Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labour

Linking the Past with the FutureConference on Slavery, Indentured Labour, Migration, Diaspora

and Identity Formation.June 18th – 23th, 2018 , Paramaribo, Suriname

Org. IGSR& Faculty of Humanities and IMWO, in collaboration with Nat. Arch. Sur.

Identity formation and Integration of African - andAsian diaspora in the multi-ethnic society of Suriname.

Hein Raghoebar.

Abstract.

This report is written in connection with the International Conference "Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labor Linking the Past with the Future" at the University of Suriname. The paper focuses on the integration and identity formation of African-and Asian diaspora in the multi-ethnic society of Suriname. The African diaspora is identified as Maroon(1) and Creole ethnic population of Suriname and Asian, identified as Chinese, Indians and Javanese ethnicity (2). Africans and Asians in diaspora of Suriname has historical moments and events that are important to identity and commemorate collective memory days. In 2018 descendants of African and Asian diaspora commemorate the following collective memory days: The 165th anniversary of Chinese immigration The 155th anniversary of abolition of slavery. The 145th anniversary of immigration of East Indians The 128th anniversary of immigration of Indonesians and The 50th Anniversary of the Anton de Kom University of Suriname.

Starting point is a statistics overview of historical origin of African slavery and Asian indentured labors in Suriname, in relations with statistic of descendants in 2012 .The historical literature of Suriname contains general statements of migration and diaspora of all ethnic group, excluded the Indigenous (Amerindian) tribal population. Migration and diaspora are general statements including,” migration is one of the historical forces that have shaped the African – and Asian diaspora population of Suriname. The two concepts are characteristic of both the historical background of the diaspora community and the contemporary reality in which the community now lives in a process of integration and identity formation. Integration and identity formation is a topic that today with mixed feelings raised, loaded with social construct and subject to multi-disciplinairy research.

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When we look at the population of Suriname, we see a mosaic of ethnic groups, culture –and religion diversity with symbols in culture landscape. The Surinamese population is a created society of colonization, slavery, indentured labor and migration .With the exception of the native Amerindians, descendants of indigenous tribes ( 3% of the population) , the Surinamese population is accomplished of diaspora society of white ethnic group (minority Boeroe’s from Europe ), descendants of African slavery (Maroon) make up 10% of the population, Creole's are the mix of African slave descendants and Europeans , make up 31% of the population, the indentured labors from Indonesia (Javanese) make up 15% of the population , Indians from India make up 37% of the population and the Chinese ( 2%).

1 .The name Maroon is derived from cimarrón, a Caribbean-Spanish term for cattle or cattle escaped.2. Ethnicity is a social-cultural identity, that a certain group of people or a number of population groups. The members of an ethnic group identify themselves with common characteristics, such as origin, family kinship, culture (religion and language) or history and its derived values. Concept of ethnicity used in place of race. Ethnicity refers to a group that is connected by a common cultural, linguistic and historical background (J.Mencke 2016, p. 76).

There are also minority groups, Haitians, Brazilian, Guynese and Europeans, who only form 1% of the Surinamese society.According to UNESCO, the Suriname population form an example of a state, with so many ethnical groups that live in harmony with each other. The Surinamese population is characterized by a wide variety of ideologies, multi-ethnic composition of the population, multi-culture, multi-religion and multi-linguistic. An important aspect of the cultural identity of ethnic groups is the identification with the Surinamese territory though national symbols, the flag, map and anthem of the country and visible cultural heritage of all ethnic groups in cultivation such as monuments, church and places.

Cultural values and standards of African and Asian diaspora of Suriname are passed on by the ancestors mental programming .There are 17 ethnical groups which communicate in their mother tongue: 22 dialect spoken by the ethnic groups. The official language is Dutch; use by the government, adopted for the conduct in education, business, audio-visual media, administration, newspaper and legislation system. Suriname is an associate member of the Dutch language Union (Nederlandse Taal Unie) since 2004. Most people also speak lingua franca Sranan Tongo (Taki-Taki), a local dialect that includes elements of several other languages.

1. African and Asian diaspora face a dual challenge of integration and identity formation in Surinam territory.

The African- and Asian descendants remain vulnerable in a social order to reflected their ethnic and culture identity in order to integrate in the multi-ethnic society of Suriname. They face the dual challenge of integration and identity formation though their language, religion,

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heritage , culture festivals , collective memory , national religion celebrating days, symbols , place names in culture landscape and audio - visual media communication system . In this paper, attention is paid to the historical origins of the African and Asian diaspora – the processes of integration and identity formation. The African diaspora is socially constructed“As life of the descendants of slave-made Africans within the Surinamese territory “.Social construction of Asian diaspora is the live of Chinese, Indians en Javanese descendants– within the Surinamese territory. The paper will be closed with a conclusion.

2. Slavery – and indentured labors plantation colony system.

Slavery and indentured labors was a central aspect of the plantation colony of Suriname. The plantation economy in colonial times was the driving force of migration and origin of African) – and Asian diaspora society of Suriname. This system was part of a "Driehoekashandel" or Trans-Atlantic slave trade . The slaves and indentured labor were employed on the plantations for the production of sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, tobacco and cotton. Along the Commewijne River have the settlers about 700 plantations equipped for the production of tropical crops.

Map 1: Historical map of Suriname (700) plantation system.(wwwgoogle ).

The tropical products were deposited on the European market. Slave made African and indentured labors were employed in the plantation economic system. Suriname developedInto a flourishing plantation colony after Dutch planters, driven out of Brazil from the mid-17th century, settled in the area of Suriname plantation system. Sugar was the main export product, but also production of coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, and wood gained importance during the 18th century. Until the mid-19th century, slaves, mostly from the west coast of Africa, constituted the majority of the population. Many Surinamese descendants of slaves often wonder where their ancestors came from. The short answer is mostly from Ghana, and Benin , but also from many other parts of West Africa , such as Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, Ivory Coast etc.To delve deeper into this subject we have to briefly examine the history starting from the 17th century of the slave trade by both the English and the Dutch. The first slaves which came to Suriname came to an English colony. The Dutch got Suriname from the English by the treaty

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of Breda in 1667. At that time there were already 3000 slaves in Suriname, which was still very sparsely populated by oppression and unpaid work on the plantations. Many of the slaves took advantage of this and escaped to the jungle and since that period they are identified as Maroon. In 1853 Chinese from Java and Madeira (people from the Madeira Islands) indentured labors were brought to Suriname to work on the plantations. Many of these workers eventually became small-scale merchants. On July 1, 1863, slavery was abolished in Suriname. The former slaves, however, were placed under government supervision for a period of 10 years in order to perform labor under contract.

Indentured laborers from India (arrived from 1873 till 1916) were recruited to replace the former slaves, and also came to Suriname Javanese from Java, an island of Indonesia (which, like Suriname, was under Dutch rule at the time). Table 1: a statistic overview of imported African slave and Asian indentured labors in relation with the statistics of descendants in 2012 (General Bureau Statistics of Suriname).Supply of slaves and indentured labors

Period of arriving

number entered

Returned Identity descendants ethnic group

General Buro Statistics descendants 2012

1.Westcoast African slaves

1674 -1845

500.000 none Maroon / Creool

119.569 / 84.993

2.Hong-kong /Java Chinese

1853 -1874

2780 No data Chinese 3.758

3.East Indian (Calcutta).

1873 -1916

34000 11.000 Indians 148.444

4.Java./Indonesian Javanese

1890 -1939

32.956 8.000 Javanese 73.975

Source: Wikepedia , history slavery and indentured labours of Suriname, ABS census , 2012.

3. Formation of African and Asian diaspora society in Suriname.

There are a number of conditions attached to whether or not a diaspora society is establish in a strange country, strange environment and culture. First, it is important that a community of migrants is sufficiently large and that there is a will to develop by a diaspora community regeneration and reunification migration. Constant supply of slave made Africans and Chinese, Hindustani and Javanese Asian indentured labors (table 1) were more than enough for integration and identity formation within the Surinamese society.Secondly, after migrants have once established in a foreign country, there are three possibilities:1. The migrants do not return to their country of origin.2. The migrant assimilate in the foreign country as minority group by a process of inter-ethnic relations and hybridization of the ethnic group .

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3.Migrants integrated in a foreign country by adapting of social ,education and economic system, while retaining the ethnic and cultural identity .

History of the slave trade and slavery shows, that it was not possible for slave from Africa and the first generation of Chinese to return to the country of origin. For Indian and Javanese indentured labors was it possible after the contract to return to the country of origin. A third of both groups returned to Indonesia and India. From 1853-1873 were so about 2780 Chinese indentured labors transported to Suriname. In 1905 there were 1160 Chinese present only in Suriname. Until the Second World War would be the ethnic Chinese community in Suriname grow slowly. Late 20th century and into the 21st century a new generation Chinese migrants settled to Suriname.

3.1. Assimilation and hybridization within Surinamese society.

Dutch colonial policy after 1863 was based on the idea of assimilation. However, there was never such a thing as an active civilization mission in Suriname, such as the British and French in their colonies. The assimilation policy lasted until 1933 when Dutch colonial policy was turned upside down by governor Johannes Coenraad Kielsta (1878-1951). Instead of the assimilation policy of the preceding seventy years, Kielstra imposed a policy which stimulated segregation of the different ethnic groups in order to recover Suriname’s plantation based economy. The Hindustani community was able to preserve its cultural heritage. Regarding the settlement of the Hindustani community in Suriname it is impossible to speak of assimilation only. Assimilation was the goal of the administration but within the Hindustani community many processes of settlement occurred at the same time. The best overarching and neutral term to deploy here is therefore adaptation to Surinamese society and culture as opposed to the preservation of their cultural and religious tradtions (Erik Roosken , The Hindustani Community of Suriname ( 2001 , p.12. ) .

Historical statistics (ABS 1950 - 2012) indicate, a degree of assimilation that has occurred and still takes place under ethnic groups of Suriname by inter-ethnic relationship and hybridization of the society. This process was already established by the census of 1950. (J.Mencke, Mozaïk van het Surinaams volk, 2016) . Social assimilation is a process where a minority group loses it ethnic and culture identity though a dominant ethnic group . Historical Census statistics (ABS census , 1950 ) shows that assimilation of ethnic groups in Suriname is very low, but there is a rising trend of assimilation according the census of 2012. Assimilation of Africans and Asians diaspora in Suriname, is not so high that these ethnic groups will cease to exist. Historical , a process of realization and hybridization entrance though inter – ethnic relations of African and Asian descendants.

3.2. Creolization and hybrid culture identification.

Creolization is a process in which African cultures emerge in the New World, the Caribbean and also in Suriname. As a result of Dutch colonization in Suriname there was a mixture between people of indigenous, African, and European descent, which came to be understood

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as realization. According to this hybridization leads to creolized cultures. Creolized cultures are the result of the maturation of hybrid or mix cultures to full-fledged cultures (Van Pecked, 2000:p. 105) extended to represent Afro – diaspora individuals. The mixing of people brought a cultural mixing which ultimately led to the formation of new identities. It is important to emphasize that realization also is the mixing of the "old" and "traditional," with the "new" and "modern." Furthermore, creolization occurs when participants actively select cultural elements that may become part of or inherited culture, example the language (Saran Tango) in Suriname. Statistics from the General Bureau of Statistics do indicate an increasing trend of hybridization of Surinamese society.

4. Identity of ethnic groups in Surinam census ( 1950 – 2012 ).

In the census of 1950, the term country nature (race) for parents and grandparents used for the identity of Maroons, Chinese, Europeans, Hindus, Indians, Creoles, Indonesians, Colored and black people. General Bureau Statistics (ABS used in the census of 2004 and 2012 the ethnic identities: Native (tribe), Maroon/Forestland Creole (logs), Creole, Afro-Suriname, Hindus, Javanese, Chinese, Caucasian/white, Mixed, other, don't know, no Answer used. The “mixed ethnic identity “and “do not know “is also an indication of hybridization of Suriname society.

Table 2: historical growth and assimilation of the Surinamese population.Census year

Population size

Identity hybrid population

Absolute %

1950 177.788 Mixed black colored 667 11964 324.211 other / unknown 2986 12004 492.829 mixed / other 15.717 19,92012 541.638 Mixed 72.340 13Source. J.Mencke, Mozaïk van het Surinaams volk, 2016.

Table two indicate hybridization of Surinamese society. Census of 1950 indicate a rising trend. There is no research to what extent the hybridization between the Asian and African ethnic groups took place. It can be assumed that the assimilation has been the strong among Chinese migrants, with no or few women came to Suriname as a migrant in the history. This is also to explain to the Chinese name giving to non-Chinese ethnic groups.

4.1. Integration and identity formation of African-and Asian diaspora in Suriname.

For the Africans, and Asians in diaspora of Suriname was a challenge to submit in a process of integration and identity formation in a foreign country, social environment and culture, for preservation of own ethnic – and cultural identity. The Surinamese population is a created society of Africans and Asians in diaspora. Under the Maroon started around 1730 at least five places from the groups to develop strains with own language and culture in the Interior of Suriname. Between the rivers Suriname and Saramacca, are Maroon ethnic group Samakanners; East of the Commewijne river to regard that as the groups lived Aucan Maroon

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forerunners of the Ndyuka; in the swamp area east of the Cottica attended the Aluku or Boni-Maroons and between the Saramacca and the Coesewijne river are the settlement of Kwinti Maroon and the Brokopondo area the Matuariërs Maroon. Creole ethnic group is created though inter-ethnic relations of Maroon with whites and Chinese ethnic group. The creole ethnic group identified them self as “Afro Surinamese “.

After traumatic expulsion of slave made Africans of homeland and recruitment of Asian indentured labors for plantation system in Suriname, a bond emerged under these migrants and descendants for preservation of their ethnic and cultural identity. Bond elements are mental programming of language, religion and collective memory days, identity formation, social cohesion, spatial segregation, design of network organizations and integration. See schedule bond elements of an ethnic group below.

Schedule 1: Bond elements of an ethnic group.

5. Enculturation process of African Asian diaspora in Suriname.Enculturation process of African and Asian diaspora contribute for maintaining intangible culture elements within the own group. Each individual is a member of a family, school or organization. Culture is not genetic, but taught from birth to posterity in functioning within family and own ethnic group. Intangible culture element reflected in behavior of humans. Mental programming of African and Asian heritage makes an important contribution to the cultural identity. The cultural identity is linked to history and origin of the group, "collective memory", but it reflected also language, religion, values and ethics.Language and religion are the central aspect of cultural identity of an individual or group:Why?1. An individual (group) is identified on the basis of the language.2. Language is a mean of communication: thoughts, signals and vocal articulation.

Language provide cultural values, norms, art, religion, stories, traditions, rites etc.3. Universal forms of cultural identity is reflected by: religion, language, gender role,

costumes, music, dance and art.

6. Religion of Africans and Asians in Diaspora of Suriname.

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Religion is a central aspect of cultural identity among African and Asian descendants in Suriname. The Maroons have traditionally believe in the ' Gran-Gadu ' animism, the great God. This Supreme God is the creator of everything. A large part of the Maroon is converted to Christianity. Roman Catholic religion is indoctrinate by Dutch colonization of Suriname.Under the white`s , Christianity was historically the dominant religion. The Creoles have after indoctrination adapted to Christianity. A part of African and Maroon descendants identify then self with “winti religion” ( ABS census , 2012 ), Among the descendants of Asean (Indians) is Hinduïsm and Islam the dominant religion. The first Hindustani generation have adapted to Surinamese territory , while retaining their religiuese traditions. The second generation Hindustani has pursued the creation of network organizations and establishment of prayer houses (Mandir and mosque).See next table : historical origin of first places of worship in Suriname. ( Christianity , Hindoeïsm and Islam) . Table 3. Historical origin of the first prayer house in Suriname.Name religious organization . Religion Year of

foundedNumber of prayer house in 2018

1. Roman Catholic Christianity Christianity 1668 222. Moravian Church in Suriname Hernhutters/Moravian

brod. 1735 23

3.Reformed Church Reformed Christianity 1668 54. Lutheranism Protestant Christianity 1741 45.Arische Vereniging Arya Dewaker

Reform Hindoeïsm 1929 15

6.Sanatan Dharm Maha Sabha Orthodox Hinduïsm. 1930 1207.Surinaamse Islamitische Vereniging

Reform Islam 1929 11

8.Khilafat Anjuman Ortdox Hanafi Islam 1931 19.Surinaamse Muslim Assiociatie

Orthodox Hanafi Islam 1950 18

10.Javanese Muslim : S.I.S . Shafa-ietisch Islam 1969 51 (56)Source: database religion in Suriname, Ministry of Interior, 2013 .

Javanese ethnic group , generally believe in Islam and Javanese religion.Chinese were of Surinamese origin practitioners of Chinese folk religion (www. Wikipedia). By mission work of Dutch, many Surinamese Chinese people converted to Christianity. Until the sixties of the 20th century, the majority of Chinese Christians member of the Roman Catholic Church of Surinam. Today is a revival of Chinese Buddhism among many Chinese Surinamese people on going. After 2000 a Buddhist temple was opened in Suriname by Foundation Buddhism Suriname. Suriname Buddhism Buddhist Association and Common Practice Commission each have a private temple. A minority of the Surinamese Chinese practices the syncretic ikwanisme (3). .

7. Asian and African cultural elements.

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The concept of culture is very abstract, is socially constructed, multi-interpretable and loaded with perceptions. UNESCO defines culture according to the "Declaration of Culture" (Wikipedia 2005): the spiritual, intellectual and emotional features of an ethnic group which is reflected in the lifestyle group, norms, values, art, literature and traditions (rites). According UNESCO definition of culture are elements of African and Asian diaspora culture visible in the Surinamese society. This culture elements supply to the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi religious and multi-linguistic population of Suriname.

7.1. Distinction of culture into Tangible and intangible culture heritage.Meaning of the term tangible culture (Heritage) is, culture elements from the past, such as monuments, statutes, archaeological finds, art collections, archives and historic buildings. Tangible elements is also called heritage. Heritage is a legacy of the past which we now live. Intangible culture (Heritage) means language, religion, music, dance, stories, and events, recipes for nutrition, traditions, rites and processions3.Syncretism is a term in religious studies that refers to the convergence of religions as an attempt to combine different or opposing beliefs and religions.Schedule two: an overview of culture elements.

Schedule 2: culture elements.(www google insignaconsultoria.com.br).

7.2 Heritage of African and Asian descendants in Surinamese society.

Heritage is socially constructed as historical tangible and intangible elements of a culture group: it's a legacy of the past, which we now live and what is transferred to the following generation. Culture and heritage are an important aspect of cultural identity. The legacy of the African culture is Akan culture (music, dance, art, rites) of West Africa, the Maroon dialects, commemoration of historical events from Surinamese history and the "Collective Memory day", history of slave made and traumatic expulsion from Africa. Heritage of Asian diaspora in Suriname is culture of India, China and Indonesia : mother language (Hindi, Oerdoe, hakka Chinese, Bhasa Indonesia) , traditions, rites, religious commemoration holidays, music, dance, art, script (Hindi, Chinese, Arabic, Sanskrit) and collective memory days : the history of indenture labor for ancestors. The cultural heritage of the African and Asian society is so complicated that it is not always possible to identify all related culture elements.

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7.3 Culture formation among African and Asian diaspora in Suriname .

Culture formation among African and Asian diaspora in Suriname takes place by means of mental programming, culture heritage aware (Collective memory , historical monuments, symbols) and thinking in spatial differentiation (place names) within the Surinamese territory. This is designed in a way how we live, the places we created and how we act in order to interpret the world around us. The “Akan culture” of Africans in diaspora of Suriname is mental programming by ancestors. The elements are: language, animism, dance, music, art, traditions, costumes, rites and the Symbolic observed by the Maroon ethnic group.

Creole culture is a fusion of different cultures: of slave owners (especially English, Dutch and Jews), but also from several African tribes to which ancestors of Creoles belonged and that of Indians, who in start time also were used as "red slaves" on plantations.

Culture of Indian (Sarnami Hindustani), Chinese and Javanese are intangible Asian culture element, who are mental programmed by parents. Intangible culture elements are language, religion, music, dance, art, traditions, ethics and rites from birth to death.

7.4. Heritage and collective memory days.

Heritage and "collective memory" consciousness strengthens identity of all ethnic groups within Surinamese territory. Memories on and off the past. Diaspora "Collective memory" is very important for society, because identity formation depends on the common background of each individual who provides a sense of belonging. Comprehensive knowledge about the origin of the community are depth reflected under African and Asian diaspora society of Suriname .Until the details are there, stories told about how ancestors (fathers and mothers) have migrated to the foreign country, why they left out the country of origin, where family members have been in the diaspora are located and how parents have settled and integrated in a strange society.

Table 4. Collective memory days of African and Asian diaspora in Suriname.Ethnic group Collective

memory day

commemorate collective memory days

1. Creole / Maroon and all ethnic group

July 1

October 10

Emancipation Day on July 1 every year. This holiday is called Keti Koti, that can be translated as “the chains are cut”, meaning the end of the era of slavery in Suriname. Wreaths and flowers are often laid at the ‘Kwaku’ statue..Maroon Day: refers to the events of 1760, when the Ndyuka signed a treaty with the Dutch. Wreaths and flowers are often laid at the ‘Maroon’ statue. In city of

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Paramaribo.2. Indians June 5 First Indian Arrival Day as indentured labor in

Suriname. Wreaths and flowers are often laid at the ‘Baba and Mai’ statue, which represents the first Indian to set foot on Surinamese soil.

3. Javanese August 9 First Javanese Arrival Day as indentured labor in Suriname.Wreaths and flowers are often laid at the ‘sana Budaya’ statue and Mariënburg.

4. Chinese October 20 First Chinese Arrival Day as indentured labor in Suriname.

Source :www.holidays and observances in Suriname in 2018 - TimeAndDate.com

7.5. Monuments of African – and Asean diaspora as collective memory.

Culture and heritage awareness reinforces identity of all ethnic groups within Surinamese territory by colonial history, slavery from Africa and indentured labor migration from Asia. Heritage is a legacy of the past in which we now live and is transmitted to the next generation. Examples of heritage are: monuments, statutes, pictures, place names, archaeological Fund, petroglyphs and temples. Features of this culture heritage is visible in cultural landscape of Suriname : such as places of worship , Church, Mosk, Mandir, Djandie, statutes of Indian, Chinese and Javanese migration arriving , identification with geographical place names from India ( Bombay, Calcutta ) and Indonesia ( Kampong Baroe , Tamanredjo) and street names.In any country with a history of special event or action, commemoration of monument, statutes or art are constructed as symbol of collective memory. This monuments and statutes has a historic – and cultural value for posterity and for the promotion of culture tourism.All monuments and statutes of Suriname has a historical significance for indigenous, colonization of Suriname by Europeans, slavery and immigration of indentured labors (Chinese, Hindustani and Javanese).Monument and statute of Suriname are classified according historical events in:- Relation to slavery and emancipation.- Related to first arrival day of indentured labors.- Related to political development in our country. - Related to a special event. Table 5 is an overview of African and Asian collective memory and monuments or statutes.

Table 5: Monument and statutes of African- and Asian diaspora as symbol of collective memory day. See attacments page 19 .

Asian –and African ethnic group

Monuments /Statutes.

Collective memory day

1. Creole / Maroon Statute of Kwakoe.

Symbolizes the abolishing of slavery in Suriname on July 1, 1863.

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2. Maroon Freedom monument October 10.

Maroon day: 10 October 1760; national religious and Memorial days. . ; symbolizes treaty events of 1760, with the Dutch.

3. Indians /Hindustani Statute of Bap and Mai

Symbolizes arriving day of first Indian indentured labors in Suriname. : 1873 June 5.

4. Javanese 1. Statuate Sana Budaya.2.Statuate Javanese immigration Marienburg

Symbolizes arriving day of first Javanese indentured labors (9 Augustus 1890).

5. Chinese 1. Statuate Nieuw Amsterdam.2.Statuate Chinese immigration vriendschapspark Lachmon street

Symbolizes arriving day of first Chinese indentured labors (1853).

Source : Wikimedia Commons : Monuments and memorials in Suriname.

7.6. Forming culture- and ethnic identity in a person.Identity itself is a very complex matter. Identity is that which is peculiar to a person, perfectly in line with the personal equality. The image that someone has or itself, is self-esteem or self-concept. In the world today, identity become important issue of war and terrorism. Identity is more than a way to talk about the individual and the community. The main role of identity is an interaction between our subjective experience of the world and the cultural and historical background in which we as subject. By those different backgrounds we also experienced different identities within the same person.

As individuals, we are living in different institutions or “fields “(P. Bourdieu 1993: 94). Which fields can family, colleagues or political groups . The identity of many who are in diaspora life , is to a large extent determined by their skin color. Identities formation in a person is progressing along two fields. First individuals live in different "fields” of families or collective groups, where the culture identity is mentally programmed and linked to the history and its origin. The culture identity in the present is a product of the past. Secondly, the ethnic identity is in the genes and refers to an indelible (genetic) characteristic that in one way or another is written on the bodies (e.g. skin color) of its carriers. According to Pierre Bourdieu cultural and ethnic identity of African diaspora (Creole and Maroon) and Asians in Diaspora (Chinese, Indians and Indonesia of Suriname) are preserved and representative in the multi-culture society of Surinam.

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Professor Nira Yuval-Davis (the Director of the Research Centre for migration, refugees and possessions (CMRB, 2009 ) at the University of East London, describes in its publication (The Situated politics of Belonging) how identity in a multicultural society is working: ‘identity as transition, always producing itself through the combined processes of being and becoming, belonging and longing to belong’(Yuval-Davis 2006: 202. According to this discourse is among Africans and Asians in diaspora of Suriname a historical transition from "Belonging identity", with integration of the seed in the multi-cultural society. Among recent migrants (Guyanese, Brazilians and Haitians) transitive process of becoming there is still going on to identified them self in the multi- ethnic society of Suriname. Hakka Chinese identity is renegotiated within Surinamese ethnic discourse; a category of "New Chinese" is added to the existing categories or assimilated.

According to the cultural theorist and sociologist, Stuart Halls (Cultural Identity and Diaspora, 132-149, 1994) – cultural and ethnic identity is not the same. These are, inextricably linked. A cultural identity according to Hall from a private, personal identity and a more general, joint group identity. This collective identity consists of one shared culture and reflects common history and culture. As long as no communities would be found would this part of our cultural identity then lost over time causing the desire of preserving ethnicity and culture will not be filled in.

Today all the African and Asian descendants contribute to Surinamese cultural diversity, multilingualilty, religion and multi ethnicity of the population. The country has though ruling colonial and natural phenomena a significant culture and nature heritage resources to build that are indispensable for life and an inspiration for local identity of all ethnic groups. To understand the complexity of identity, an overview of different types of identity in an individual is available in table 5.. The following table shows different types of identities in an individual.

Table 6: Different types of identity in an individual.Type of identic Identity attribute

1 Personal identity

Identity of a person`s nature. It can be subjective (a person behavior) or objective, registration according state population administration : driver license, I.D. card or a passport.

2 Genetic or ethnic identity

Is determined at birth : the identity is coded in the DNA (chromosome) according to skin color, hair form and colors of the eyes .

3 Social identity the identity as member of an ethnic – or culture group , to which a person can belong.

4 Cultural identity

Is mental programming from birth . Main culture elements are language and religion , which a person used to identifies itself in a society

5 National identity

Resident of a State.

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6 Transnationalidentity

Transnational identity is the life of a diaspora individual in two countries, the host country and in network relationship with the country of origin.The term is also used in free trade zones, for free movement of individuals with different identity, ethnicity and nationality.

7 Hybrid identity

Hybrid identity has connection with the ethnicity and nationality of an individual accourding his / her country of origin and host country .

8 Global identity Identity as citizen (of a region or continent) on a large geographical space. Example : Afro Caribbean, Latino`s , West-Indian ,East - Indian.

9 Online identity.

‘Online identity ' is the identity users of internet, login culture or social media account.

Source : www . different types of identity | sociologytwynham.com

7.7. Distinction between - culture and ethnic identity.

Cultural Identity is a person's background and also how you can refer to a person. A person's culture is usually what they are from, what language they speak and their religion. Usually you eat food according to your culture. Your traditions are according to your religion. cultural identity is learned, while ethnic identity is determined at birth.

There are two principal ways of thinking about cultural identity. The first traditional model views identity in terms of one, shared culture, a sort of collective ‘one true self’, hiding inside the many other, more superficial or artificially imposed ‘selves’, which people with a shared history and ancestry hold in common . The second model of (cultural) identity acknowledges the “critical points of deep and significant difference which constitute ‘what we really are’; or rather—since history has intervened--’what we have become (Culture identity and diaspora 1993; 394). From this point of view, cultural identity is a matter of ‘becoming’ as well as of ‘being’. Ethnicity is a socially created system of rules about who can and cannot belongs to a particular group. (G. Knox and Marston/ Hidden 1993/2004 : p. 216 ). According above perception, the Surinamese society is a created society of African and Asian diaspora. With the exception of the indigenous Amerindians all other groups have been forced or voluntary diaspora`s that immigrated to Suriname. The territory of Suriname constitute a bond for all the disable who have undergone a process of integration or yet to be in this process of “being”. Brazilians and Haitians minority are relatively short (last 15 or 30 years) immigrated to Suriname. They have not yet adapted Surinamese culture and are in a process of becoming. Ethnic identity is hereditary, congenital and refers to characteristics of the body or skin color, hair form, color of the eyes. The cultural identity of African and Asian diaspora is mentally programmed within the family. It is linked to the history and origin of the group

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(Collective memory), but also social cohesion to conserve language, religion, values, and ethics of diaspora society.

8. Social cohesion of African and Asian diaspora in Suriname.

Social cohesion refers to the attraction (adhesive strength) of a specific group in a society to stay together. There are many answers to the question “Why is there urge of African and Asian diaspora society to stay together”? Social cohesion of this ethnic group are to summarize as mutual dependence or self-interest, preservation of cultural and ethnic identity , shared values of descendants, conversation in their own language, network of assistance , traditional medicine and own herbs or fashion and trade in spaces.A cohesive society works towards the well-being of all its members, minimizing disparities and avoiding marginalization. It entails three major dimensions: fostering cohesion by building networks of relationships, trust and identity between different groups (OECD Conference Centre,Paris 2011). Social cohesion avoid fighting, discrimination, exclusion and excessive inequalities; and enabling upward social mobility. This approach is identical for African and Asian diaspora of Suriname. Social cohesion of African and Asian diaspora is in a process of strong bond in spatial segregation of Suriname territory . .

9. Spatial segregation of African and Asian diaspora in Suriname.

Spatial segregation means separation or live inherent in a process, in which a particular culture group isolates itself from the rest of society and contracts with people of the same ethnicity sometimes. Social cohesion and segregation of the diaspora society makes an important contribution to ethnic enclave formation in places and in urban areas settlement in Suriname. Origin of spatial segregation in Suriname has a historically background : among Indigenous, African and Asian diaspora due to social cohesion (living together) in both in the countryside and in urban districts of Paramaribo. Through this process, places are created by Indigenous, Maroon and Hindustani`s in all districts. The creole ethnic group is mainly concentrated in settlements of districts of Coronie and Para but today they are also scattered in other districts, but mainly in urban area of Paramaribo.

Cultural landscape of towns and villages in Suriname has a cultural dimension. The ancestors of ethnic groups have use of culture as a means, to transform over time natural landscape (as medium) within the Surinamese territory, in culture landscape. This results in the origin of enthic places in Suriname culture landscape: historical inner city of Paramaribo, maroon tribal villages, Kampong of Indonesians, places of Hindustani and Chinese stores within the urban space and rural landscape of Surinamese territory. Schedule 3 is a model: process of transition nature landscape to culture landscape in places.

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Source : Derived from P.Knox ( 1994) , p.194.

10. Africans and Asians network organizations in Suriname.Africans and Asians in diaspora of Suriname have an important function in maintaining network relationships. Purpose of network relationship is preservation of ethnic and cultural identity within the group. Historical origin of African- and Asian culture network organization related to preserving culture elements: religion, language, art, and music, dance, and religion holidays, setting up places of worship and used traditional medicine.

Table 7: an overview of African and Asian network organizations in Suriname Ethnic group Network organization

1. Maroon 1. Maroon Woman Network (MVN).2. Organisatie voor Samenwerkende Marron Deskundigen ( SaMaDe).3. Heepi u seei, Nyudyuka, Teeifuka. St.Kayana en St.Saamaka.

2. Croele , AfroSurinamese

1. Na Federatie Fu Afrikan Sranang Mang (NAKS).2. Feti Fu Wini.3 Uma Hori Tranga.4. St.Kulturu Krahti.

3. Indians 1. Culturele Unie Suriname.2 Stichting Lala Rook3. Mata Gauri.4 Nationaal Stichting Hindostaanse Immigratie.5. Ramlila Foundation.6. Stichting Organisatie Hindoe Media Suriname (OHM).7.Stichting Saathi.

4. Chinese 1. Kong Ngie Tong Sang.2 Chung Fa Foei Kong.

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3 Kuomintang4. Surinam Buddhism Common Practice Commission.5. Confucius Institute Anton de Kom University of Suriname.

Source :www. Wikipedia , Categorie Cultuur in Suriname.

11. Integration of African and Asian descendants in Surinamese society.

Integration is a term for various interpretable definitions. It is a dual process that requires adjustment of both, the migrant and the society of the country of settlement. The territory of Suriname constitue a bound of all African and Asian descendants who have ondergone a process of integration. Minorities of Guyanese, Brazilians and Haitians are in a process of “Being”to integrate in Suriname. Descendants of African and Asians intregated through adapting of social - , education -, and economic system Surinamwe , but preserved its own culture – and ethnic identity. Marroon - , Creole- , Indians - , and Chinese ethnicity is characteristic by mutual bound of culture expression : language , religion, traditions , rites , norm , value, music, dance , art, etc. They identified them self in Surinamese terrotiry with ;1. Tangiable heritage in culture landscape : Marroon , Creole, Indians , Javanese and

Chinese prayer house , monuments , statuate and religion symbols.2. Audio- visual media : radio and television station of Maroon, Creole, Indians , Javanese

and Chinese. There are also a Chinese news paper.3. Network organization of Marroon, Creole , Indians, Javanese and Chinese. Recently

(2018) set up of Chinese Confucius Institute at the University of Suriname and a Chinese sports school.

4. Spritual organization of Soefi Movement and Brahamakumari`s of Indians.5. Schools according to own religious beliefs : Christians , Hindoe and Muslim schools. 6. School for education in Hindie and Arabic script.7. Own cemetery for Creoles, Maroon, Muslim and Chinese. Hindus have their own

cremation places .8. Places and street names . Places and street names in Suriname contribute to the identity of

Maroon, Creole, Indians , Javanese and Chinese .Hundred fiftheen places names are derived from Maroon tribal populations in ruralthe land , two Indian place names derived from India ( Bombay , Calcutta ) and place names from Indonesia ( Kampong Baroe, Tamanredjo) . Places offer opportunities to African and Asian descendants for prosperity and well-being and are over time subject to gentrification (4) .

4Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents: physical change of a city . ( innovation of city and urban area.) .

Chinese and Indians entrepreneurs have in recent decades made an important contribution in gentrification of the city of Paramaribo . They contribute to the transition of Paramaribo in a modern city , excluded “ Historical inner city Paramaribo “.The historic inner city is located along the left bank of the Suriname River and is defined by the Sommelsdijkse Kreek to the north and the Viottekreek to the south. The Historic Inner City of Paramaribo was rewarded

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because the city is a "gradual fusion of European architecture and construction techniques with indigenous South America materials and crafts" of 350 years old. slaves were used in the construction of the wooden buildings .The historic inner city of Paramaribo is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , since 2002 .

Integration of African and Asian diaspora in Suriname is differentiated in:

1. Interaction integration: descendants of Africans and Asians identify themselves as Surinamese people and participate in all activities on local, regional and national level.

They integrated in social, economic , politics and educational system of Suriname. Entrepreneurs of African and Asian descent make and imporant contribute in the production process of Suriname, in both the primary, secondary and the tertiary sector. 2. Structural integration : rights and status of African and Asian descendants is

representative within polices institutes of Suriname Government , they have access to employment , housing , education , health provision and political rights . All rights and obligations of Africans and Asians in Diaspora of Suriname , is protected in the Constitution of Suriname.They have high positions in all ministries . As resident of Suriname, they identified them self with national identity symbols of the country: the Surinamese flag , the coat of arms and the map of Suriname.

3. Cultural integration: takes place by acculturation process within the multi-cultural society of Suriname, aimed at adjustment of behavior and attitude for national unity, national identity and solidarity. African and Asian descendants participate in all national culture festivals. they participate in all national religiuese and public holidays of the multi-ethnic society of Suriname in the city Paramaribo and all district. They promote own cultural integration by organizing cultural festivals: Indo -fair (Javanese), Chinese New years fair, devali procession (Hindoes), agriculture fair (Indians) .

4. The descendants of Africans and Asians in diaspora of Suriname , is a multi-linguistics society , they converse in Dutch- , its native language and lingua franca Sranan tongo.

5. Political integration distinguished in: participation of African and Asian diaspora in election system of Suriname. They take part in active and passive right to vote in elections of Suriname. Though the representative democracy of Suriname , descendants of African and Asian diaspora are represented in the Parliament of Suriname. In the second half of the 19th century, African and Asean descendants established political parties along ethnic and religious dividing lines. Over time the identity and ideology of the ethnic and religious political parties is changes to national discourse.

12. Interculture communication, diversity of audio –visual media. Understanding Suriname multi- culture in a broad conceptual framework, determined our perception about cultural diversity of African and Asian diaspora. Perception is a process of

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intercultural communication or acculturation within Surinamese society, in which individual of difference ethnic group select inherit information from their environment, organize or reject this.

Intercultural communication in Suriname society is communication between people with different cultural backgrounds. They form a central part of geolinguastics system and spatial orientation: language of audio-visual media in Surinamese society. As a result of a reconciliation policy of Suriname Government in recent decennia , there are audio –visual media communication of radio - and television broadcasting establish , for all ethnic group in Surinamese society. There are 26 radio stations, of which 17 are ethnically oriented in their own dialect. There are also 21 television stations of which, 12 is broadcasting for own ethnic group. The rest of radio - and television stations have a general character of broadcasts in Dutch language. Broadcasting of radio- and television stations for own ethnic group makes a contribution for enculturate process. African and Asian diaspora identified them self with their own audio - visual media communication network within Surinamese territory.

Table 7: African – and Asian ethnic audio –visual media communication.

Ethnic / broadcasting langguage

Radio stations television stations

1.General in Dutch 10 92.Sarnami /Bhojpuri 9 73.Javanese 3 34.Marroon 2 15.Chinese - 16.Creole 2 -

Source: www. Ministry of Transport, Communication and TourismParamaribo, Suriname September 2009 . Telecommunicatie Autoriteit Suriname ( TAS ).

Reconciliation policy and religion holly days

Reconciliation policy of Suriname government has contributed to national religious – and memorial holidays for all ethnic groups. This policy reinforces the inter cultural integration.The following table gives an overview of the national religious and Memorial days.

Table 8 : National religious and Memorial days .Ethnic / religion group National celebration

hollidayReligious / memorial day

1.Creole /Maroon Juli 1 Emancipation day2.Maroon October 10 Treaty events of 1760, with

Dutch.3.Chinese february Chinese New- Year

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4.Hindoes March/april and october

Holi Phagua and Devali

5.Muslim ( Indians/Javanese)

accordance the calendar and phase of the Moon

Iedul – fitre and Iedhul Adha.

6.Javanese August 9 Javanese immigration day

Source: www. Wikipedia , holydays in Suriname.

Conclusion

1. Surinamese population consists dominant ethnic groups (Creole, Hindustani, and Javanese) and minority groups, Maroons, Amerindians, Chinese, Dutch (Boeroe), Brazilians, Guyanese Lebanese and mixed groups. All ethnic groups contribute through mental programming and education system, intangible and tangible cultural elements in a pluralistic democracy of Suriname.

2. Pluralistic is more than cultural diversity or multiculturalism. Though pluralism democracy, African and Asian diaspora Identify itself with Surinamese society as follow:

1. Rights of religion freedom for all ethnic groups , formulated in Surinamese constitution.2. Citizenship formation: national identity for all citizens of Suriname born on Surinamese Territory. 3. Freedom to set up particular school for education according religion beliefs of

parents for Christianity, Hindu or Muslim schools.4. Celebration of national religion holidays for ethnic groups. 5. Reconciliation policy of Suriname Government: identification with broadcasting radio-

and television stations in own dialects.6. Place – and street names, derived from diaspora country of origin (: India and Indonesia

except from Africa).

3 Heritage, culture and ethnicity are inherent cohesion. Ethnicity is a socially created system of rules about who can and cannot belongs to a particular group. (G. Knox and Marston Hidden 1993/2004 :p.216 ). According to this perception African and Asian descendants are citizens of belonging to Surinamese society .Brazilians and Haitians minority are relatively short (last 50 years) immigrated in Suriname. They have not yet adapted and integrated to the Surinamese culture (University of Groningen , 2007, p. 35).

5. The phenomenon of African and Asian diaspora in Suriname poses challenges but also offers potential benefits to integrate and identification in Surinamese terrotority. Most of African and Asian descendants have never even been to Africa, India, China or Indonesia but may feel a strong affinity based on religion, history, or culture with the country of origin.

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6. African and Asian descendants has lost some of their identification though colonization, slavery and indentured labor. They are disconnected from their culture of origin. For example the tribal Kingdom systems of Africa,Joit-famly extended system , Varna Caste system of India, fragmented present in Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad. They remain vulnerable in a social order to reflect their culture identity, but they face the dual challenge of integration in Suriname economic, social, politics and culture system.

7. Descendants of African and Asian diaspora makes an important contribution in the ethnic-, cultural -, religion -and linguistic diversity of Suriname and the promotion of hetritage tourism.

8. Such as plants and animals linked to important cycle of an ecosystem , all cultural elements of different ethnic groups of Suriname delivered a major contribution in the cultural diversity of Suriname.

References

Bourdieu , P, Passeron, J (1994) , Concept of ethnicity and Culture. Beverly Hills CA: SAGE. Google Scholar .

Cohen , Robin (2007 ).Creolization and Cultural Globalization: The Soft Sounds of Fugitive Power Pages 369-384 | Published online: 01 Oct 2007 .

Hall S. (1990). Cultural Identity and Diaspora: Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Published by Lawrence and Wishart, 1990 .

Hall, S. (1996). New Ethnicities. In H. A. Baker, M. Diawara & R. H. Lindeborg (Eds.), Black British cultural studies: Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Hofstede, Geert 1991 , Allemaal Andersdenkenden ,omgaan met cultuur verschillen, published 2005 by Contact Amsterdam /Antwerpen.

Knox and Marston ( 1993) : Places and Regions in Global Context , Human Geography. Chapter 5.Mapping Culture identity. Published 1998 by Prentice Hall , Inc.

Mencke, Jack . (2016 ). Mozaïk van het Surinaams volk, 2016. VOLKSTELLINGEN IN DEMOGRAFISCH, ECONOMISCH EN SOCIAAL PERSPECTIEF .Redactie Jack Menke .

Ministry of Transport, Communication and Tourism Paramaribo, Suriname . September 2009. Telecommunicatie Autoriteit Suriname ( TAS ).

UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2005 ).Adopted by the General Conference, Paris, France, 2005 .wikipedia org.

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Veen , Mariët (2007 ) , University of Wageningen : A Study of Cultural Heritage and National Identity of Suriname ,A Garden of Different Flowers (Master Thesis 2007 )

Yuval-Davis, Nira (2011) Power, Intersectionality and the Politics of Belonging . FREIA – Feminist Research Center in Aalborg , Aalborg University Denmark FREIA . Working Paper Series Working paper no. 75 .

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Appenix: Monument and statutes of African- and Asian diaspora as symbol of collective memory day.

Maroon Freedom monument October 10. Statute of Kwakoe.Maroon day: 10 October 1760; symbolizes Symbolizes the abolishing of slavery in treaty events of 1760, with the Dutch. Suriname on July 1, 1863.

2.Indians /Hindustani statute of Bap and Mai . Symbolizes arriving day of first Indian indentured labors in Suriname. : 1873 June 5.

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Javanese statuate Sana Budaya . Statuate Javanese immigration Marienburg.

Chinese Statuate Nieuw Amsterdam. Statuate Chinese immigration vriendschapspark Lachmon street . Symbolizes arriving day of first Chinese indentured labors (1853).

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