· Web viewThe word ‘tense’ implies time. The tense can be distinguished by looking at the...

الكويت State of Kuwaitدولةالتربية Ministry of وزارة

Educationاالنجليزية للغة العام الفني ELT General Supervision التوجيه

واللغويات للقواعد الفعال التناول دورةTackling Grammar and Linguistics

2015/ 2016

A Training Course for ELT Teachers

واللغويات للقواعد الفعال التناول Tackling Grammar and Linguistics -2015-2016–دورة

التدريبية للدورة العلمية والمادة الزمني الجدولواللغويات للقواعد الفعال التناول

الصفحةالموضوعم

عدد

الساعا

ت

1 / األزمنة الجمل 3أنواع

ضوع

تلكلموساعا

ثثال

للمجهول / 2 المبني المنقول 15الكالم

األخطاء / / 3 الصفات وترتيب الشرطية الجملة

الشائعة

29

4 / الصرف / علم الجر حروف الربط 41أدوات

5 / / الجمل بناء قواعد الصوتيات الصرف 57علم

2ELT General Supervision


األول الموضوع

األزمنة / الجمل أنواع

SENTENCE TYPES/TENSES



Sentence Types

What is a sentence?When we speak or write, we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as ,

‘Little Jack sat in a corner’.

A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a Sentence .

When we make a sentence:

(1 )We name some Person or thing; and

(2 )Say something about that person or thing .

In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate

something about that subject .

Hence every sentence has two parts:

(1 )The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about. This is called the

Subject of the sentence .

(2 )The part which tells something about the Subject. This is called the Predicate of the

sentence .

The boy walked home.

Subject predicate



The subject can consist of a word or a group of words.

The predicate always contains the verb and tells us more about the subject. Thus it may

contain an object, a complement or another object in addition to the verb.

Subject Predicate

The owl hooted in the night

The students in the class read the passage

Jasmine and Alice are sisters

The Subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the Predicate;

as,

Here comes the bus.

Down the road skipped the girl.

In Imperative sentences, the Subject is left out; as,

Sit down. [Here the Subject ‘You’ is understood].

Thank him. [Here too the Subject ‘You’ is understood.]

Sentence Types Sentences are classified in two ways, )purpose and structure.(

1- Types of sentences according to function (purpose):

1. Declarative Sentences

Declarative sentences make a statement to relay information or ideas. They are punctuated

with a simple period. Formal essays or reports are composed almost entirely of declarative

sentences.

Examples of Declarative Sentences:

The concert begins in two hours.

Hawaii is a tropical climate.

2. Imperative Sentences



Imperative sentences issue commands or requests or they can express a desire or wish.

They are punctuated with a simple period or they can be exclamations requiring an

exclamation mark. It all depends on the strength of emotion you want to express.

Examples of Imperative Sentences:

Halt!

Watch for oncoming traffic.

Please lower your voice.

3. Exclamatory Sentences

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion or excitement. They always end in an

exclamation mark.

Examples of Exclamatory Sentences

I can’t wait for the party!

Oh, my goodness, I won!

Suddenly, a bear appeared in my path!

Please don’t go!

4. Interrogative SentencesInterrogative sentences always ask a question and end with a question mark.

Examples of Interrogative Sentences:

Is it snowing?

Have you had breakfast?

Do you want Coke or Pepsi?

You like Mexican food, don’t you?

2- Types of Sentences according to structure:A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type)s( of clauses it

contains.

1. Simple sentence



A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a

verb and it expresses a complete thought. It can also contain compound subjects or verbs.

There is no dependent clause. (An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.)

(A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.)

Examples of simple sentences:

He laughed.

Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.(a compound subject)

Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.(a compound verb)

2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The

coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

Examples:

I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

The tea was too hot, so I didn't drink it.

He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.

3. Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses.

A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although,

or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator, a comma is required at the end of

the dependent clause.

Examples:

When he handed in his homework , he forgot to give the teacher the last page.

The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error . 7

ELT General Supervision


The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow .

After they finished studying , Juan and Maria went to the movies

)Dependent clauses are underlined(

4. Complex - Compound Sentence

A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more dependent clauses. These clauses are connected by both conjunctions and subordinators.

Examples:

The woman, who my mom talked to, sells cosmetics.

He went to college and I went to a bookshop where I bought a book.

I like Mathematics but my brother likes Biology because he wants to be a doctor.

Jack, who reads comics, rarely reads novels, however, Tom enjoys novels.

Tenses

The word ‘tense’ implies time. The tense can be distinguished by looking at the verb

or the helping verb of the sentences.

There are three types of Tenses, which are as follows:

)i( Present Tense

)ii( Past Tense

)iii( Future Tense

And these three Tenses can be further divided into four sub-groups, which are as follows: Present Tense

Present simple I work

Present continuous I’m working

Present perfect I have worked

Present perfect continuous I have been working



1- We use the present simple:

A. to talk about things in general. We use it to say that something happens all the

time or repeatedly, or that something is true in general:

o Nurses look after patients in hospitals.

o The café opens at 7.30 in the morning.

o Near the equator, the sun evaporates greater quantities of water.

B. to say how often we do things:

o I get up at 8 o’clock every morning.

o Julie doesn’t drink tea very often.

o Robert usually goes away two or three times a year.

C. We use do/does to make questions and negative sentences:

o I come from Canada. Where do you come from?

o What does this word mean?

o Rice doesn’t grow in cold climates.

2. The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the

present participle )-ing form( of a verb.

We use the present continuous tense:

A. for something that is happening at the moment of speaking:

o I’m just leaving work. I’ll be home in an hour.

o Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.

B. for something which is happening before and after a given time:

o At eight o’clock we are usually having breakfast.

o When I get home the children are doing their homework.

C. for something which we think is temporary:

o Michael is at university. He’s studying history.

o I’m working in London for the next two weeks.



D. to show that something is changing, growing or developing:

o The children are growing quickly.

o The climate is changing rapidly.

o Your English is improving.

E. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the future:

o Mary is going to a new school next term.

o What are you doing next week?

3. The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past

participle of a verb:

We use the present perfect tense:

A. to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact

time is not important

o I have seen that movie twenty times.

o I think I have met him once before.

B. for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

o I have had a cold for two weeks.

o She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

C. for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:

o I’ve played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.

o He has written three books and he is working on another one.

D. We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to

the recent past )just, recently(, or adverbials which include the present (ever,

yet, until now, so far).

o Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey.

o Have you ever seen a ghost?

4. The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb.



We use the present perfect continuous tense:

A. to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now.

"For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations

which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

o She has been working at that company for three years.

o James has been teaching at the university since June.

Note the difference between gone (to) and been (to):

o Jim is on holiday. He has gone to Italy. )= he is there now or on his way there(

o Jane is back home now. She has been to Italy. )= she has now come back(

Past Tense

Past simple I worked

Past continuous I was working

Past perfect I had worked

Past perfect continuous I had been working

1. We use the past simple tense:

A. to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the

past. The speaker sometimes states when it happened using a time adverb

such as yesterday, or a date or time.

o The Titanic sank when it hit an iceberg.

o Queen Victoria died in 1901.

B. to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as

"used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add

expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I

was younger, etc.

o He always played the violin.

o I studied French when I was a child.

o They never went to school, they always skipped class.11


http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/usedto.html


2. We use the past continuous tense:

A. to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is

usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real

interruption or just an interruption in time.

o While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

o I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.

o What were you doing when the earthquake started?

While vs. When

When we talk about things in the past, "when" is most often followed by Simple Past,

whereas "while" is usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea

of "during that time.

o I was studying when she called.

o While I was studying, she called.

3. We use the past perfect tense:

A. to express the idea that something occurred before another action in the past.

It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

o Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.

o Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

o When Sara arrived at the party, Karen had already gone home.

4. We use the past perfect continuous tense:

A. to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time

in the past.

"For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used

with the Past Perfect Continuous.


http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplepast.html


Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the

duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the

past.

o They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

o Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

Future Tense

Simple Future I will work

Future continuous I will be working

Future perfect I will have worked

Future perfect continuous I will have been working

1. We use the simple future tense:

A. to talk about things which we cannot control. It expresses the future as fact.

o I shall be twenty next Saturday. .

o We will know our exam results in May.

B. to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future.

o I’m sure Helen will get a first class.

C. when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.

o It is raining· I will take an umbrella.

o “Mr. Sinha is very busy at the moment.” – “All right. I’ll wait.”

Going to“Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person

intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.

o They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.

o We are going to meet at 6 pm.13


http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/presentperfectcontinuous.html


2. We use the future continuous tense:

A. to show the action, which would be taking place, at some time in the future.

o This time tomorrow I will be sitting on the beach in Singapore.

o I suppose it will be raining when we start.

B. to talk about actions in the future which are already planned or which are

expected to happen in the normal course of things.

o I will be staying here till Sunday.

o He will be meeting us next week.

3. We use the future perfect tense:

A. To express the idea that something will occur before another action in the

future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in

the future.

o By next November, I will have received my promotion.

o He will have left before you go to see him.

4. We use the future perfect continuous tense:

A. for actions which will be in progress over a period of time that will end in the

future.

o How long will you have been studying when you graduate?

o I’ll have been teaching for twenty years next July.

References:

1. Collins Cobuild English Grammar 1995.

2. Middle & Secondary School Grammar & Composition By Jim K. Giles 2005.

3. High School English Grammar & Composition By Wren & Martin 2005.

4. English Grammar in Use , Raymond Murphy 2005

5. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHR2VScWcy0

6. http://www.k12reader.com/4-sentence-types/

7. http://fos.iloveindia.com/types-of-sentences.html

8. http://eslbee.com/sentences.htm14


http://eslbee.com/sentences.htm

http://fos.iloveindia.com/types-of-sentences.html

http://www.k12reader.com/4-sentence-types/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHR2VScWcy0


9. http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentences.htm

10.http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/search/apachesolr_search/present%20tense

11.http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/futureperfectcontinuous.html

Compiled by:ELT. Supervisor: Mrs. Hanan Burezq

الثاني الموضوع

للمجهول / المبني المنقول الكالمReported Speech / Passive Voice


http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/futureperfectcontinuous.html

http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/search/apachesolr_search/present%20tense

http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentences.htm


REPORTED SPEECH

There are two ways of reporting what a person says:

1. Direct Speech reports the exact words the speaker says. Use quotations marks )'...'(

before and after the speaker's statement. (e.g: I said, 'I don't want to know it.')

2. Indirect Speech (also 'reported speech') refers to a sentence reporting what

someone has said. )e.g: I said that I didn't want to know it.)

I. REPORT STRUCTURES

A report structure consists of two parts:

1- One part is the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb:

Example: She told me that nothing was going to happen to him.

2- The other part is the reported clause.

Example: Mike said that he wanted to come back home.

II. REPORTED STATEMENTS WITH NO CHANGE OF TENSE

If the reporting )i.e. say, says, has told( verb of the sentence is present, present perfect or

future, there is no change of tense in the reported statement.



Example:- Direct speech : He says, ‘I’m not staying’

- Reported speech: He says )that( he isn’t staying.

- Direct speech : He has told her: ‘I don’t like going to parties’

- Reported speech: He has told her )that( he doesn’t like going to parties.

- Direct speech : He will tell you, ‘I haven’t got any bread’

- Reported speech: He will tell you )that( he hasn’t got any bread.

-

III. REPORTED STATEMENTS WITH CHANGE OF TENSE

But if the reporting verb )i.e. said( is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form.

This form is usually one step back into the past from the original.

SPEAKER'S WORDS REPORTED STATEMENTWill

Michael: ‘I will work in the office’.would

Michael said that he would work in the office.

is going toMichael: ‘I'm going to work in the office’.

was going toMichael said that he was going to work in

the office.present simple

Michael: ‘I work in the office’.past simple

Michael said that he worked in the office.

present continuousMichael: ‘I'm working in the office’ .

past continuousMichael said that he was working in the

office.Past simple, present perfect or past perfect

Michael: ‘I worked in the office’.Michael: ‘I have worked in the office’.Michael: ‘I had worked in the office’.

past perfectMichael said that he had worked in the

office.

MustMichael: ‘I must work in the office’.

had toMichael said that he had to work in the

office.Can

Michael: ‘I can work in the office’.could

Michael said that he could work in the office.



Important points

1. If we report something, which is still true, it is not necessary to change the verb tense.

DIRECT SPEECH: ‘My car is bigger than yours.’REPORTED SPEECH: He said his car is / was bigger than mine.

2. Modal verbs )could, might, would, should, ought to, had better( usually do not change

in reported speech.

DIRECT SPEECH: ‘I should go to the dentist.’

REPORTED SPEECH: He said that he should go to the dentist.

When there is a modal verb in the original statement, suggestion, etc., this sometimes

changes when we report what was said.

Modal verb in original Modal verb in reportcould, would, should,

might, ought to, used to

could, would, should,

might, ought to, used to

will, can, may would, could, might

Shall should )offers, suggestions, etc.(

must

mustn’t

had to

mustn’t

NOTE: If the situation we are reporting still exists or is still in the future and the verb in

the reporting clause is in a past tense, then we can use either would or will, can or could,

and may or might in the reported clause.

Example:

- Direct speech : ‘The problem can be solved.’

-Reported speech: They said the problem can/could be solved.

NOTE: When shall is used in offers, requests for advice and confirmation, etc. then we

can use should in the report.

Example:



- Direct speech : ‘Where shall I put this box?’

- Reported speech: He asked where he should put the box.

NOTE: If mustn’t is used in the original, we can use mustn’t in the report but not didn’t

have to.

Example:

- Direct speech: ‘You mustn’t tell my brother.’

- Reported speech He warned me that I mustn’t tell his brother.

IV. REPORTING STATEMENTS AND THOUGHTS ( USE OF ‘that’ ) If you want to report a statement or someone’s thoughts, you use a reported clause

beginning with the conjunction ‘that’.

Example: He said that the police had arrested them the day before yesterday.

In informal speech and writing, the conjunction ‘that’ is commonly omitted.

Example: They said I had to see a doctor first.

‘that’ is often omitted when the reporting verb refers simply to the act of saying or

thinking. You usually include ‘that’ after a verb which gives more information, such as

‘explain’.

Example: I explained that they would have to stay in bed.

V. REPORTED SPEECH ( SAY and TELL)

- Tell: has a personal direct object )me, you, us, him, her...(

Example: She told me )that( she was going to be on time.

- Say : never has a personal direct object:

Example: She said she was going to be on time.

- but the indirect object is used instead )to him, to her, to them...(



Example: ‘I don't want to stay there’, she said to me quietly.

VI. REPORTED SPEECH ( OTHER CHANGES)

As well as tense changes, other words in Direct Speech need to be changed when they are

reported. Here are some examples:

Direct Speech Reported speech

tomorrow the following day / the next day

today that day

last month the previous month

now then

yesterday the day before/ the previous day

next week the following week

tonight that night

this morning that morning

ago before / previously

here \ this there \ that

VII. REPORTED SPEECH ORDERS

1- Reported commands use a personal direct object and the infinitive:

Example :

Direct speech: The teacher told the children to be quiet.

Reported speech: He told them to be quiet.

2- The negative uses not before to + infinitive

Example:

Direct speech: Don't shout!

Reported speech: He told them not to shout.

VIII. REPORTED SPEECH. IF/ WHETHER AND WH-QUESTIONS

Reported Wh-Questions change the word order of the original question:



Example:

Direct speech: How is your father?

Reported speech: He asked how my father was.

If the reported questions do not start with Wh-Questions, IF or WHETHER are used.

Example:

Direct speech: Did you see the film?

Reported speech He asked if I had seen the film.

IX. REPORTING CONVERSATIONS: SUMMARIZING

Remember that you do not normally report everything that is said, only you have to select

the most important parts of the speech.

This is part of a 'phone conversation':

MARY: How's your new job, Jane?

JANE: It's fine.

MARY: Do you work on Saturdays?

JANE: No, I don't. I work from Monday to Friday.

What was the first question that Mary asked Jane? She asked how her new job was.

What did she say? She said that it was fine.

What did Mary ask Jane about her job? She asked Jane if she worked on Saturdays.

What did Jane finally answer? She answered that she didn't work on Saturdays. She

worked from Monday to Friday.

Now summarize the answers:

Mary asked Jane how her new job was. She said that it was fine. Mary asked Jane if she worked on Saturdays. She answered that she didn't work on Saturday, but she worked from Monday to Friday.

GENERAL EXAMPLES AND TIPS21



Study these examples:

1- Direct speech: He said, “I am happy.”

Reported speech : He said that he was happy.

2- Direct speech : Tom said “My parents are very well.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( his parents were very well.

3- Direct speech : Tom said “Ann has bought a new car.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( Ann had bought a new car.

4- Direct speech : Tom said “I’m going to give up my job.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( he was going to give up his job.

5- Direct speech : Tom said “I want to go on holiday but I don’t know where to go.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( he wanted to go on holiday but he didn’t know

where to go.

6- Direct speech: Tom said “I can’t come to the party on Friday.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( he couldn’t come to the party on Friday.

7- Direct speech: Tom said “I’m going away for a few days. I’ll phone you when I got

back.”

Reported speech: Tom said )that( he was going away for a few days and would phone

me when he got back.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present Simple Past

Present Progressive Past Progressive

Simple Past

Past Perfect SimplePresent Perfect Simple

Past Perfect Simple

Past Progressive

Past Perfect ProgressivePresent Perfect Progressive

Past Perfect Progressive

Future I )going to( was / were going to



Future I )will(Conditional I )would(

Conditional I )would(

References;

English Grammar In Use – Raymond Murphy-Cambridge university press

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/statements

http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/ar/grammar-reference/reported-speech-1

http://advancegrammar.blogspot.com/2009/08/modal-verbs-in-reporting.html

http://recursostic.educacion.es/malted/web/projects/3eso_q12_whatdidshesay/impresos/

grammar_q12.pdf

Passive and Active Voice

Verbs are said to be either active ( e.g. The executive committee approved the new

policy) or passive ( e.g. The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in

voice.

In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a

doer and the verb moves the sentence along.

In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is no more a doer, but is acted upon by

some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved).

The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be

despised. The passive is particularly useful )even recommended( in two situations:

When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon:

The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.

When the actor in the situation is not important: The Northern Lights can be observed

in the early morning hours.

We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis

from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent

sentences.


Compiled by : ELT Supervisor

Mrs. Abeer Al Jeeran

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/subjects.htm#agent

http://recursostic.educacion.es/malted/web/projects/3eso_q12_whatdidshesay/impresos/grammar_q12.pdf

http://recursostic.educacion.es/malted/web/projects/3eso_q12_whatdidshesay/impresos/grammar_q12.pdf

http://advancegrammar.blogspot.com/2009/08/modal-verbs-in-reporting.html

http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/ar/grammar-reference/reported-speech-1


The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior.

Passive Verb Formation

The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of "to be " with the past

participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: "The letter

could have been written in the morning." The passive can be used, also, in various tenses. Let's

take a look at the passive forms of "design."

Tense SubjectAuxiliary Past

ParticipleSingular Plural

Present The car/cars is are designed.

Present perfect The car/cars has been have been designed.

Past The car/cars was were designed.

Past perfect The car/cars had been had been designed.

Future The car/cars will be will be designed.

Future perfect The car/cars will have been will have been designed.

Present progressive The car/cars is being are being designed.

Past progressive The car/cars was being were being designed.

A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the action. For

instance if "A gorilla crushes a tin can", we could say "A tin can was crushed by a

gorilla." But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla: "A tin can was


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/subjects.htm#agent


crushed." Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object is recast in the passive,

the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the passive sentence:

Active Professor John gave George an A.

Passive An A was given to George by Professor John.

Passive George was given an A.

Only transitive verbs )those that take objects( can be transformed into passive

constructions.

Furthermore, active sentences containing certain verbs cannot be transformed into

passive structures. To have is the most important of these verbs. We can say "He

has a new car," but we cannot say "A new car is had by him." We can say "Sara

lacked finesse," but we cannot say "Finesse was lacked." Here is a brief list of such

verbs:

resemble look like equal agree with happen

mean contain hold comprise occur

lack suit fit become die

Verbals in Passive Structures

Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase

in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence )just

like the active forms of the infinitive(.

Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor.

Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother.

Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right.

The same is true of passive gerunds.


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#verbals


Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill.

Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss.

Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss.

With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being

a simple modifying participial phrase.

[Having been] designed for off-road performance, the Path seeker does not

always behave well on paved highways.

Active / Passive Overview

to be + past participle

How to form a passive sentence when an active sentence is given:

- object of the "active" sentence becomes subject in the "passive" sentence

- subject of the "active" sentence becomes "object" in the "passive" sentence" )or is left

out(

Active: Peter builds a house.

Passive: A house is built by Peter.

Active Passive

Simple Present Once a week, Tom cleans the house.

Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.

Present Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.

Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrases.htm#participle


Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous

The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.

Present Perfect Many tourists have visited that castle.

That castle has been visited by many tourists.

Present Perfect Continuous

Recently, John has been doing the work.

Recently, the work has been being done by John.

Past Perfect George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.

Past Perfect Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

Simple FutureWILL

Someone will finish the work by 5:00 pm.

The work will be finished by 5:00 pm.

Simple FutureBE GOING TO

Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.

Future ContinuousWILL

At 8:00 pm tonight, John will be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 pm tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.

Future ContinuousBE GOING TO

At 8:00 pm tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 pm tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.

Future PerfectWILL

They will have completed the project before the deadline.

The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future PerfectBE GOING TO

They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.

The project is going to have been completed before the



deadline.

Future Perfect ContinuousWILL

The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect ContinuousBE GOING TO

The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always My mother would always make the pies.

The pies would always be made by my mother.

Future in the Past/ WOULD

I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 pm.

I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 pm.

Future in the PastWAS GOING TO

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

References

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm

http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/activepassive.html

Compiled by: ELT Supervisor : Mrs. Abeer Al Jeeran



الثالث الموضوع

/ / الصفات ترتيب الشرطية الجمل29



شائعة أخطاءConditional Clauses / Order of Adjectives/ Common Mistakes

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES ( THREE CASES )

Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money,conditional clause

I will go to Japan. main clause

I will go to Japan main clause

if I have enough money. conditional clause

First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.2. Second conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.3. Third conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.



Conditional clause Main clause1. If + Present Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative

a. If you help me with the dishes )if + pres(, I will help you with your homework. )will + inf(

b. If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three, the number is divisible by three )Pres. tense(

c. If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. )imperative(.2. If + Past Tense would + inf3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participleWe do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.

Uses of the Conditional

1. First conditional a. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.

b. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.

e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.

If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

2. Second conditional a. Nature: unreal )impossible( or improbable situations.

b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.

e.g. : If I knew her name, I would tell you. If I were you, I would tell my father.

Compare:- If I become president, I will change the social security system. )Said by a presidential

candidate(- If I became president, I would change the social security system. )Said by a schoolboy:

improbable( If I won a million dollars, I would travel around the world. )improbable(

3.Third conditional



a. Nature: unreal

b. Time: Past )so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.(

e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about your mistake. )But

you didn't, and I have(.

Remember!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses.

EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used

in if-clauses.

e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.

I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.

)please, come this way; please, give me...(

2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:

If I were a rich man...

3. After if, we can either use "some)-one, -where...(" or "any)-one, -where...(.

If I have some spare time next weekend....or :

If I have any spare time...

4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.

e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.

He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in

the past:

If + Past Perfect - would + inf.

If you had warned me [then], I would not be in trouble [now].

The Factual versus the Unreal or Hypothetical

In expressing a conditional situation, we must be able to distinguish between what is a

factual statement and what is a hypothetical statement. )Other terms for hypothetical could

be unreal, imagined, wished for, only possible, etc.( For instance, if we say32



"The dog is always happy when Dad stays home,"

that's a simple statement of present habitual fact. A general truth is expressed in the same way:

"If the sun shines all day, it gets hot."

Statements of habitual fact can also be made in the past:

"If we ate out at all, it was always in a cheap restaurant."

And conditional or hypothetical statements can be made about the future:

"I will give you a call, if I fly to Phoenix tomorrow.

)In the future, we could combine the base form of the verb )"give," in this case( with other

modal verbs: may, might, could.(

HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENTS

When we express the hypothetical in English in the present tense, we end up using the

past tense in an interesting way.

If you liked tennis, we could go play on the new courts.

)Instead of could, we could have used would or might in that sentence.( The speaker of

that sentence is not talking about something in the past tense, even though he uses the past

tense "liked." The speaker implies, in fact, that you don't like to play tennis )in the

present(, so there's no point, now, in going to the new tennis courts.

When we use the hypothetical in this conditional mode, we accommodate our need to

speculate on how things could have been different, how we wish things were different,

how we imagine that things could be different in the future, etc. In order to express the

unreal, the hypothetical, the speculative, or imagined )all those being the same in this

case(, English has adopted an interesting habit of moving time one step backward. Two

verbs are involved: one in the clause stating the condition )the "if" clause( and one in the

result clause.



If the hypothetical result is in the future, we put the verb in the condition clause one

step back — into the present:

If the Bulls win the game tomorrow, they will be champs again.

For present unreal events, we put the verb in the condition clause one step back — into the past:

If the Bulls won another championship, Roberto would drive into Chicago for

the celebration.

I wish I had tickets.

If they were available anywhere, I would pay any price for them.

If he were a good friend, he would buy them for me.

Note that wishing is always an unreal condition. Note, too, that the verb to be uses the

form were in an unreal condition.

For past unreal events — things that didn't happen, but we can imagine — we put the

verb in the condition clause a further step back — into the past perfect:

If the Pacers had won, Aunt Glad would have been rich. If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.

In this last sentence, note the conditional clause in the past perfect )had known( and the

result clause that uses the conditional modal + have + the past participle of the main

verb (would have baked).

Some writers seem to think that the subjunctive mood is disappearing from English,

but that's probably not true. We use the subjunctive all the time to accommodate this

human urge to express possibility, the hypothetical, the imagined. Frequently, conditional

expressions require that we use were where we would otherwise have used another form

of to be. The switch to were is not the only manifestation of the subjunctive in expressing

the conditional, but it is the most common.



If my brother were my boss, I wouldn't have a job today.

If I were to lose my job, I wouldn't be able to pay my bills. [Notice how this is

more uncertain, more "iffy," than "If I lose my job, I won't be able to pay my

bills."]

If I should grow to be eight feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player. [This

statement seems even more imaginary and unlikely.]

Using Would and Could

When expressing the unreal, the result clauses need would, could or will. The

condition clauses do not use those verbs; the condition clauses, instead, use verbs moved

one step back in time from the result.

Future Conditionals versus Hypothetical Conditionals

When we want to predict something conditional about the future )what we think might

happen(, we can use the present tense in the if clause and will or be going + the base

form of the verb in the result clause.

If Jeffrey grows any taller, the basketball coach is going to recruit him for the team.

If he doesn't grow more, the coach will ignore him.

On the other hand, the hypothetical conditional allows us to express quite unlikely

situations or situations that are downright impossible.

If my dad had been seven feet tall instead of less than six feet tall, he would have been a great athlete.



Various Tenses in the Conditional

The following tables divide the uses of the conditional into three types, according to

the time expressed in the if clause: )1( true in the present or future or possibly true in the

future; )2( untrue or contrary to fact in the present; or )3( untrue or contrary to fact in the

past. Notice the one step backward in time in the condition clause.

True in the Present

If clause Independent clause

True as habit or fact

If + subject + present tense

subject + present tense

If Jane works hard, she gets good grades.

True as one-time future event


subject + future tense

If Jane hands in her paper early tomorrow,

she'll probably get an A.

Possibly true in the future




subject + modal + base form

If Jane hands in her paper early tomorrow,

she may/might/could/should get an A.

Untrue in the Present


If + subject + past tense subject + would/could/might + simple form of verb

If Jane worked this hard in all her courses,

she would/could/might get on the Dean's List.

If + subject + to be verb subject + would/could/might + simple form of verb

If Jane were president of her class,

she could work to reform the grading policy.

Untrue in the Past


If + subject + past perfect

tense

subject + modal + have + past participle

If Jane had worked this

hard in all her courses,

she would not have failed this semester.

The Order of Adjectives in a Series

The categories in the following table can be described as follows:

I. Determiners — articles and other limiters.

II. Observation — post-determiners and limiter adjectives )e.g., a real hero( and

adjectives subject to subjective measure )e.g., beautiful, interesting(

III. Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure )e.g., wealthy,

large, round(



IV. Age — adjectives denoting age )e.g., young, old, new, ancient(

V. Color — adjectives denoting color )e.g., red, black, pale(

VI. Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun )e.g., French,

American, Canadian(

VII. Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of )e.g.,

woolen, metallic, wooden(

VIII. Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun )e.g., rocking

chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover(

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

Determiner Observation Physical Description Origin Material Qualifier Noun

Size Shape Age Color

a beautiful old Italian touring car

an expensive antique silver mirror

four gorgeous long-stemmed red silk roses

her Short black hair

our big old English sheepdog

those Square wooden Hat boxes

that dilapidated little hunting cabin

several enormous young American Basketball players

some delicious Thai food

Below are some of the most common English mistakes made by students, in

speech and in writing.

Wrong I have visited Niagara Falls last weekend.38



Right I visited Niagara Falls last weekend.

Wrong The woman which works here is from Japan.

Right The woman who works here is from Japan.

Wrong She’s married with a dentist.

Right She’s married to a dentist.

Wrong She was boring in the class.

Right She was bored in the class.

Wrong I must to call him immediately.

Right I must call him immediately.

Wrong Every students like the teacher.

Right Every student likes the teacher.

Wrong Although it was raining, but we had the picnic.

Right Although it was raining, we had the picnic.

Wrong I enjoyed from the movie.

Right I enjoyed the movie.

Wrong I look forward to meet you.

Right I look forward to meeting you.

Wrong I like very much ice cream.

Right I like ice cream very much.

Wrong She can to drive.

Right She can drive.

Wrong Where I can find a bank?

Right Where can I find a bank?

Wrong I live in United States.

Right I live in the United States.

Wrong When I will arrive, I will call you.

Right When I arrive, I will call you.39



Wrong I’ve been here since three months.

Right I’ve been here for three months.

Wrong My friend has got a new work.

Right My friend has got a new job. )or just "has a new job"(

Wrong She doesn’t listen me.

Right She doesn’t listen to me.

Wrong You speak English good.

Right You speak English well.

Wrong The police is coming.

Right The police are coming.

Wrong The house isn’t enough big.

Right The house isn’t big enough.

Wrong You should not to smoke.

Right You should not smoke.

Wrong Do you like a glass of water?

Right Would you like a glass of water?

Wrong There is seven girls in the class.

Right There are seven girls in the class.

Wrong I didn’t meet nobody.

Right I didn’t meet anybody.

Wrong My flight departs in 5:00 am.

Right My flight departs at 5:00 am.

References : http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/determiners.htmWWW.Grammar.comWWW.Ginger.com


http://WWW.Grammar.com/

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/determiners.htm


Compiled by:ELT Supervisor: Mr. Ahmad Saadeldein

الرابع الموضوع

الجر / حروف الربط أدوات

Conjunctions / Prepositions



ConjunctionsDefinition

A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions

and but or yet for nor so

It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than

four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. Be

careful of the words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say

about coordinating conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to

those two words.(

When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often )but not always( accompanied by a comma:

John wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/clauses.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#so

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#nor

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#for

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#yet

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#or

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#but

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#and


When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:

John has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.

The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction.

A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers )especially in newspapers( will omit that final comma:

John spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:

This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.

In most of their other roles as joiners )other than joining independent clauses, that is(, coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.

Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the

between-the-wars era.

Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American

notions of male identity.

It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting

cultural icon of his day.

Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but,

and or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples

below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.

AND a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Christina

sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."

b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Adam heard the weather

report and promptly boarded up his house."



c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another, )frequently replaced by but in

this usage(: "Sara is brilliant and Suzan has a pleasant personality.

d. To suggest an element of surprise )sometimes replaced by yet in this usage(:

"Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."

e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally )usually

the first clause is an imperative(: "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll

soon find yourself deep in debt."

f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted

to travelling — and that surprised no one who knew him."

BUTa. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a

fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."

b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in

a negative way )sometimes replaced by on the contrary(: "The club never

invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."

c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" )and then the

second word takes over as subject(: "Everybody but Mark is trying out for

the team."

OR a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other:

"You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."

b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on

the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.

c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-

women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College

alumnae."

d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There

are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."



e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather

grim "Live free or die."

f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative )see use

of and above(: "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep

electing him mayor."

NOR

The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other

conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing.

Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor )see below(:

He is neither sane nor brilliant. That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

>It can be used with other negative expressions:

That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.

It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:

George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.

YET

The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition )"yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"(, even )"yet more

expensive"(, still )"he is yet a novice"(, eventually )"they may yet win"(, and so soon as now )"he's not here yet"(. It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning

something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word ‘yet’ seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that ‘but’ can seldom register.

John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.

The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf

every day.


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#below

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#above


In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause

)"they," in this case( is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the

conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play

golf every day."

Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual

to see and yet in sentences. This usage is acceptable.

FOR

The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare

occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather

highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a

sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're

singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its

use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its

function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:

John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the

company's board of trustees.

Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been

a long, dusty journey on the train.

SO

Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses

along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,



Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.

where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a

semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is

acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the

task:

Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.

Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or

transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:

So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.

Subordinating Conjunctions

A Subordinating Conjunction )sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator(

comes at the beginning of a Subordinate )or Dependent( Clause and establishes the

relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the

clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.

He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.

Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.

Unless we act now, all is lost.

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

Below are some common subordinating conjunctions in sentences:

Subordinating Conjunction

Category Example

as Reason As it's raining, I'm staying in.

because Reason I'm staying in because it's raining.


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/clauses.htm


in order that Reason In order that I don't miss the postman, I'm staying in.

since Reason Since you're going out, I'm staying in.

so that Reason I'm staying in so that I don't miss the postman.

although concession and comparison I'm staying in although I'd rather go out.

as concession and comparison I'm staying in as you should.

even though concession and comparison I'm staying in even though the sun is out.

just as concession and comparison I'm staying in just as you should.

though concession and comparison I'm staying in though I wish I left.

whereas concession and comparison I'm staying in whereas you are going out.

while concession and comparison I'm staying in while you are going out.

even if Condition Even if it rains, I'm going out.

if Condition If it rains, I'm staying in.

in case Condition I'm staying in in case it rains.

provided that Condition Provided that it doesn't rain, I'm going out.

unless Condition I'm going out unless it rains.

where Place I fish where the waves start to



form.

wherever Place I will live wherever the weather is good.

after Time I'm going out after the football.

as soon as Time I'm going out as soon as the football has finished.

as long as Time I'm staying out as long as the weather stays good.

before Time I'm going out before the football.

once Time I'm going out once the football has finished.

till Time I'm staying out till the weather turns bad.

until Time I'm staying out until the weather turns bad.

when Time I'm going out when the weather improves.

whenever Time I go out whenever the weather is good.

while Time I'll stay out while the weather is good.

References:


http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/subordinating_conjunctions.htm#H1iJRmG83cdx7eF9.99

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm49


http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm





http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/subordinating_conjunctions.htm

http://www.englishdaily626.com/conjunctions.php?023

Compiled by:

ELT Supervisor: Mr. Mahmoud Al Najjar

PrepositionsPrepositions are short words )on, in, to( that usually stand in front of nouns )sometimes also in front of gerund verbs(.

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions – TimeEnglish Usage Example

on days of the week on Monday

in months / seasons time of day

in August / in winter in the morning


http://www.englishdaily626.com/conjunctions.php?023

http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/subordinating_conjunctions.htm


English Usage Example

year after a certain period of time (when?)

in 2006 in an hour

at for night for weekend

a certain point of time (when?)

at night at the weekend at half past nine

since from a certain point of time )past till now( since 1980

for over a certain period of time )past till now(

for 2 years

ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago

before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004

to telling the time ten to six )5:50(

past telling the time ten past six )6:10(

to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a period of time

from Monday to/till Friday

till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last

He is on holiday until Friday.

by in the sense of at the latest

up to a certain time

I will be back by 6 o’clock.

By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place )Position and Direction(


in room, building, street, town, country

book, paper etc. car, taxi

picture, world

in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world

at meaning next to, by an at the door, at the station




object for table

for events place where you are to do

something typical )watch a film, study, work(

at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work

on attached for a place with a river

being on a surface for a certain side )left,

right( for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio

the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio

by, next to, beside

left or right of somebody or something

Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.

under on the ground, lower than )or covered by( something else

the bag is under the table

below lower than something else but above ground

the fish are below the surface

over covered by something else meaning more than

getting to the other side )also across(

overcoming an obstacle

put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall

above higher than something else, but not directly over it

a path above the lake

across getting to the other side )also over(

getting to the other side

walk across the bridge swim across the lake

through something with limits on top, bottom and the sides

drive through the tunnel




to movement to person or building

movement to a place or country

for bed

go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed

into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house

towards movement in the direction of something )but not directly to

it(

go 5 steps towards the house

onto movement to the top of something

jump onto the table

from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions


from who gave it a present from Jane

of who/what does it belong to what does it show

a page of the book the picture of a palace

by who made it a book by Mark Twain

on walking or riding on horseback entering a public transport vehicle

on foot, on horseback get on the bus

in entering a car / Taxi get in the car

off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train

out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi

by rise or fall of something travelling )other than walking or

horse riding(

prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus

at for age she learned Russian at 45

about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you53




Phrasal-prepositional Verbs :

Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:

verb + adverb + preposition

Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:

phrasal-prepositional verbs

Meaning Examples

direct object

get on with have a friendly relationship with

He doesn't get on with

his wife.

put up with Tolerate I won't put up with your attitude.

look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to seeing you.

run out of use up, exhaust We have run out of eggs.

Phrasal VerbsPhrasal verbs are made of:

verb + adverb

Phrasal verbs can be:

intransitive )no direct object(

transitive )direct object(54



Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:

phrasal verbs

Meaning Examples

direct object

intransitive phrasal verbs

get up rise from bed I don't like to get up.

break down

cease to function

He was late because his car broke down.

transitive phrasal verbs

put off Postpone We will have to put off the meeting.

turn down Refuse They turned down my offer.

Separable Phrasal Verbs

When phrasal verbs are transitive )that is, they have a direct object(, we can usually

separate the two parts. For example, "turn down" is a separable phrasal verb. We can say:

"turn down my offer" or "turn my offer down".

Look at this table:

transitive phrasal verbs are

separable

They turned down my offer.

They turned my offer down.

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must separate the

phrasal verb and insert the pronoun between the two parts. Look at this example with the

separable phrasal verb "switch on":

direct object

pronouns must go

between the two

parts of transitive

John Switche

d

on the

radio.

These are all

possible.

John Switche the on.



phrasal verbs d radio

John Switche

d

it on.

John Switche

d

on it. This is not possible.

Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs? Some dictionaries tell you when phrasal verbs are

separable. If a dictionary writes "look )something( up", you know that the phrasal verb

"look up" is separable, and you can say "look something up" and "look up something". It's

a good idea to write "something/somebody" as appropriate in your vocabulary book when

you learn a new phrasal verb, like this:

get up

break down

put something/somebody off

turn something/somebody down

This tells you whether the verb needs a direct object )and where to put it(.

References: http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/prepositions Free Grammar & Composition Newsletter!By Richard Nordquist )John Christopher Wells, English Intonation. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006( )Ron Cowan, The Teacher's Grammar of English. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008( )Laurel J. Brinton, The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction.

John Benjamins, 2000(


http://grammar.about.com/bio/Richard-Nordquist-22176.htm

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/prepositions


Prepositional Verbs » Brigade Omega - 2 & 3 BHKbrigadeomega.com/BangaloreLuxury Apts off Kanakapura Road. Opp a reserve forest. Starts @ 69L

STUDY AND EXAM.COM

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http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-phrasal-verbs_1.htm


الخامس الموضوع

/ / بناء قواعد الصوتيات الصرف علمالجمل

Morphology / Phonetics / Syntax

Morphology

Morphemes have alternative forms which are called 'allomorphs'.

Some English adjectives form their opposites by prefixing the bound morpheme 'in-':



capable incapable

tolerant intolerant

Often, however, the negative morpheme changes 'n' to the consonant of the word it

prefixes:

mobile immobile

regular irregular

'il – im – in - and ir ' can thus be called allomorphs.

Derivational morphology

Morphology fulfils two main functions in English. Morphemes can be used to form new

words:

danger + ous dangerous

beauty + ful beautiful

Or to inflect verbs and nouns: 'look'. Look+s .. Iook+ing , Iook+ed

The first category is known as derivational morphology and it involves

re+turn return / un + true untrue

suffixation:

man + ly > manly wicked + ness > wickedness

affixation :involving both prefixation and suffixation:

un + speak + able > unspeakable sub + conscious + 1y> subconsciously

Prefixes alter meaning but do not always change the function of the word to which they

prefixed:

Prefix Free morpheme (Class) Result (Class)

be witch )n .. ( bewitch )v~(

de limit )v.( delimit )v.(

en rich )ad.( enrich )v.(

ex terminate )'v( exterminate )v.(

hyper market)n.( hypermarket )n.(



Commonly occurring suffixes always change the class of the word to which they are

attached:

beauty [n] + ful beautiful [aj]

determine [v] determination[ n ]

- Words ending in the morphemes -acy , ation , l-er/-or -ness - and ship tend to be nouns:

democracy – actor - bewilderment - adoration - weakness - painter - solemnity -

horsemanship

- Words ending in '-ise /ize' tend to be verbs:

epitomize hospitalize

- Words ending in' able – ed – ful – ical – ive – less – like – ous – and y' tend to be

adjectives:

an enjoyable film a polished performance

a comical episode a diminutive person

a helpless individual a workmanlike effort

an industrious group a pretty girl

- Words which end in '-1y· tend to be adverbs;

He ran home quickly.

She locked the doors securely.

Although the above suffixes tend to be associated with particular word classes, it is always

worth remembering that, in English, it is only safe to judge the class of an item when it has

been seen in context. Thus, although 'lovely' and 'friendly' end in '-ly' they function as

adjectives and not as adverbs.

a lovely girl a friendly welcome

Inflectional morphology

Whereas derivational affixes often involve a change of class – such as the verb 'attract'

becoming the adjective 'attractive' – inflectional suffixes never involve a change of class. 60



Inflectional morphology occurs with nouns, pronouns and verbs. In nouns, inflectional

marks plurality in regular nouns:

book books

chair chairs

and the possessive of all nouns:

John John's book/books

the man the man's book/books

the men the men's book/books

the builders the builders' material/materials

Irregular nouns often form their plurals by a vowel change:

foot feet

man men

mouse mice

but they form the possessive in exactly the same way as regular nouns:

the dog the dog's tail

the mouse the mouse's nose

There is no difference in sound between a regular noun's plural form and its possessive:

the doctor

the doctor's patients

the doctors

Phonetics

Communication



Phonetics is the study of speech sounds in terms of their description, classification, and

transcription. The study of phonetics comprises three subjects:

1 – Articulatory phonetics studies the classification and production of speech sounds.

2 – Acoustic phonetics which studies the physical properties of the sound.

3 – Auditory phonetics studies the speech sounds in terms of how they are received and

identified by the listener.

The phonetic symbolsPure vowels

Diphthongs

/ei/ Day /dei//ai/ My /mai//ᴐi/ Boy /bᴐi//au/ Now /nau//eu/ No /neu//i ә/ Here /hi ә// ɛ ә/ Hair /h ɛ ә//u ә/ Poor /pu ә/

Consonants/p/ Pay

/b/ Boy/t/ Toy62


/u:/ Food /fu:d/ Back vowels/u/ Put /put/

/ᴐ:/ Lord /lᴐ:d//a:/ Car /Ka://ᴐ/ Ox /ᴐks//i:/ seat /s i: t/ Front

vowels/i/ sit /s i t//ɛ/ set /s ɛ t//æ/ sat /s æ t//ә:/ bird /bә:d/ central

vowels/ә/ Ago / әgәu//ᴧ/ but /bᴧt/


/d/. Day/k/ Can/g/ Go

M Moon Nasals N NoonȠ Sing

/l/ Love lateral

/f/ Feel fricatives/v/ Veal/ θ/ Think/ð/ This/s/ So/z/ Zoo/Ʒ / MeasureȘ ShoeR RightH How

tS Child Affricates

d Ʒ JudgeJ Yes Semi vowelsW We

Voiceless sounds: They don’t cause vibration of the vocal cords./p – t – k – s/Voiced sounds: They cause vibration in the vocal cords./b – d – g – z/

1 - Rules of pronunciation: adding /s//p – t – k – θ – f/ /s//b – d – v – l – r – m – n - Ƞ / / z//s – z - Ʒ – Ș - t Ș - d Ʒ/ /iz/

Adding letter d

Add /t/ after verbs that end in /p – k – f – s – Ș - t Ș/missed – kicked – reached – pushed



Add / d/ after verbs that end in / b – g – ð – v – z – Ʒ - d Ʒ – m – n - Ƞ - r –j – w/ and all the vowels.

Called – played – arrived – died – raised

Add /id/ after verbs that end with / t – d /Wanted – added – founded – needed – tended





Shift of stress changes word functions



Syntax67



The study has once concentrated on isolated words in the language but now we shall

turn to words in combination. British linguists often use the term 'grammar' for the same

level of language that is referred to as 'syntax' by many Americans.

The phrase

We can define a phrase as a group of words which does not contain a finite verb. Consider

this definition by examining a few sentences. In: The little boy sat in the corner. We can

replace "in the corner' by ' 'There'. It is thus clear that certain groups of words have

internal coherence in that they function as a unit. We have also said that a phrase does not

contain a finite verb, so now we shall look at what a finite verb is.

A finite verb is one that can take as its subject a pronoun such as 'I, it', they'. Thus we can

have: I see/ he sees /they saw .But not; *I seeing- *He to see. And we can say that the

present participle )seeing(, the infinitive )to see( and the past participle )seen( are non-

finite verb forms. Only non-finite verb forms can occur in phrases:

Bending low, he wa1ked awkwardly into the small room.

Seen from this angle, The mountains look blue.

There are five commonly occurring types of phrase in English:

noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional

phrases.

A noun phrase is a group of words with a noun as its headword. There can be up to

three noun phrases in a simple sentence, as the underlined units in the following

simple sentences show:

The young man threw the old dog a bone.

That rich man will build his eldest daughter a fine house.

An adjective phrase is a group of words which modifies a noun. Like these words can

be either attributive )that is, preceding but occasionally following a noun(:

The child, laughingly, ran out of the house.



That utterly fascinating novel has been banned.

Or Predicative: that is following a verb.

The letter was unbelievably rude.

He seemed extremely pleasant.

A verb phrase is a group of words with a verb as head word.

He has been singing.

Or non-finite:

To have sung

A simple sentence can have only one finite verb phrase:

He may be following us.

But a complex sentence may have several finite verb phrases:

When he was invited to give a lecture, he was told that all reasonable expenses

would be refunded.

An adverb phrase is a group of words which functions like an adverb ; it often plays

the role of telling us when ,where ,why or how an event occurred:

We are expecting him to come next year.

He almost always arrives on time.

He ran very quickly.

A preposition phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition:

He arrived by plane.

Do you know that man with the scarf?

We are on very good terms.

A number of modern linguistics use the term’ phrase’ in a slightly different way to that

described above .They compare such sentences as:



The young man has arrived.

And: He arrived.

Pointing out that ‘he’ functions in exactly the same way as ‘the young man’ and ‘arrived’

in exactly the same way as ‘he arrived.

Concentrating on the similarity of function, they define a noun phrase, for example as a

word or group of words which can function as:

Subject, object or complement in a sentence:

The young man came in /He came in.

The young man defended his mother. /He defended her .

The answer was ‘400 hours’/the answer was this.

Similarly, a verb phrase is a word or group of words which can function as a predicate in a sentence:

He arrived at two. He will arrive at two.

Both uses have value. We must be aware of the different values attached to the same word

but must also be consistent in his own use.

The clause

A clause is a group of words which contains a finite verb but which cannot occur in

isolation, that is, a clause constitutes only part of a sentence. In each complex sentence, we

have at least two clauses: a main clause )that is, a clause that is most like a simple

sentence( and at least one subordinate or dependent clause. In the following examples, the

main clauses are underlined:

He believed that the earth was round.

He arrived as the clock was striking.

The following types of subordinate clause are found:

1. An adjectives clause is often called a "relative clause" because it usually relates back to

a noun whose meaning it modifies:

The dog which won the competition is an Alsatian.

The man who taught my brother French is now the headmaster.



The girl whom we met on holiday is coming to see us next week.

When an adjective/relative clause beings with "that/which / whom" and is followed by a

subject, the subordinator can be omitted:

The book, (that) John bought, is missing.

The coat, (which) she wore, is red.

The man, (whom) we met, was my uncle.

There is virtually no difference in meaning between:

The book which I bought …………………

and:

The book that I bought ……………………

Or:

The book I bought ………………………….

Although the third is least formal and so the most likely to occur in Spontaneous speech.

Occasionally an adjective clause can begin with: “when"

I remember the day when we won the cup.

Or )where(

The town where they met was called Scarborough

It is usually easy to decide whether a )when – where( clause is adjectival or adverbial.

if )when( can be replaced by )on which( and the )where( by )in which- at which ( we are

dealing with adjective clause.

2– An adverbial clause functions like an adverb in giving information about when,

where, why, how or if an action occurred.

When he arrived, we were all sleeping.

Put it where we can all see it.

They won the match because they were the best players.

He put it away as quietly as he could.

Like adverbs, they are often mobile:



When he arrived , we were all sleeping.

We were all sleeping when he arrived.

A number of modern linguists use the term ' clause' somewhat differently to the above

classification. They call units containing a finite verb ' finite clauses ' and units containing

non-finite verb forms such as ' to see', 'seeing' and 'seen', ' non- finite clauses '.

A few examples will illustrate their usage. In the following sentences:

He went to Paris because he wanted a rest.

He went to Paris to have a rest.

Both underlined units tell us why he went to Paris but only the first one contains a finite

verb. Similarly with:

When he heard the results , he went home.

On hearing the results, he went home.

and:

If it is looked at from this angle , the colours seem to change.

Looked at from this angle, the colours seem to change.

The underlined units function in similar way, being distinguished mainly by the fact that

the first examples contain finite verbs and the second examples non-finite verbs. Linguists

who concentrate on the formal distinction, that is, the occurrence or non- occurrence of a

finite verb in a unit, classify such units as clauses and phrases respectively.

Those who concentrate on the functional similarities classify both these units as clauses,

distinguishing between them in terms of whether the verb used is finite or non-finite.

Thus, all linguists will agree that the underlined units in the following sentences function

as subjects:

His behavior is understandable.

To behave in this way is understandable.

Whatever he does is understandable.

but they will classify these subjects according to their preferred model.



What is important is to be consistent in one's use terminology

References:

A Practical Course of English Pronunciation, a perceptual approach. Alfred Charles Gimson, Edward Arnold, 1975

An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, A. C. Gimson. E. Arnold, 1962 - Foreign Language Study.

A Course In phonetic, by Peter Ladefoged/ Keith Johnson. Practical English Usage, Michael Swan. Second Edition. International Student's

Edition. Oxford University Press ... Longman Grammar OF Spoken& Written English, by Prof. Douglas Bibber,

Edward Finnegan, Stig Johansson, Dr. Susan Conrad, Geoffrey Leech. A Grammar of Contemporary English, Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum,

Geoffrey Leech , Jan Savartvik Longman. An Introduction to Linguistics, by Loreto Todd /University of Leeds.

Compiled by:ELT Supervisor: Mr. Mohammad Taha


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