Introduction to Senior Geography ”Geography is the science which seeks to explain the character of places and distribution of people, features and events as they occur and develop over the surface of the Earth”. The International Charter on Geographical Education (1996) In senior geography we focus on the two broad fields in geography: Physical Geography and Human Geography. The units are organised into these two categories but we must appreciate that they overlap (Ecological Dimension) 1 Geography The Study of Environments Physical Environment (Biophysical) Human Environment (Built) Atmosphere LithosphereHydrosphere Biosphere Populati on Geog Social and Cultura l Geog Urban Geog Economi c Geog
Transcript
Introduction to Senior Geography
”Geography is the science which seeks to explain the character of places and distribution of people, features and events as they occur and develop over the surface of the Earth”.The International Charter on Geographical Education (1996)
In senior geography we focus on the two broad fields in geography: Physical Geography and Human Geography.The units are organised into these two categories but we must appreciate that they overlap (Ecological Dimension)
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GeographyThe Study of
Environments
Physical Environment(Biophysical)
Human Environment
(Built)
Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere
Population Geog
Social and Cultural Geog
Urban Geog
Economic Geog
Differentiating between the Ecological and Spatial dimensions in the study of Geography
The very first outcome in geography states that you need to be able to differentiate between the ecological dimension of geography and the spatial dimension.
SPATIAL DIMENSION: Simply, what’s there, where is it, and why is it there?
So, whenever you learn about location and processes
such as weathering, erosion, nutrient cycles, soil formation
etc. you are focusing on the spatial dimensions
ECOLOGICAL DIMENSION: Simply, how do humans affect the environment and how
does the environment affect humans.
Whenever you learn about how humans are impacting on
the environment such as land clearing and environmental
management or how the environment affects people such
as natural disasters, climate determining what we wear,
you are focusing on the ecological dimension.
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Ecological and Spatial dimensions are not distinctively separate Ecological and Spatial dimensions are not distinctively separate but overlappingbut overlapping..
Ecological Dimension
Spatial DimensionHow do people interact
with the environment?What are the impacts of humans?Which biophysical processes have humans disturbedWhat ways are people responding to the issue?
Where does the issue exist?Why is it in that particular location?How big or small is the issue (scale)How does it vary in different locations and places.What is the location of groups affected by the issue?
Source: Baker et al (2000,p 128)
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The key geographical questions are aThe key geographical questions are a combination of spatial and ecological dimensionscombination of spatial and ecological dimensions
of geography.of geography.
•• What is it?What is it? (Spatial)(Spatial)
•• Where is it?Where is it? (Spatial)(Spatial)
•• Why is it there?Why is it there? (Spatial and Ecological(Spatial and Ecological))
•• Should it be like this?Should it be like this? (Spatial and Ecological(Spatial and Ecological))
•• Has it changed over timeHas it changed over time?? (Spatial and Ecological)(Spatial and Ecological)
•• What might it be like in the futuWhat might it be like in the future?re? (Spatial and Ecological)(Spatial and Ecological)
•• How do people affect it? How do people affect it? (Ecological)(Ecological)
•• What action is appropriate?What action is appropriate? (Ecological)(Ecological)
The first Unit of work we will work on is called the
BIOPHYSICAL INTERACTIONS
We will look at the spatial dimensions of the four spheres in the
biophysical environment and then focus on the ecological
dimensions by looking at human impacts and management
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New Unit
Biophysical InteractionsThe focus of this study is a geographical investigation of biophysical processes and how an understanding of these processes contributes to sustainable management.
1.0The nature and functioning of the four components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere in a specific biophysical environment
The first thing we need to be able to do is to describe the
interactions between the four components which define the
biophysical environment
The biophysical environment The biophysical environment includes living things (bio) such
as plants and animals, and non-living things (physical) such
as rocks, soil, and water.
The biophysical environment consists of FOUR main
components or spheres:
THE ATMOSPHERE: the gaseous envelope
surrounding the earth. It is a complex system that deals
with weather, climate, energy and air.
THE HYDROSPHERE: The best way to understand the
hydrosphere is that it is about the flow of water and the
storage of water on the earth.
THE LITHOSPHERE: Focuses on the earth’s crust.
How it is formed and how it is shaped.
THE BIOSPHERE: Focuses on all the living things on
the earth’s surface. Such as flora (plants) and fauna
(animals, insects etc).
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It is difficult to separate the four spheres of the biophysical
environment into clearly defined zones as each of the four
components interacts with others in various ways.
These interactions influence the nature of the total biophysical
environment
For example Water (hydrosphere) and temperature
(atmosphere) affects the types of vegetation (biosphere) that
develop.
In turn high landforms (lithosphere) can influence climate
patterns (atmosphere) and vegetation types (biosphere).
Changes in one sphere will result in changes in all other
spheres as well.
For example, If native vegetation is removed from the
biosphere it will also affect the soils (lithosphere), evaporation
and run-off (hydrosphere) and the amount of oxygen
generated (atmosphere).
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The Biophysical Environment – Worksheet
Name ___________________________________ Due Date _________________________
1. Find the terms associated with the definitions below. (20 marks)
a) The total of all things that surround us. ____________________________________
b) Includes living and non-living things. _______________________________________
c) Any form of moisture that reaches the earth’s surface. _________________________________
d) Occurs when the ground absorbs water into the soil. ______________________________________
e) The process where tectonic plates collide to form mountain ranges. __________________________
f) Where almost all weather and related processes take place. _________________________________
g) Commonly called simply ‘the air’. ______________________________________________
h) The water on or under the earth’s surface. _______________________________________________
i) The breakdown, but not removal of rocks. ______________________________________________
j) The changes in a plant community over time until it reaches a state of balance.
Background Information on The Kosciuszko Alpine Area
Kosciuszko National Park is nationally and internationally
recognised as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
It is one of the world's great national parks, and the largest in
New South Wales.
Covering almost 675,000 hectares, the park contains the
highest mountains in Australia, the famous Snowy River and all
NSW ski fields. It is NSW’s largest national park.
Its many and varied attractions include walks through alpine
herbfields; spectacular caves and limestone gorges; scenic
drives; and historic huts and homesteads.
It contains six wilderness areas, and its alpine and sub-alpine
areas contain plant species found nowhere else in the world.
The park is also home to the rare mountain pygmy possum and
corroboree frog.
The alpine area has quite distinct features, with glacial lakes
such as Blue Lake, Lake Albina and Hedley Tarn, and large
granite boulders dominating the area.
The vegetation varies from herbfields of snow grass and snow
daisies, heaths, feldmarks (consisting of bare, stony ground
between plants), and alpine bogs.
Mt Kosciusko (located in the national park) at 2228 metres, is
Australia’s highest peak.
It was first climbed by Polish explorer Paul Strzelecki in 1840,
and was named after a Polish national hero.
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The population of the Snowy Mountains region is approximately
34,500
The northernmost extremity of the Snowy Mountains lies only
30kms west of the ACT
The southern end of the region is marked by a 1,951 metre high
peak called South Rams Head, and is only 10kms from the
Victorian border.
More than half of the 250 square kilometres of alpine habitat in
Australia falls inside the Snowy region's boundaries
Around 3 million people visit Kosciusko National Park each year
and some 30,000 make the trek to the top of Mount Kosciusko
During the most recent ice age, the area around Mount
Kosciusko was the only part of mainland Australia to be covered
by glaciers.
The glaciers left their mark on the mountains, most notably by
gouging 13 enormous cirques, four of which are deep enough to
be permanently filled with water; these are known as glacial
lakes.
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1.1 Location of the Kosciusko Alpine Area1. Using the tracing paper provided, copy the map on page 122 of your textbook Ensure you have the 5 elements of a map: Border, Orientation, Legend, Title, Scale (BOLTS) Include water storage areas and the Alpine area, Melbourne, Canberra, and Mt Kosciuszko. Label key towns, rivers, water storage, and mountains. Paste the map in the space below and then answer the questions
2. Over what two Australian states do the Australian Alps extend?__________________________________________
3. What is the approximate latitude (lat lines are the flat lines) and longitude of the Australian Alps?
1.2 The AtmosphereWhen talking about the atmosphere, geographers often refer to:
Climate: long term temperature and precipitation patterns
Weather: conditions in the atmosphere at a particular time
Atmospheric processes: the factors that affect precipitation
and temperature?
1.2.1 The Climate of Kosciuszko Alpine AreaComplete the climatic graph for Charlotte Pass and paste into your work booksFrom the Climatic graph you should notice a pattern in the
Temperature and precipitation.
Low Temperature: The average mid summer temperature is
often less than 10º Celsius and the average midwinter
temperature is far below 0º Celsius.
High Precipitation: An average annual rainfall of 2800-
3600mm (mainly as snow)
As geographers we ask ourselves WHY is the climate like this in
the Kosciuszko Alpine Area?
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Station: CHARLOTTE PASS (KOSCIUSKO CHALET) Latitude (deg S): -36.4337; Longitude (deg E): 148.3327; Alt:1735m
Element Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mean max. temp. deg C 17.1 17.2 14.5 10.3 6.6 3.2 1.9 2.5 4.7 8.7 12.1 15.3
Mean min. temp. deg C 5 4.9 2.6 -0.3 -2.7 -5.3 -6.8 -5.8 -3.6 -0.5 1.7 3.7
Mean rainfall - mm 136.7 132.2 148.5 174.2 204.2 206.5 201.3 218.4 212.2 252.1 205 161.2
J F M A M J J A S O N DLocation Altitude
Latitude Longitude
Total Precip. Temp. Range
Temp º C
40
35
30
Precip. mm25
20
500 15
450 10
400 5
350 0
300 -5
250 -10
200 -15
150 -20
100
50
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Season
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1.2.2 Why the Low Temperature?There are two explanations:
1. Less sunlight (known as INSOLATION) reaches the area
2. Altitude (height above sea level) makes an area cooler.
Less Sunlight
Latitude has a big influence on temperature. Remember lat
lines are the flat lines around the Earth.
The further away (North or south) you travel away from the
equator, the cooler it gets.
Also you need to remember that the Equator is Oº and the
North and South poles are 90 º.
Why does it get cooler away from the equator?
Well, it all has to do with the amount of sunlight (INSOLATION)
that hits the earth’s surface.
The concept of ANGLE OF INCIDENCE explains this
Because the Earth is shaped like a sphere the middle of it
sticks out more and closer to the sun. Whereas, the ends are
tucked in and further away from the sun.
Then add to this the tilt in the Earth’s axis.
What is the Latitude of Kosciuszko Alpine Area? It is 36º south
of the equator.
Since it is further away from the equator less insolation reaches
this particular spot thus contributing to the low temperature.
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Altitude
Plot the following on the graph paper provided. Do not join the lines
Location Altitude (m) Average Annual Min. Temp.ºC
Thredbo 1380 2.1
Crankenback 1957 -0.1
Cooma 778 4.1
Bombala 705 4.7
Nimmitabel 1075 3.4
Nalbaugh 675 5.4
Tumut 305 6.6
Charlottes Pass 1735 -0.6
Carabout S/F 420 6.1
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The graph clearly shows a pattern. As there is an increase in
altitude the lower the temperature gets. Thus, there is a relation
between Altitude and temperature.
This is due to a phenomenon called the ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE. (ELR)
According to ELR, temperature drops an average 6º Celsius for
every 1000m you go up.
This figure changes based on how moist or dry the air is
The Kosciuszko area is the highest in Australia. Therefore, it
experiences cool temperatures because of its height and the
influence of ELR.
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1.2.3 Why the High Precipitation?
There are TWO explanations for the high precipitation in
Kosciuszko:
1. Rain bearing winds (air cells)
2. Orographic Uplift
Rain Bearing Winds (air cells) There are a number of types of air masses (big cells of air in the
atmosphere)
Some cells of air are cool and are full of moisture, some are dry
and hot, and some are moist and hot.
Air cells that originate from the ocean are often moist whereas
air cells that originate over continents (large land masses) are
often dry.
The Air cell that impacts the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is known as
the Southern Maritime Air Mass.
It originates from the Southern Ocean near Antarctica, which
makes it cool and moist. (It is full of rain) It travels mainly from
the West.
Most of the rain and snow that falls on Kosciuszko is from this
air mass
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Orographic Uplift Clouds are evaporated water that has been heated. They get
to a certain height and cool down and form as clouds
(Condensation). When it gets really cool they turn back into
water (precipitation).
With Orographic Rain the air is lifted to higher altitudes
because of rising ground.
As the air cannot pass through the Earth it is forced up and
over the higher ground (remember temperature drops the
higher you go)
It is so cool that the condensation turns to rain and falls on the
mountain. That is why most mountains are very moist.
Since the Kosciuszko Alpine Area has a high altitude, the moist
air from the Southern Maritime air mass from the west is forced
up over the region. The air is cooled quickly because of the
ELR and the moisture is dumped onto the region
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1.3 The LithosphereThe lithosphere is all to do with the surface of the Earth.
Geographers:
Describe the shape of the surface and identify its features
(TOPOGRAPHY)
Explain how it was shaped (built up and worn down)
Identify the materials that make it up.
1.3.1 The TOPOGRAPHY of the Kosciuszko Alpine AreaThe Kosciuszko Alpine area’s topography consists of extensive undulating plateaus and ridges that are surrounded by steep slopes and escarpments. The plateaus are characterised by broad shallow valleys and gentle slopes rising to rounded or flattened hill tops.
The following key terms help describe Kosciuszko’s topography: Undulating Plateau Ridges Steep slopes Gentle slopes Shallow valleys Escarpments Rounded
Some landform features in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area Peaks and knolls Basins Escarpments Slopes and Ridges Gorges and Water falls River Valleys Cirque Moraine
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Horizontal Scale is the Map Scale
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1.3.2 How did the Kosciuszko Alpine Area get its Shape?
There are TWO processes we are interested in Orogenesis (Earth Building) Denudation (Wearing Down)
To understand how Kosciuszko has been shaped it is important to know what types of materials it is made up of. LIMESTONE-A significant feature of the area is the limestone
that underlays most of the Alps. Limestone accumulated during the deposition of marine sediments over 860 million years ago.
GRANITE BATHOLITHS-There are many Granite Batholiths. Granite is magma that often doesn’t make it to the surface.
SEDIMENTARY LAYERING- this is sediments which form in layers and that has been metamorphosed (pressure and heat) to form metamorphic rocks (e.g. sandstone)
The varying degrees of resistance to erosion offered by rock types is important.
The highest areas of the Alps are made up of rocks that are most resistant to denudation- particularly Granite.
Softer rocks such as the metamorphic rocks tend to weather away easier and these are found in the valleys, gorges and waterfalls.
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To understand how Kosciuszko has been shaped it is important to know what types of materials it is made up of. LIMESTONE-A significant feature of the area is the limestone
that underlays most of the Alps. Limestone accumulated during the deposition of marine sediments over 860 million years ago.
GRANITE BATHOLITHS-There are many Granite Batholiths. Granite is magma that often doesn’t make it to the surface.
SEDIMENTARY LAYERING- this is sediments which form in layers and that has been metamorphosed (pressure and heat) to form metamorphic rocks (e.g. sandstone)
The varying degrees of resistance to erosion offered by rock types is important.
The highest areas of the Alps are made up of rocks that are most resistant to denudation- particularly Granite.
Softer rocks such as the metamorphic rocks tend to weather away easier and these are found in the valleys, gorges and waterfalls.
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1.3.2.1 OROGENESIS (MOUNTAIN BUILDING)
How did the Alps get so high?
Through a process called UPLIFT.
The materials that make up the Alps were laid down millions of
years ago.
The highland area used to be underwater and that’s when the
old coral reefs provided the limestone base.
Then the silt, sand, volcanic ash and lava layered on top of the
old coral reefs.
Earthquakes and continental collisions then created an uplift
which folded and faulted the ocean floor to push it up to higher
altitudes.
This folding and faulting helped create the undulated surface of
the alps.
During this period of uplift, magma intruded to help provide the
Granite batholiths.
This uplift and constant weathering and erosion continued on
and off for millions of years until the Alps were raised to its
current height and shape.
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1.3.2.2 Denudation (Wearing Down) Weathering is the breaking apart of the rock.
Erosion is the picking up, moving and depositing of
weathered material.
So what types of weathering and erosion have occurred on
the Alps?
1. Fluvial Erosion - Rivers and streams have cut through
the less resistant rocks to form the deep wide valleys and
narrow gorges.
2. Aeolian Erosion - Wind has removed many of the layers
of sedimentary rock to expose the harder rocks it has
also rounded and smoothed the surface.
3. Glacial and Periglacial weathering and erosion have
contributed greatly to the topography of the area. a) Glacial (large thick ice that moves slowly down)
Features such as cirque lakes and moraines were
formed by glaciers.
Cirques are actually formed at the head of the
glacier where it digs out a semicircular basin as it
pushes down the slope (like a scoop). Club Lake
and Blue Lake are cirques
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Moraines are ridges and outcrops of boulders and
debris dumped along the sides or at the end of the
retreating glacier. Lake Albina, Lake
Cootapatamba and Hedley Tarn were formed by
moraine deposits.
b) Periglacial (freeze and thaw)
(i) Mass Movement- periglaciation causes the mass
movement of water saturated soil and stones down
frozen subsoil. On some slopes this creates
TERRACING and on others it creates a surface with
stony debris.
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(ii) Needle Ice- soil movement through needle ice
From the text book (pge132) draw diagram 2.110 that shows how needle ice moves soil.
Another common form of ground ice is needle ice. Needle ice consists of groups of narrow ice slivers that are up to several centimeters long. They normally form in moist soils when temperatures drop below freezing overnight. Needle ice plays an active role in loosening soil for erosion and tends to move small rocks upward to the soil surface. On sloped surfaces, needle ice can also enhance soil creep by moving soil particles at right angles to the slope.
(iii) Ice wedges Ice wedges occur where water enters a crevice or
crack in a rock. When the water freezes it expands
widening the gap even further. During the thaw more
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water enters the bigger crack which expands more in
the next freeze.
Ice wedges are responsible for the numerous shattered rocks around the Kosciuszko Alpine Area.
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(iv) Nivation
Nivation is a form of weathering and erosion associated with snow patches that remain through the summer season. Snow patches
that remain through the warm season create conditions for physical
weathering to occur mainly on the edges of the snow patch.
Temperatures at the edges of the snow fluctuate from freezing to
non-freezing. As a result, ice wedge weathering occurs in the
cracks of rocks located near the snow patch quickly creating a
mass of small fragments. If the snow patch is on a slope, the snow
that melts (meltwater) along the base of the snow patch will
transport the weathered rock fragments down slope. Over some
time, this leads to the formation of nivation hollows which, when
enlarged, can be the beginnings of a cirque.
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1.3.3 TORS- A special feature in the Lithosphere at Kosciuszko
A tor is a rock outcrop formed by weathering, usually found on or near the summit of a hill.
There are TWO theories on how Tors are formed.
1. Deep Chemical Weathering in tropical conditions-
When granite is formed it contains radioactive crystals that cools
slowly. The radioactive crystals and slow cooling process produce
large crystals in the granite. Then a layer is created that forms a
cap on top of the newly formed granite which traps molten magma
with volatile gases and hydrothermal liquids beneath. Gases
escaped through joints and fissures to the surface, rotting and
weakening the granite in areas, as it alters the crystals to other
forms that can be chemically weathered.
Tor formations occur when the area is experiencing tropical
conditions. From the surface, leeching occurs from surface water
above and chemically reacts with crystals and minerals throughout
rocks and hills through wind. But the most important denudation processes in the Alpine
area have been through _______________ and ________________ processes.
Glacial erosion occurred when glaciers, (big rivers of _________ that move slowly down a
slope) were present during ice ages in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area. The Kosciuszko
Alpine Area is the only area in Australia where glaciers were present. One Glacial feature
evident in the Alpine Area are __________. These are formed at the head of a glacier
where it ___________ out a _______________ basin as it pushes down the slope. Two
examples of a cirque in the Alpine area are ____________ Lake and ___________ Lake.
Another glacial feature that is evident in the area are ______________. These are the
deposits of ____________ left on the sides and ends of a retreating glacier (when glaciers
melt). Two examples of the moraines in the Alpine Area are Lake ___________________
and Lake _______________________.
However, the most significant denudation process that is still occurring in
Kosciuszko is periglacial weathering. The term preglacial means the effects of
________________and ________________. There are a number of periglacial processes
that continue in the Alpine Area. Terracing is predominantly caused by the freezing and
thawing of the topsoil. The top layer of soil sits on a permanently frozen bottom called
___________________. During winter the topsoil freezes and remains intact whereas in
summer, when the soil thaws, it slides down the permanently frozen subsoil to create a
terrace look in the lithosphere.
_____________ is another periglacial process whereby water creeps into the
cracks of rocks during summer and _____________ when it freezes and breaks apart the
rocks. This happens year in and year out with the cracks getting bigger and expanding
more and more each time it freezes. This is one of the main causes of the many shattered
rocks that are evident in Alpine Areas.
_____________ ice is another periglacial process that erodes the lithosphere in the
Koscisuzko Alpine Area. This process moves particles of soil down a slope by lifting the
soil particles up on tiny needles of ice. When the ice thaws the soil particles drop down hill
because of ____________.
Another important aspect of the lithosphere in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is its
soils. One feature that makes The Kosciuszko Alpine Area different from many Alpine
areas around the world is that it has an _____________ of soils; as such they are called
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“_______________ of soil”. There are THREE main soil types on the Alpine Area. Alpine
____________ Loams, are highly organic soils which are porous. They are found in the
subalpine and alpine zones, occurring on relatively sheltered, gentle, _________________
slopes. __________ , which are found in basins and depressions, are highly organic and
water-logged soils. ____________ ,which are found in pockets on high exposed ridges
and elevated stony slopes, have a lower organic content than the other soils are highly
porous. All these soils are influenced by the high precipitation of the area. The ability of the
soils to retain water and release it effectively are important because of the high
precipitation. Nearly all the water falling as snow, hail and rain is transmitted through the
soil. Some is stored and is available for spring and summer plant growth, the rest drains
slowly from the Alps through the bogs, streams and rivers.
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Summary of the Hydrosphere
Describe The hydrosphere in the Kosciusko Alpine Area experiences excellent flow and storage
of water. Water flows as high precipitation, low transpiration, and during spring thaws where it flows down some of the biggest rivers on the Australian East Coast. The water is stored as snow for the winter months, within the soils and vegetation, and in the human made reservoirs.
Explanation Causes of the good flow of water
o High precipitation: Cool Moist Air Cell (southern Maritime Air Mass)o Orographic Uplifto Low transpiration: Plant sweat: Low temperature (Altitude and latitude)o Spring thaw of snow: creates river system
Causes of Good storageo Snow: cold winters often below 0 degrees Celsiuso Porus soils allow for good storage of watero Vegetation has good storage capacityo Low temperature: minimal loss of water.
Summary of Biosphere
Describe The biosphere in the Kosciusko Alpine Area has unique flora and fauna compared to
the rest of Australia. The flora grows low to the ground like mats and cushions. There are mammals and reptiles that are endemic to the area and many species either leave the area during winter or slow down their activities.
Explanation
Causes of plant distributiono Alpine Areao Soils are low in nutrientso Aspecto Fireo Human disturbance
Causes of animal distributiono Low temperatureo Live under snowo Hibernation and Torporo Communal livingo Migration
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The Biophysical Functioning of the Hydrosphere in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area
The __________________ plays a significant role in the Kosciusko Alpine Area.
When geographers describe and explain the hydrosphere they are often referring to the
________ and _________ of water. This is often best illustrated by the water _________.
There is a ________ amount of water that flows in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area. The
good flow of water can be attributed to a number of reasons.
Firstly, water flows in to the area in the form of ______________. As explained in the
atmosphere, the high levels of precipitation are caused by a large ________ air cell,
called the _______________ Maritime ______ Mass, is lifted up in to the higher altitudes
in a process called _____________ uplift, which results in an average annual
precipitation being between _________mm and 3600mm in Charlottes Pass alone.
Another good reason for the good flow of water is because of the ___________ river
system found in the area. The most notable rivers are the __________ River,
___________ River, and ___________________ River. All of which catch the snow
________ in the spring and summer times.
The Kosciuszko Alpine Area also stores water very well. Firstly, it stores water during
the winter months as _________. This is due to the fact that the area experiences _____
temperature (its ____________ and ____________ cause the low temperature) allowing
for the precipitation to ___________.
The low temperature in the area also slows the rate of ________________. Since the
water is not leaving the area at rapid rates in the form of _________, it is able to retain
onto much of the water that enters. Further, snow is highly reflective of the suns rays
(called ____________) and as such slows the rate of evaporation.
seven latitudes 2800 snow bogs low hydrosphere Thredbo insolation discharge Southern storageFreeze altitude precipitation gas valleys evaporation flows orographic Murrumbidgee Air cycleextensive sphagnum soils moist high Snowy vegetation melt
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Further, the _________ and ________________ also contribute the good storage of
water in the area. The soils retain water in the form of ________ especially in the low
lying _____________. These slowly ______________ the water into the extensive creek
and river systems all year round. Vegetation also contributes to the good storage of
water. The fen communities found in the low lying areas help the soil retain the water.
Some species of vegetation, such as ______________ moss, can hold __________
times its own weight of water.
The hydrosphere is an important biophysical component in the Kosciuszko Alpine
Area. The area is famous for its ability to store water as snow making it Australia’s
premier snow fields. The water cycle in particular the flow and storage of water is very
much evident in the area.
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The Biophysical Functioning of the Biosphere in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area
The ______________ in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area also contributes to the
uniqueness of this distinct environment. The interactions of the lithosphere, atmosphere
and hydrosphere are important in determining the distribution of the ______ and _______
of the alpine ecosystem.
The region is considered an __________ area because it is above the ________ line.
The tree line generally finishes at about _________, making this part of the Kosciuszko
region the True Alpine Area. The areas below the tree line are called the sub alpine
regions. The reason trees stop growing in the Alpine zone is that they require the
______________ to be above _____ degrees Celsius for _______ days straight. The
interaction between the lithosphere and atmosphere combine through latitude and
altitude make the temperature at 1850m generally too _______ for trees to effectively
grow. As a result the type of vegetation found in the Alpine area are low lying such as
grasses, _________, mosses, fens and ________________.
Another factor that has influenced the types of vegetation found in the area is the high
levels of ________________ and consequently the formation of bogs. Further, the high
level of precipitation also leads to _____________ of the soils which in turn has made the
soils very low in _____________. Aspect also influences the distribution of vegetation
with south _____________ slopes experiencing high levels of precipitation and strong
winds creating very sturdy low lying vegetation communities such as feldspars, whereas
north eastern slopes get an abundance of sunlight and are more protected from the wind
thus developing more heath communities such as the Mountain ________ Pine.
There are many ___________ species of animals found in the Kosciuszko Alpine
Area which have __________ to the harsh conditions. Some of the more notable ones
Plum feldspars altitude adapted leeching snow temperature flora alpine western 100 metabolismcommunal nutrients low Rat migrate precipitation biosphere 10 Possum hibernation north torporheaths Broad fauna Corroboree 1850m insulating tree endemic Pygmy
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are the _________ Tooth ______, the endangered marsupial the Mountain __________
____________, and the endangered amphibian the ______________ Frog. Many of the
animals have had to adapt to the cold environment, the clear lack of protection trees
provide, and the lack of food when the snow comes in the winter months.
The fauna of the area has adapted by many different means. Firstly, many of the small
marsupials have learned to live under the _________ by building tunnels and using the
ground cover the vegetation to support the tunnels. Surprisingly, these tunnels provide
warmth and protection from the elements as the snow is very _______________. Another
adaptation method is that many animals shut their bodies ______________ down to
avoid eating during these months through _____________ and _________. Further,
many reptiles adapt to the cold weather through ____________ nesting as they try and
share body heat to stay warm. Another more common strategy adopted by the bird
species is for them to ___________ either to the warmer latitudes in the ________or
move down the lower ____________ below the snow line.
Like many ecosystems around the world, The Kosciuszko Alpine area got its name
form the vegetation classification; here it is above the tree line (alpine). The plant and
animal communities have had to adapt to harsh cold living conditions and many are
2.0 The interactions between, and the human impacts on, the functioning of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
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2.1 The interactions between the four spheres in Kosciusko Alpine Area.Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere
Atm
osph
ere
Low temperature High precipitation
Precipitation- high precipitation creates high flow of water into the region.
Low temperature- reduces transpiration and evaporation rates (thus minimal loss of flow)
Climate- low temp during winter creates periglaical environment thus, periglaical erosion occurs e.g. Nivation, terracing, needle ice
Atmospheric process create high winds increases instances of Aeolian Erosion
Low temperature affects animal adaptation- animals migrate, hibernate, torpor, nest etc.
Low temperature affects plant communities.
High precipitation create peats like Sphagnum moss
Hyd
rosp
here
Lith
osph
ere
Bio
sphe
re
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2.0 Human Impacts on Kosciuszko
The Kosciuszko Alpine area has been interfered with by humans on a variety of scales. From human induced global warming affecting the atmosphere; interruptions to the hydrosphere through cloud seeding; soil erosion in the lithosphere; and habitat destruction in the biosphere.
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2.2.1 Human Impacts on the Atmosphere- Global WarmingThe Canberra Times – 8/04/ 2006Crisis mounts in Snowies
It’s a vast panoramic view that swiftly silences conversation.
Glacial lakes circled by boulders, deeply weathered granite outcrops and glacial scratchings etched across rocks by the pressures of snow and ice are evidence of the ancient origins of this southern continent and the immense power of nature.
Ecologically, and visually, there is nowhere else in Australia like Kosciuszko National Park. It's unique, unrivalled and unbelievably spectacular - yet it remains unlisted as a World Heritage Area despite both its incredible beauty and its geological significance.
Stand on the windswept stone steps outside Seaman's Hut - a two- room refuge built as a memorial to an experienced alpine walker who died on Mt Kosciuszko in 1929 in a blizzard - and the encircling sweep of boulder strewn, ice-scarred landscape is over-powering.
It's a landscape that inspired one of the world's great botanists, Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, on New Year's Day, 1855, as he collected plants on the Main Range around Kosciuszko for his seven-volume masterpiece, Flora Australiensis. Mueller was astounded by Kosciuszko's beauty and botanical diversity.
More recently, the rugged beauty of the Kosciuszko landscape left one of Sir David Attenborough's well- travelled cameramen absolutely speechless. "He'd worked in alpine areas all around the world, and he couldn't get over this place," says alpine ecologist Dr Ken Green, who is a senior scientist with the NSW parks service at Jindabyne.
"We brought him up here when he was filming Life of Mammals for television. He kept saying, 'Oh my God, I didn't know there was anything like this in Australia. It's amazing.' He was completely bowled over. It's a place that tends to have that effect on people."
But this ancient, immensely beautiful landscape is increasingly threatened by global warming.
Scientists who have studied the region's unique high-altitude flora and fauna for decades point to a litany of impacts - warmer temperatures in glacial lakes, loss of alpine wildflowers, encroaching treelines, sharp declines in endangered small mammal species, earlier spring thaws, higher levels of ultra-violet radiation, increased evaporation rates of alpine bogs and more frequent fire danger.
"It's affecting everything," Green says. "It's not just warmer temperatures, but the interactions of plants and animals. The birds are getting messed around by the early spring thaws which are followed by sudden snow dumps.
"It's not only higher average temperatures in places like Charlotte Pass that are causing problems. It's greater climate variability, particularly the instability of early spring weather in the mountains.
"In some areas, snow is melting earlier, and grevilleas - which are the main food source for honeyeaters - are also flowering earlier. "Then suddenly, we'll get another snowfall, so the grevillea blossoms are buried under the snow. "A few nights after that, you'll get a clear night sky and a killing frost, so the honeyeaters who have moved up here to breed have nothing to eat, and migrate back down the mountain. "We're not seeing those birds return when there's a second thaw and more grevillea blossoms come out."
Green says he has seen pink robins and ravens abandon nests and eggs after a sudden spring snow dump. There's also a likelihood that young pippit chicks are being killed by the unpredictable spring weather.
"But nobody is doing any long- term studies on this. We know the birds are being messed around by climate change but we need data, we need research to find out what's happening," he says. "Unless we have that information, we won't know whether we can do anything
to mitigate the effects of climate change in the mountains."
Despite being listed by the Australian Greenhouse Office as a top research priority, scientific field studies on the impact of global warming on the Australian alps remain chronically underfunded.
Plenty of people appear to be working in climate change policy, but little funding is being directed towards the on-ground research that is necessary to map the extent and impact of climate change in the Australian alps.
That's being left to a dedicated band of people who are prepared to do whatever is necessary to make sure crucial research is not abandoned.
"Most of the funding for climate change research is - perhaps understandably - going into looking at how we can reduce industrial greenhouse emissions, atmospheric physics or predictive modelling," says alpine ecologist Roger Good, who co-authored a report with Green and Dr Catherine Pickering of Griffith University on the impacts of global warming on alpine ecosystems. "Those things are all important but we also need to understand the regional impacts of climate change.
Most modelling studies will give a national picture but a lot of the significant changes will occur at the regional level. "And that's why we need more funding for biological studies that will track what changes are already occurring."
Good, who recently retired from the NSW parks service where he was a senior scientist, is continuing research on alpine soils, bogs, vegetation and fire management "mostly as a volunteer and largely using my own funds to keep working on the things that interest me".
He argues fire management is going to be a critical issue, as climate change derives major vegetation changes across alpine ecosystems. "We're going to need different fire management regimes
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because of the erratic nature of change. Fuel loads will become wetter in some places, drier in others," he says.
Green, who is also a member of an international alpine research group, decided to set up his own climate change research program "because I thought we needed to set up long- term monitoring sites to look at the impact of global warming on mountains across the world". He jokes he "scavenged" funds to buy temperature loggers and equipment to measure levels of ultraviolet radiation.
"The problems we're going to get with animals regarding lack of snow cover is going to strike first at the
lower altitudes," he says. "Snowy Hydro didn't have a weekly record of snow levels at low altitudes, so I set up something when I was measuring out trapping grids for one of the endangered species, the broad-toothed rat.
"So over the last seven or eight years, I've been recording snow levels. I suppose that if I hadn't been curious about what was happening to the snow down at those low altitudes, we wouldn't have those records."
According to the newly devised management plan for Kosciuszko National Park, climate change is one of the biggest threats to the Australian alps. CSIRO climate
modelling predicts a temperature increase of between 0.2 degrees to 1 degree and a decrease of precipitation by 8.3 per cent by by 2020. If these trends persist, then by 2050 temperatures in the alpine region could rise by almost 3 degrees, with precipitation decreasing by up to 24 per cent.
But while federal and state governments, and several of the bigger national conservation groups, are spending funds to organise policy conferences to talk about the need to tackle climate change, the scientists doing the groundwork that establishes the impact of global warming are desperately fossicking for funds to continue vital research.
5) Identify and explain how are the interactions between the plants and animals getting “messed around?
6) What is a major issue with research into the affects of global warming in the alpine region?
7) What is the problem with most modelling studies on global warming?
8) What issue did the alpine ecologist Roger Wood identify as the major management issue for the area? Explain his concerns.
9) What is another issue that Dr Ken Green identified as being a problem at the lower altitudes?
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10) What are some predictions about temperature and precipitation that the CSRIO have made?
11) What do you think will be the most obvious impact on the Alpine area due to human induced global warming?(hint: what is the definition of alpine?)
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2.1.2 Human Impacts on Hydrosphere- cloud seeding
Snowy Precipitation Enhancement Research Project
Snowy Hydro Limited is conducting a six-year research project of winter cloud seeding to assess the feasibility of increasing snow precipitation in the Snowy Mountains. The New South Wales Government approved legislation to enable the cloud seeding research project to commence in winter 2004. Cloud Seeding technology is not new or untried and has been used successfully in America for the last 50 years and in Tasmania for the last 40 years, with water utilities continuing to use cloud seeding technology to augment water supply systems.
How does it work?In the Snowy Mountains, when humid air is lifted over mountains the moisture condense forming orographic clouds composed of tiny water droplets remain in liquid form even at temperatures below zero degrees Celcius. Water in this form is known as super cooled liquid water, or SLW.To fall out of the clouds as snow, these SLW droplets need to form ice crystals. They usually do this through interacting with tiny airborne particles (like dust) or when cloud temperatures are very cold. If there are not enough of these particles, or the temperatures are not cold enough, then not all the SLW droplets are converted into ice crystals and the clouds are considered ‘naturally inefficient’.Normally these clouds evaporate as they descend on the lee side of the mountains. As a result lee side areas of mountain ranges, like the Manaro Plains, tend to be much drier than on the upwind side. This naturally occurring phenomenon is known as a rain shadow.To improve the snow making efficiency of these clouds, additional particles can be intr oduced into the clouds. The excess SLW droplets freeze onto these particles forming ice crystals which grow and fall to the ground as snow. This process is known as glaciogenic cloud seeding.
Winter cloud seeding involves increasing the concentration of ice crystals in clouds that contain sufficient below freezing water droplets, and which would not naturally precipitate as snow or rain. The process of creating additional ice crystals is referred to as ice nucleation by cloud seeding. As the ice crystals grow in size, they form snowflakes and fall to the ground as snow. The research project involves the use of minute amounts of silver iodide as the seeding agent, dispensed from ground based generators. The process will create no more noise than a backyard barbeque. Silver iodide is the most commonly used seeding agent for cloud seeding operations around the world, because its structure is very similar to naturally occurring ice nuclei. The expected annual average increase in snowpack over the target area, as a result of the cloud seeding project, is approximately 10 per cent, resulting in average increase in water yield of 70 GL (gigalitres). Furthermore, once the snow melts in spring, additional water will be available for the generation of renewable electricity, as well as providing additional water release for the Murray River System.
Cloud seeding technology is not new or untried, and has been used successfully in America for the last 50 years and in Tasmania for the last 40 years with water utilities continuing to use cloud seeding to augment water supply systems. Scientists now have a significant body of experience to draw from and the Snowy Precipitation Enhancement Research Project (SPERP) experimental design has been developed by international cloud seeding experts drawing on the results of experiments undertaken in the US and in Australia. Due to advanced techniques in radiometry, meteorology and new cloud seeding techniques, precipitation as snow rather than rain can be reliably predicted.
Proven techniques using tracing agents combined with advanced statistical techniques enable the evaluation and measurement of snow which is the direct result of cloud seeding.
Possible Negative impactsUncertainties of cloud seeding methodology
While clouds across the globe have been seeded for 60 years to increase rainfall and reduce hail, there is no scientifically credible proof it works -“there is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional weather modification efforts.” Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board director Darin Langerud has stated "If you hold it to ... scientifically credible proof, it is true that a lot of
aspects of cloud seeding have not met that standard.” Precipitation augmentation through cloud seeding should not be viewed as a drought relief measure. Opportunities to increase precipitation are usually few, if any, during droughts; consequently the cost of mounting a cloud-seeding operation will far exceed the benefits that may be obtained. Cloud seeding is not the answer to ending a drought because the clouds have to be there to seed. "You can't make it rain out of a clear, blue sky," Langerud said. There are some indications that precipitation can either increase or decrease some distance beyond intended target areas In the early 1990s, Montana farmers worried that cloud seeding over eastern Montana was stealing their rain. The Montana Legislature passed a law requiring an environmental study and a $10 million bond before any cloud seeding could take place, effectively putting a stop to cloud seeding in 1993. (SHL has admitted in a media release (011203): “The atmosphere is a dynamic system and does not behave in a simplistic manner” ). There will be many people in the Park region that would have serious questions about what this trial will mean for them and their livelihood, particularly those in existing rainshadow areas. It has been concluded in the US that careful attention should be paid to negative effects to the mountain and aquatic environment, long-term effects on the macroclimate, flooding and erosion. Some sensitive areas have required suspension of the activity . Snow dependant animals, such as the Mountain Pygmy Possum, will suffer if increased precipitation falls are rain, not snow.Possible Impacts of elevated levels of silver due to cloud seedingThe silver iodide used in cloud seeding causes elevations in atmospheric silver concentrations.Silver concentrations in precipitation resulting from seeding clouds with silver iodide were 10-4,500 nanograms per litre compared with concentrations of 0-20 nanograms per litre without cloud seeding (Cooper and Jolly 1970).Human sources of atmospheric silver, such as cloud seeding, may be responsible for the enrichment of silver by factors of 326-355 over its average concentration in the earth's crust (Struempler 1975).Silver is one of the most toxic heavy metals to freshwater micro-organisms, both plants and animals .Silver becomes adsorbed onto humic complexes and suspended particulates; and incorporated into, or adsorbed onto, aquatic plants and animals. The most sensitive organisms are phytoplankton, and the embryos and larvae of animals, including the tadpole stage of the frog life cycle.Any increased silver in the region is of serious concern for the endangered Southern Corroboree Frog because of frogs’ high sensitivity to toxins.Silver is more bioavailable under conditions of low anion concentrations, low levels of reactive sulfide or sulfur containing ligands, low concentrations of organic ligands (humates), lower suspended sediment and lower pH. A number of these conditions apply to, at least, the Kosciuszko alpine lakes and it is therefore of concern that silver will impact on plants and animals in the lakes.Silver is a genotoxin i.e. capable of forming genetic mutations (It binds with DNA and can cause DNA strands to break and affect replication).
Adapted from Colong Foundation for Wilderness http://www.colongwilderness.org.au/Kossie/cloudseedbrf.htm 16/03/08
Expert warns on cloud seeding by Rosslyn Beeby A $20 million cloud-seeding project to increase winter snowfalls in Kosciuszko National Park could be polluting its globally protected pristine alpine lakes, according to new research by a leading alpine ecologist.
The four alpine lakes, already under threat from rising temperatures and early spring ice thaws caused by global climate change, are Australia's only mainland glacial lakes and home to several rare marine species.
NSW Parks and Wildlife ecologist Ken Green told an audience in Jindabyne yesterday that winter cloud seeding could be connected to a recent massive seasonal spike in ammonia levels in the alpine lakes, which is already causing algal blooms, high nutrient levels and changes in acidity.
During a public lecture on his role in climate change research in the national park, Dr Green stressed the need for more scientific monitoring of all alpine ecosystems. "We really do need to know a lot more about what's going on out there, and this recent discovery of what's happening to the alpine lakes is a good example," he said.
A series of tests conducted by Dr Green during 2006 showed ammonia levels in all four lakes Blue Lake, Club Lake, Cootapatambra Lake and Lake Albina increased significantly during the period when cloud seeding was conducted. Blue Lake and its 320ha catchment area is protected as a site of global ecological importance under the Ramsar treaty on wetlands.
The ammonia levels were highest in Club Lake and Cootapatambra Lake, increasing by 4400 per cent after winter cloud-seeding operations began in July.
"It really was a case of taking some samples out of curiosity and finding some interesting things were happening," he said.
Ammonia levels in the lakes were usually about 3.3 micrograms a litre for most of the year, but after cloud seeding began, levels rose dramatically to 30 micrograms, and then to more than 140 micrograms a litre. Snow samples taken after cloud seeding commenced, showed levels of 70 micrograms a litre.
"These are massive peaks, and we need to find out what's causing them. Putting ammonia down your toilet may seem like a good idea, but putting it into a pristine alpine lake could definitely be a bit dodgy," Dr Green said.
The Snowy Hydro Corporation, which is jointly owned by the Commonwealth, NSW and Victorian governments, began a six year cloud-seeding trial in winter 2004, aiming to increase winter snowfalls by 10 per cent across 1000sqkm of the national park, including the summit of Mt Kosciuszko and the glacial lakes.
The seeding process involves firing silver iodide particles from 24 ground-based generators to increase the concentration of ice crystals in storm clouds.
2.1.3 Human Impacts on the Lithosphere - Soil erosionRefer to pages 182-183 of the text book “What is the history of soil erosion in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area?”
1. Why do they believe Aboriginals did not contribute to accelerated soil erosion?______________________________________________________________________________
2.1.4 Human Impacts on the Biosphere- Effects of Land use on FaunaHuman land use in the
Australian Alps brings changes to the environment. Any change in the environment can change the quality of habitat for particular wildlife. In some instances the habitat is so greatly changed that it no longer provides adequately for a particular community or individual species. This becomes critical for species that occur only in restricted areas.
Three species are confined to the alpine and subalpine zone - the Mountain Pygmy-possum, the Corroboree Frog and the Baw Baw Frog. They are restricted not only to this zone but also to particular vegetation communities within it. The protection of the special habitats of these three species is essential for their continued existence.
People's activities from the past threaten habitat in several ways in the Alps. Impacts such asthe introduction of feral animals has had a significant impact on alpine habitat. Such
animals include feral horses (brumbies), hares, pigs, goats and dogs. Hard hooved animals have the capacity to damage soils, grazing animals compete with native browsing animals and dogs prey on other wildlife.
Damage to vegetation and soils through stock grazing, resort development and establishment of the hydro-electricity schemes are widespread. Local deterioration of water quality in streams and rivers is caused by the presence of stock, careless waste disposal from resorts and the growing numbers of walkers camping along streams are other impacts.
Another threat is the changes to natural stream flow regimes. (The flow regime is the amount of water flowing down a stream at a particular time in comparison with other times of the year.) A number of animals have adapted to live in streams and rivers and depend on particular flow regimes for their life cycles. Many plants living on
the banks of streams are also adapted to particular flow regimes. Damming of the rivers of the high country has changed the natural stream flow regimes.
To protect species it is essential to protect the habitat in which they live. Generally the first step towards protection is the institution of legislation. Much of the high country has been proclaimed National Park in NSW, Victoria and the ACT. Legislation such as the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974) in NSW, the National Parks Act (1975) in Victoria and the Nature Conservation Ordinance (1980) in the ACT protect habitats and individual species through their common aim which is conservation of the ecosystem.
Other legislation such as the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act passed in Victoria in 1988 may help to protect particular species or habitats. This Act helps to protect species of plants and animals on both public and private land.
1. What does human land use do to the biosphere in the Alps?
2. Why is habitat change critical for some species?
3. What three species are confined to the Kosciuszko alpine zone?
4. What needs to happen for these species to continue to exist?
5. List and describe the human activities that have threatened habitats in the Alps.
Danger daisy on Alpine rampage Richard Macey January 19, 2009
BUSHWALKERS hiking in the Kosciuszko National Park have been urged to be on the alert for a dangerous escapee threatening havoc across the Snowy Mountains.The villain is not a runaway convict, but an iridescent orange European daisy called hawkweed.
Keith McDougall, a Department of Environment and Climate Change botanist, said hawkweed's rapid spread could trigger an environmental disaster within our lifetime.
People making a sighting should keep their distance, but snap a digital photo and email it to the authorities, he said."It loves mountain landscapes and it has the frightening potential to change the appearance of the Australian Alps, smothering vegetation" and obliterating wildlife."This weed could even get into the bog systems and impact on the critically endangered southern corroboree frog."So named because the ancient Greeks thought hawks ate its sap to improve their eyesight, hawkweed may have been introduced into Tasmania early last century before being planted in Victorian gardens. Despite intensive campaigns, the weed has infested 125 Victorian sites.Now it has spread into Kosciuszko National Park. Dr McDougall urged anyone coming across the weed to take a picture and email it, along with details of where it had been found, to him so it could be tracked down and eradicated."A map location would be good," he said, but "it's most important that they do not pick it". Tiny barbs on the seeds cling to clothes, hair and even cars and trucks."Think of it as a common dandelion," he said, adding the seeds also blow great distances in the wind.The weed grows so thick it carpets the ground, choking out native plants and animals. Posters appealing for people to report sightings have been put up on
Kosciuszko National Park walking trails and information centres. Public help, Dr McDougall said, was vital."It only takes one seed to lodge in a remote rock within the park unnoticed and within a handful of years a small population grows, and then there are literally thousands and thousands of seeds being dispersed to other corners of the bush."Anyone finding hawkweed can email location details to [email protected] story was found at: http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2009/01/18/1232213448832.html
3.0A case study investigating ONE issue in ONE of the biophysical components, to illustrate how an understanding of biophysical processes contributes to sustainable management in the environment.
Issue: Utilisation of Snowy Region Waters (Using the water )
History of the Snowy Mountains Scheme It was the widespread droughts of the 1880’s that prompted
talks of diverting the mountain rivers, as rivers such as the
snowy were draining, largely unexploited, into the ocean.
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, various proposals
for the Snowy were put forward.
It wasn’t until 1944 that a dual purpose irrigation and power
scheme was initiated.
In 1949, the Commonwealth Government passed the Hydro-
electric Power Act. This Act established the Snowy Mountains
Authority which was responsible for designing and managing a
dual purpose scheme to provide power and irrigation water.
Justification for the project was also made for ‘defence’
reasons. Coastal power generators (eg coal-fired power
stations) were seen as prime military targets.
It took 25 years to build – work commenced in 1949 and was
completed in 1974, on time and under budget.
More than 100,000 people from over 30 countries worked on
the Snowy Scheme between 1949 and 1974, with the
workforce reaching a peak of 7,300 in 1959.
3.1 Identification and explanation of the key biophysical processes which relate to the issue
Identification The Hydrosphere has been impacted on by the construction of
the Snowy Mountains Scheme.
The Scheme was made to capture and channel the constant
and reliable source of water delivered to the mountains by the
flows and storages operating in the hydrosphere.
Explanation The mountains catch precipitation in the form of rain and snow,
which slowly filters to the surrounding country in an extensive
system of rivers.
The Snowy Mountains Scheme, with its 16 dams, 7 power
stations and 225km of tunnels and aqueducts uses the water
for two reasons:
o To divert water from the east to the west for irrigation for
the western side of the mountains (Lower Murray Darling
Basin)
o For electric power generation.
The scheme follows the natural cycle of the seasons:
o Winter : precipitation falls as snow in the mountains, stored
in the snow pack
o Spring : with the spring thaw, water storages collect the
snow melt
o Summer : water that usually flows east is diverted to the
west for irrigation and power generation
The Scheme also depends on the:
o High levels of precipitation and low evaporation/transpiration
experienced in the area.
o Legacy of glaciation- Moraines around the alpine area slow
down drainage.
o The lakes, fens, bogs formed act as reservoirs for the
snowmelt. These communities are particularly important in
regulating water flow in the mountains.
o High water holding capacity of alpine soils and vegetation
It is the operation of these key biophysical processes in the
upper catchment of the Snowy River that has made it so suitable
as a water storage and diversion scheme
3.2 Scale of operations
The size (scale) of the operations is large.
The Snowy Mountains Scheme is one of the great engineering
feats of the modern world and remains amongst the greatest
engineering projects ever undertaken in Australian History. It is
only recently that it has been foreshadowed by the Three River
Scheme in China.
The Scheme is one of the most complex integrated water and
hydro-electric power schemes in operation in Australia and the
world.
It diverts the large flow of water that usually moves east so that it
flows to the west into the Murray and Murrumbidgee River
systems and at the same time it produces clean, renewable
energy.
Features of the Snowy Mountains Scheme
Source: Snowy Hydro Fact Sheet Module Support notes page 2
The Snowy Mountains Scheme is recognised as one of the great engineering feats of the world. It took 25 years to build and is one of the largest and most complex integrated water and hydro-electric power schemes in operation.
Built in the national interest with the support of the New South Wales, Victorian, South Australian and Commonwealth governments, the Scheme provides electricity to the mainland eastern Australian grid and much needed drought security to Australia's dry inland.
Construction started on 17 October 1949, when the Governor General Sir William McKell, Prime Minister Ben Chiffley and the Scheme's first Commissioner, Sir Williarn Hudson, fired the first blast at Adaminaby.
Built at a cost of 5.1 billion-including interest costs accrued during construction-the Scheme was completed on time and under budget in 1974.
Snowy features
The Snowy Mountains Scheme is located in Australia's Southern Alps within a catchment area of 5,124 square kilometres, mostly within Kosciuszko National Park.
The Scheme has 145 km of interconnected trans-mountain tunnels and 80 km of aqueducts, which collect and divert most of the inflows to the Snowy Mountains area.
There are 16 major dams with a total storage capacity of 7,000 gigalitres (Gl), or 13 times the volume of Sydney Harbour. Almost 76% of this capacity, or 5,300 Gl, can be used for electricity generation and diverted to the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation systems.
Lake Eucumbene, the Scheme's largest reservoir, has a storage capacity of
4,798 GI or 9 times the volume of Sydney Harbour.
Entitlements to the water diverted from the Snowy River by the Scheme are shared between Victoria and NSW at approximately 25% and 75% respectively.
By providing a reliable supply of water west of the Great Dividing Range, the Scheme assists in underwriting the production of $3 billion of irrigated agricultural products 'n the Murray-Darling Basin each year.
The Scheme's operations are vital to river management, including flood mitigation, flow augmentation during drought and the control of salinity in the Murray River
The Scheme's seven power stations generate an average of 5,000 gigawatt-hours (GWW* of electricity each year.
With a large generating capacity of 3,756 megawatts (MW), the Scheme has the capability of producing up to 11 % of the total power requirements of mainland eastern Australia.
It provides approximately 76% of the renewable energy supplied to the mainland eastern Australian grid, displacing approximately 4.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year.
More than 100, 000 people from over 30 countries worked on the Snowy Scheme between 1949 and 1974, with the workforce reaching a peak of 7,300 in 1959.
Working on two fronts
Broadly, the Scheme fails into two separate, but interconnected developments: The Snowy Murray
Diversion which diverts the water of the Snowy River westward from Island Bend Pondage through a trans-mountain tunnel to Geehi Reservoir. The water then passes through Murray 1 and
Murray 2 Power Stations before being released into the Murray River for irrigation. Water is also collected and stored in Lake Jindabyne and Lake Eucumbene. The Snowy Murray Diversion also captures the headwaters of the Snowy River at Guthega Pondage. This water passes through Guthega Power Station and is released back into the Snowy River to flow into Island Bend Pondage. This is known as the 'run of the river' power station.
The Snowy Tumut Diversion which collects the headwaters of the Murrumbidgee and Eucumbene Rivers. These waters are diverted from Lake Eucumbene through a trans- mountain tunnel to Tumut Pond Reservoir, which collects water from the Tooma and Tumut Rivers. The water passes through Tumut 1, 2 and 3 Power Stations located in the Tumut Gorge and then into Blowering Reservoir. From here it passes through Blowering Power Station as it is discharged into the Tumut River by the Department of Land and Water Conservation. The Tumut River then flows into the Murrumbidgee River for irrigation.
At the heart of the Snowy Mountains Scheme is Lake Eucumbene which receives water from the Snowy, Eucumbene, Tooma, Tumut and Murrumbidgee Rivers. Lake Eucumbene is the Scheme's largest reservoir, with a storage capacity of 4,798 GI* or 9 times the volume of Sydney Harbour
Features of the Snowy Mountains Scheme1. Why is the Snowy Mountains Scheme recognised as one of the great engineering feats of the
Global warming is already affecting the alpine regions of the world. Warming has been associated with upward movement of some plant populations by 1 – 4 m per decade on
mountain tops, and some loss of plants that formerly were restricted to high elevations (IPCCb, 2001).
Alpine plants and animals are restricted to an area between the treeline and the mountain summit. In Australia there are more than 250 species of alpine plants that grow only in this restricted habitat (La Trobe University, 2001). As Australia continues to warm, the alpine environment and its plants and animals will need to move further up mountains to retain the desirable climate conditions. However as Australia’s mountains are low, climate change may leave the species with nowhere to go.
Change is already occurring in Australia’s alpine regions. The treeline near Mount Hotham in Victoria has moved up forty metres to an area that has not had any trees for the past twenty-five years. As the trees move into this area, alpine plants can be displaced (La Trobe University, 2001).
With a small change in the global average temperature, the alpine environment of Mount Bogong in Victoria will need to move up the mountain from 1750 metres to 1900 metres. If warming continues these species will have nowhere to move, as this mountain is only 1940 metres high (Busby, 1988 ; Mansergh, 2001).
Australia’s highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko, is 2228 metres high and the alpine environment begins at 1800 metres. With climate change this alpine environment will need to rise to 2000 metres to remain within a suitable climate (Busby, 1988).
Climate change will see an 18 – 66 percent reduction in the area of snow cover by 2030 and a 39 – 96 percent reduction by 2070 (Pittock and Wratt, 2001). With a small change in temperature the only places in Australia that will retain alpine ecosystems will be the tops of 6 mountains (Busby 1988). A 3°C rise, predicted for the next 100 years, would raise the snowline level above the highest peaks in the Alps (Coyne, 2001).
Kosciuszko National Park From 1970 to 1996 there appeared to be a decreasing trend in the number of days on which snow was recorded in the Snowy Mountains, which correlates with both warm regional temperatures and higher average temperatures across all of Australia (NPWS, 2001).
The national park surrounding Australia’s highest mountain is home to less than 500 Mountain Pygmy-Possums Burramys parvus. Warming due to climate change is likely to threaten its survival because B. parvus needs 70cm – 1 metre of snow to keep warm during winter hibernation. Snow acts like a doona, keeping the temperature at 2°C, and the projected decrease of snow cover will expose the possums to more extreme cold.
Climate change is also predicted to reduce the possum’s available habitat (currently only about 4 square kms (NPWS, 2001). The entire climatic habitat of the Mountain Pygmy-possum will be lost with only 1°C warming (Brereton et al. 1995).
Climate change also threatens alpine plants, with 47 percent of the 190 plant species in the alpine region of Mt. Kosciuszko identified as vulnerable to global warming (Coyne, 2001).
The financial value of expenditure by tourists to the National Park was worth $640 million in 1991 – 92 (Driml, 1994). Bushwalking and nature appreciation brings more visitors to the NSW Alps than skiing (CRCST, 2001) so a decline in alpine animals and plants may affect tourism.
Cooma, which is the service centre for the national park, will feel the economic impacts from any decline in tourists.Source: Climate Action Network Australia http://www.cana.net.au/bush/alpine.htm accessed 16/03/2008
