links with 53 countries

The EU impacts on the UK by:

• There are EU laws and controls on crime, pollution and consumer rights. • The UK may have to support poorer member countries by paying more

money to the EU.• High unemployment and low wages in poorer EU countries particularly in

Eastern Europe. This may lead to mass migration of workers to the UK.• The EU provides financial support for farmers. The single payments scheme

was introduced in 2015 and is part of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy. In 2015, £18 million was made available to support dairy farmers in England and Wales.

Resource managementKey words:

Resources Stock or supply of something that has a value or purpose

Undernutrition Having access to less than 2000-2400 calories per day

Malnourished A poorly-balanced diet lacking in minerals and vitamins

Scarcity When a resource is short supply

Insecurity A resource which will run out at short notice or may not always be there

Supply Meeting a demand

Consumption Using a resource

The supply and consumption of resources is uneven:

- The supply of resources is uneven. Some countries do not have very good climates to grow things.

- To get resources, some countries have to import them and this is expensive

- The consumption of goods is higher in HIC as people can afford to buy resources

- The consumption of goods is lower in LIC as they can’t afford to exploit the resources or import the resources.

- People’s social and economic well-being is reduced in LICS when people have to go to find water, catch diseases via drinking dirty water and being malnourished.

The UK:

1) Food: Food miles = The distance food travels from the farmer to your dinner plate.

The UK demands lots of food to be imported and has lots of food miles because:

- Supermarkets import cheaper products to sell at competitive low prices.

- Demand for greater choice and more exotic foods- UK climate is unsuitable for growing certain food e.g. cocoa- Demand for seasonal food all year round e.g. strawberries

The impacts of the demand for food/importing food: We require fruit and vegetables to eat all year around e.g. mangoes which can’t be grown in the UK due to the climate.

Jobs are created for Kenyan people, such as in farming packaging and transport.

People can get luxury products in the UK e.g. Madagascan vanilla.

The government are then paid taxes from people’s wages which can then fund facilities for the country, such as schools and hospitals.

The farmers lose out on money as the companies in the UK sell the food for often 5x the price it cost to sell.

The crops require high amounts of water to grow which is a problem as often there is a lack of water.

Sometimes the people growing the crops are exposed to chemicals, such as pesticides without protective clothing.

There are food shortages in some countries, such as Kenya as the land that farmers used to grow food on for their families is now used to grow food for companies in the UK.

The demand for food in the UK is leading to two strategies to get more food

1) Agribusiness 2) Organic food

Organic Food: Produces food naturally without spraying on any fertilisers and pesticides. Grown without using lots of machinery.

Agribusiness: Uses lots of chemicals and pesticides to grow a lot of food very quickly. Uses lots of machinery to help things grow quickly.

• Grown and sold locally• Reduced food miles• Supports local farmers• Provides local employment• Seen as a healthier food

option as it does not use chemicals such as pesticides.

• The food grown is often

seasonal so some food would still need to be imported

• Higher labour costs (need more workers)

• Expensive to grow and sold at a higher price

Example: Riverford Organic Farms which produces veg and dairy boxes for people on a weekly basis in Devon

• More food can be grown in the

UK • Less reliant on importing food

from other countries• More money spent on food in

the UK – improving the economy

• Pesticides are harmful to the

environment and can kill bees• The land can become infertile

if it is over used.• Modern technology has meant

a loss in jobs available.

Example: Lynford Hurst Farm which is 570 hectares and grows lots of potatoes. It uses lots of water from the local reservoir to grow the crops.

2)Water:

Key words:Water surplus: where water exceeds demand (often in the North)Water deficit: where demand exceeds supply.Water stress: where demand exceeds supply for more than half of the country (often in the South)Population density: number of people living in a km²

A strategy to maintain water supplies = water transferWhat is it?Water transfer is simply the movement of water.How will it work?In 2006, the government designed a water grid plan to transfer water from areas of water surplus (extra) to areas of water deficit (not enough) – it was not approved!

- Would deal with UK water

stress- Help to grow crops - Use water appropriately

without wasting it.

- Expensive- Destroys habitats and

wildlife- Lots of co2 released in

pumping water over large distances

Water pollution (causes impacts and management):

CAUSES IMPACTS MANAGEMENT

Chemicals such as pesticides and fertilisers run off from farming land

Untreated waste from factories

Pollution e.g. oils from boats often end up in rivers and coastal waters

Fertilisers can increase the speeding up the growth of algae which can decrease oxygen supply in the water so wildlife can die.

Bacteria in sewage water can spread diseases

Pesticides can kill certain animals in the ecosystem which can lead to food chains being disrupted

Things like roads are built close to rivers to act as water traps to catch pollution before it enters the river

Waste water treatments remove things like bacteria from the water and produce clean water for human consumption

In cities, some buildings have green roofs and walls which filter out rainwater and pollutants. They can also absorb carbon dioxide for the atmosphere.

3) Energy:

The UK’s energy mix has changed: The UK used to rely on coal oil and gas from the North Sea. In the 1990’s nuclear energy became popular Since 2014 there has been a big shift towards using

renewable resources e.g. wind, biomass and HEP. We are moving towards more renewable energy sources

because our supplies (domestic supplies) in the North Sea are running out, we have used 75% of our non-renewable reserves and it is better for the environment to use renewables.

The last coal mine shut in 2015 The UK is currently using a mix of non-renewable and

renewable reserves.Economic and Environmental issues associated with the exploitation of energy sources:

ECONOMIC-Extracting fossil fuels = expensive-If the price of oil drops then it would cost more to produce than to be sold for.-Producing electricity from nuclear = expensive-Renewable energy does not produce a reliable amount of energy.

ENVIRONMENTAL:-Fossil fuel burning = c02 increase-Fracking pollutes groundwater-Accidents can happen e.g. oil spills-Natural ecosystems may be damaged by renewable energy-Power stations and wind farms = Eyesores

Nuclear (non-renewable) Expensive to produce electricity Radioactive waste is hard to get rid of and expensiveWaste water can damage ecosystems Good alternative to coal and gasProvides jobsLots of energy generated

Wind (renewable) Doesn’t work if not windy = expensiveEyesoresBirds can fly into turbines and dieNo c02 releasedTourist attractions – boost the economy Renewable – won’t run out

Section 6 = ENERGY

The world is increasing in energy consumption because: Economic development e.g. more businesses Rising development e.g. cars, fridges, tv’s Rising population e.g. 9 billion people in the world by 2040 More technology e.g. mobile phones require energy to charge

Energy consumption is….

• High in the USA, Canada, Australia and Europe.• Low in Africa and parts of South East Asia.

Countries that have a lot of energy are…

Saudi Arabia and India = Lots of oilCountries that do not have a lot of energy are…

Sudan due to lack of money and Ireland does not have many resources

The factors that effect energy supply (the amount of energy):

Cost of exploitation and production Some energy resources are hard to exploit e.g. oil rigs. Nuclear power stations are hard to build

Presence of geothermal technology (PHYSICAL FACTOR):Geothermal energy is produced in areas of tectonic activity, such as Iceland and the Pacific Rim. Therefore we can only create it a country lies on plate margins

Geology of an area (PHYSICAL FACTOR):We can only mine and get fuel in areas where gas, oil and shale gas are found in rocks!

Climate (PHYSICAL FACTOR): The amount of sunshine and wind influence the availability or solar

energy and wind energy. No sun = no energy so the UK receives less sun in winter so we create less solar energy in winter

Tidal energy needs a large tidal range in order to be effective so can only be created near the sea

Hydro Electric Power (HEP) needs a suitable dam site, often in sparsely populated mountainous areas with high rainfall.

Technology: Technological advances have allowed energy sources in remote or

difficult environments, such as the North Sea and the Arctic, to be exploited. Better, improved technology = more energy

Political Factors:

• Political instability (corrupt governments) in the Middle East e.g. Iraq has meant that many oil-consuming countries (e.g. USA/UK) are looking for alternative sources of energy as they do not want to give money to corrupt governments.

• Some agreements e.g. climate change agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol means that some countries now do not want to burn fossil fuels.

The impacts of energy insecurity:

• The balance between energy supply (production) and demand (consumption) = the level of energy security.

• If supply is bigger than the demand for it then the country has an ENERGY SURPLUS e.g. the Middle East

• If the supply is less than the demand for it then the country has an ENERGY DEFICIT AND THE COUNTRY HAS ENERGY INSECURITY! E.g. Western Europe

An example of a conflict caused by energy insecurity:1.The EU gets its gas supplies from the Ukraine – 80% of this passes through Russia.2.Russia and the Ukraine regularly fall out over the price of gas and how much it would cost the Ukraine for the gas to pass through Russia.3. When they last fell out in 2008 it meant that the gas supply to Europe was cut off

4. This meant that schools, businesses and industry had close. People had to use fires for warmth.

The social, economic, environmental and political impacts of energy insecurity:

SOCIAL

Energy insecurity leads to jobs being put at risk as the sales of goods and services may fall.

In low income countries, energy insecurity means that people (often

ECONOMIC

Farmers in countries where there energy insecurity have to put the prices of their food up in order to be able to compete with poorer countries.

Energy insecurity

ENVIRONMENTAL

People clear areas of the rainforest for wood and then use the land to grow biofuels e.g. in the Amazon Rainforest.

People have to build wind and solar panels in areas of scenic

POLITICAL

Energy insecurity may lead to conflict between different countries e.g. Russia and Ukraine.

Energy insecurity can mean that people at home get an unreliable

women) have to spend hours walking to collect wood

Modern farming requires lots of energy to power machines and therefore when there is little energy the prices of energy go up. This then means that the farmer has less money.

can lead to people at home having to pay more money for their bills.

Energy insecurity leads to an increase in the cost of living e.g. more to run the home, make food and travel.

beauty.

People flood valleys e.g. the Three Gorges Dam in China for Hydro-electric Power and this means that people have to move house.

source of energy e.g. having power cuts. This happens in Pakistan where regular power cuts can last 20 hours.

In areas of energy insecurity, the likelihood of terrorism or hijacking of oil trucks is high.

The main impacts of energy insecurity:1. Economic and environmental costs When a country has fuel they will

make their prices higher. The use of coal has caused problems of smog in places, such as China.

2. Food production Growing bio-fuels can take up lots of farmland which can reduce the amount of food that can be grown and cause prices to rise. If energy is in short supply then it costs more to produce and transport goods.

3. Industrial outputs If energy is in short supply then manufacturing becomes expensive.

4. The potential for a conflict where demand exceeds supply e.g. Ulkraine5. The exploration of difficult and environmentally sensitive areas (see Arctic

case study)

The exploitation of the Arctic:In the past resources e.g. coal was easy to find but now it is being used up in places such as the North Sea, it means that unexploited places, such as Antarctica are being used. of using the Arctic

It holds 90 billion barrels of undiscovered oilIt holds 30% of the world’s undiscovered natural gasIt could supply the world’s energy in

of using the Arctic

If there was an oil spill then it would ruin the Arctic ecosystem as it would take ages to recover due to the low temperatures.People demand high wages to work

the future, The extraction of oil/gas is difficult and expensive as you need special machinery to withstand cold temperatures.

therePolitical issues may arise because 8 countries have territorial claims there

Different strategies can be used to increase energy supply:

RENEWABLE• A resource that cannot be

exhausted – they are infinite• Renewable energy is

SUSTAINABLE

BiomassWind Hydro-electric powerTidalWaveGeothermalSolar

NON-RENEWABLE• A resource that can be

exhausted and cannot be replaced within human timescales – they are finite

• Non renewable energy is UNSUSTAINABLE

CoalOilGasNuclear

The options:

OPTION WHAT IS IT COAL (NR) Fuel formed

from plants that were buried years ago

Can be easily transported to power stations

Relatively cheap

Some places still have coal

Burning it releases o2Coal miners can get black lung diseaseIt will run out in the next 100 years

NATURAL GAS (NR)

Fuel formed from the pressure of plants and animals buried years ago

It is not dependent on the weather

Natural gas can be found in lots of places around the world

We can transport gas in pipes by using tankers or ships

UK North Sea gas reserves are declining so the UK has to rely more on importing it. The price of gas is very changeable and can rise and fall sharply in response to international events outside the UK’s control. Burning gas releases greenhouse gases.

OIL NR Fuel formed from the pressure of plants and animals buried years ago

Oil is found in lots of places in the world

We can transport oil in pipes and by using tankers and ships

Environmental damage can be caused when building the rig and by accidental oil spillages

Oil is not renewable and will run out.

Burning it releases greenhouse gases. This may add to global warming.

NUCLEAR NR Using radioactive materials (e.g. uranium) to create heat which turns water into steam to turn a turbine to generate electricity

Does not make harmful greenhouse gases You only need a small amount of nuclear fuel to make energy

Non-renewable will run out in the next 50 yearsNuclear power stations are very expensive to buildRadioactive waste

WIND R Made by the wind turning the blades of turbines to create electricity.

Wind is freeWill not run out No c02

It costs a lot and can be difficult to set up The energy cannot be stored (so no power if it’s not windy!) If it’s too windy, turbines can be switched off as they are at risk of breaking. They may harm birds if they fly into them.

WAVE R The waves spin a turbine

Waves are free Waves won’t run out Does not produce c02

Wave energy generators may be a hazard to ships They can be noisy Waves can be small so can’t generate electricity

TIDAL R Using the movement of sea water, underwater turbines generate electricity.

Free powerNo CO2 Know when tides happen so can make electricity

Can interfere with ships and wildlife (imagine if you were a bird, fish or seal faced with that!) Not very efficient (only 2% of the tides energy is converted to power) Not as useful for inland areas (away from the coast) Costs a lot to set up

GEOTHERMAL R

Cold water is pumped to deep beneath the earth’s surface to be heated in a tectonic area

No Co2 Free Won’t run out

Limited to tectonically active countriesHarmful gas and minerals may come up from the ground below = difficult to destroy

SOLAR R Using the sun to generate electricity using solar panels

Once set up, running costs are very low Governments offer schemes if you have solar panels on your house where you can earn money if you generate more than your household uses. Great potential in some LICs with a lot of sunshine.

Energy production is seasonal Solar panel ‘farms’ need a lot of spaceNo energy at night

HEP R Water produces electricity via a dam and reservoir

Once construction is complete, operating costs are very low No waste or pollution is producedElectricity can be generate constantly, because water can be stored and used as needed

People have to move to build the damThe dam is expensive to build The area may flood habitats

BIOMASS R Growing plants in a managed way (e.g. trees, sugar beat) which can be burnt to

Fuel is cheap Burns items

that we would otherwise put into landfill

Waste will never run out

Burning organic matter can create smokey unhealthy conditions

CO2 released May not have

generate electricity and heat. Plants can also be grown to create biofuel to be used in vehicles.

enough space for the fuel

The advantages and disadvantages of extracting a fossil fuel: FRACKING (the extracting of natural gas by drilling into rocks which contain shale gas).

of frackingIt is the cleanest of the fossil fuels with less than 45% less CO2 emissions

Less risk of accidental accidents than oil.

Provides employment for 1.2 million people.

of fracking Wastewater and chemicals could contaminate groundwater and minor earthquakes are possible.

Contributes to global warming by producing C02 emissions and methane.

Pipelines are expensive to build and maintain.

An example of the advantages and disadvantages of extracting a fossil fuel: Camisea project in Peru, (Amazon rainforest)

Save Peru $4 billion in energy costs. Peru could make $34 billion in gas exports. It provides employment and helps boost the local economy. Infrastructure would be improved which makes agriculture more productive.

Deforestation associated with the pipeline and other developments will affect natural habitats. The project could impact on the lives of indigenous tribes and their traditional way of collecting food. Native tribe more likely to catch diseases as they have no protectionClearing routes for pipelines has led to landslides and pollution of streams

resulting in the decline of fish

Moving towards a sustainable resource future…Key terms:

• Energy conservation – reducing energy consumption by using less energy and existing source more efficiently

• Carbon footprint – measurement of greenhouse gases individual’s produce, through burning fossil fuels

Being sustainable can be done at a number of scales:PEOPLE = INDIVIDUAL SCALETRANSPORT = NATIONAL SCALEHOMES AND OFFICES = NATIONAL SCALECITIES = NATIONAL SCALEAt an individual scale people can be sustainable by:

1. Financial incentives People are offered money by companies for doing things such as switching to paperless bills

2. Raising the awareness of being environmentally friendly e.g. walking, turning lights off.

3. Using off peak energy tariffs Energy is cheaper to use energy at off peak times.

4. Using less hot water for domestic appliances Ariel had a campaign to wash at 30 degrees.

At a national scale people can be sustainable by:1. South facing homes.2. Using renewables e.g. wind power3. Cavity wall and loft insulation4. A rated energy appliances5. Energy efficient lights6. Double glazing 7. Building on brownfield sites

An example of a local scale renewable energy scheme in a LIC: SOMPURA IN INDIA

*Makes energy via burning cow manure = BIOMASS = Energy for 4000 locals*

Advantages of the scheme

Women and children have gained 2 hours a day. Women can now go to work an children can go to school and get an education

The excess dung, the slurry, is used to fertilise the crops The 240 cows are kept in compounds so the dung is easy to collect The 430 residents have enough biogas created for cooking with

surplus for lighting and pumping drinking water It has created light for children to do homework with The lights are used for cooking which has made it less dangerous Cost effective

Disadvantages of the schemes

X The gas can often run out before the second meal of the day which means it is not warm

X If there is a shortage of money to buy food for the cattle, less dung is created

X If there is an natural disaster, in particular droughts, the cows do not create as much dung

X Some specialist equipment had to be imported which is expensive