Writing WorksheetThe Three "P's" of Writing:   Paragraph, Point, and Precision

1. PARAGRAPH:   UNITY, COHERENCE, AND DEVELOPMENT: THE THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH (MEMORIZE THE ACRONYM, "UCD")

The paragraph is the most important component of writing.  An effective paragraph contains three elements:

1.                        UnityIn scholarly writing, each paragraph must have a purpose, a clear intent, and a single idea, expressed by its topic sentence.

2.                        CoherenceA paragraph's sentences must be arranged in logical order, exhibit proper grammatical structure, and maintain a consistent tone. Coherent paragraphs contain:

a. A fixed (or single) point of viewb. Parallel grammatical structurec. Repetition of key words or phrasesd. Appropriate transitions that lead the reader through shifts in tone, considerations of

different subtopics, or relevant comparisons and contrasts.

3.                        DevelopmentTo fulfill its purpose, a paragraph must contain an adequate discussion of its topic.  Examples of proper development include:

a. Simple chronology that moves forward in timeb. "Spatial order" or a description of the relationship between the various objects that the

paragraph discussesc. “Logical order" or reasons that support the topic sentence, which include:

o definition of a key term or termso comparison or contrasto examples or detailso cause and effecto elimination of alternatives

Source : I have derived this section from Glenn Leggett et al., Prentice-Hall Handbook for Writers, 3rd edition. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1960), pages 213-257.  I highly recommend that you examine older writing handbooks because they distill the elements of writing into simple and easily understood rules.

2. POINT: THE MAIN POINT, THEME, OR THESIS

Effective writing contains a main point that the author seeks to communicate to the reader.  In scholarly writing, the author task is to make this point as explicitly as possible.

Author's purpose for writing

What do we mean by a main point?  The main point represents the author's purpose for writing in the first place.  The main point is not the subject of a paper, but a contention about that subject. "Such contentions," according to the authors of a handbook on historical research, "always involve claims that a particular conclusion is a correct view of the significance of a certain subject."  Note: In a scholarly essay, you should express your main point or thesis as early as possible. In the classic five-paragraph form, it comes at the bottom of the first paragraph.  In longer articles, it usually comes in the second or third paragraph.

Author's stand on a subject

The main point represents a precise "contention" or the author's stand on a particular subject.  With the main point, in effect, the author says to the reader, "After I have analyzed this document or this set of sources, here is proper and best way to think about this subject." Note: Your "contention" provides you with the essential element of precision.  For example, your main point does not merely inform the reader that two objects are "different," but explains why and how they are different, and the importance of this difference as it relates to the subject.  Your discussion of the subject also must be accurate and thorough enough to convince the reader you have proven your point within the confines of the assigned word limit.

Continuity

Most importantly, an explicit point gives continuity or a theme to an essay.  Without it, an essay consists of random evidence that fails to direct the reader to the significance that the author has derived from this evidence.  Note: To make sure that your papers express continuity, think of each paragraph in the body of the essay as a discussion of one topic of your main point.  In addition, refer back to your main point as you move between topics.  When you introduce a new topic, you must also show the reader how this topic relates to your main point.

Author's values and judgments

Finally, an essay's main point is a personal expression of the author's values and judgments that tells the reader what the author thinks about the subject.  Note: This is a personal "expression" supported by evidence from authoritative sources, not an "impression" that merely tells how the author thinks about something. In short, always argue from evidence, not from assertions (one historian I know shortens this rule to the phrase, "Show, don't tell.")  Because your point is personal, you should clearly define any specialized or abstract terms in your own words so the reader knows exactly how you are using these terms.  (Never, ever, quote a dictionary definition of a term.)

Source: I have derived this section of the worksheet from Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History (New York, 1967), pages 204-211. There is a new edition of this book, and I recommend that you pick up a copy. It contains helpful guidelines about historical research and writing that you can apply to other subjects.

3. PRECISION

Effective writing exhibits precision by combining the elements of elegance, simplicity, and clarity.  Lack of precision undermines the purpose of your writing.  Unless you can communicate your ideas in clear, plain, and correct prose, your readers will fail to understand your main point.  At best, they may have a vague idea about your main point, but will remain unconvinced or befuddled about your intentions.

The Three Primary Causes of Imprecise Writing

1. Passive Voice

2. Clichés

3. Vague words and phrases

1.     1.   Passive voice

Precise writing uses the active voice by linking concrete nouns to vigorous and active verbs. Imprecise writing uses the passive voice (or passive verb form) in which a direct object becomes the subject of a sentence and the verb takes the past participle form and a form of the verb "to be" (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been) immediately before it (sometimes to two are split by an adverb). Let me clarify this description, with a few examples.

The royal troops shelled the city. (Active—note that the sentence attributes responsibility to an actual group of people, "troops.")

The city was shelled. (Passive—note that the object "the city" becomes the subject of the sentence, and the verb is now in its past participle form accompanied by "was," a form of "to be." You could put the phrase "by the royal troops" at the end of the sentence. This correction is not only wordy but the verb is less vigorous than in the first sentence.)

Shells were dropped on the city. (Passive—again note the characteristic verb forms and lack of responsibility for the action.)

The late historian Christopher Lasch criticized passive voice as "inert, lifeless, and evasive," because it "disguises the subject and makes it hard to assign responsibility for an action." This

lack of responsibility not only applies to individual sentences, but to the individual writer as well. Timid writers prefer the passive voice because they think it exudes an air of detachment, when it actually avoids the "risk of a straightforward judgment."  For example, in the above sentences, to locate who held ultimate responsibility, we might ask which person in power ordered the bombing.  Was this decision necessary?  Was it humane?  If so, what values are we using to make these judgments?

Hint: To check your paper for passive voice, look for any form of the verb "to be," such as “is” or “was.”

2.     2.    Clichés

"Bad writing," Christopher Lasch maintains, "relies on heavily on ready-made phrases" or clichés. "This method of writing," Lasch observes, "requires less effort than original thought, but it provides readers with neither delight nor instruction." In other words, when you use clichés, you are letting someone else's words carry the burden of your argument, without improving your argument.

The problem with clichés is that when you try to make a point by prying a phrase from its original context, that phrase loses its distinct meaning, and conveys little of its original descriptive and explanatory power. Instead of clarifying your point, you have only obscured it with a trite and inaccurate expression. Fortunately, the more you read, the more you will learn to recognize clichés.

Here is a list of some clichés that I have read in students' papers that I want you to avoid "at all costs"—that's the first one.

"untold" or "countless" as in "untold lives" or "countless lives"

"by any means necessary"

"the almighty dollar"

"wanted to have their voices heard" (or any variation of this vague and imprecise phrase, such as "wanted to make people aware," "wanted respect," "wanted recognition")  This phrase is most often used when discussing social movement.  But people involved in social movements have much grander goals and more specific agendas than simply hoping that someone is listening to them.  You should also avoid reducing someone’s goals to a question of “respect” and “disrespect” (see above)

“make a difference"  Like the phrase above, this cliché has become a catch-all phrase to describe someone involved in a social movement.  Again, tell the reader precisely what the person wanted to accomplish.  Remember, even Hitler and Stalin wanted to make the world “different.”

"bite the hand that feeds them"

"Achilles' heel"

"lifestyle" (As Christopher Lasch notes, this term assumes "that life is largely a matter of style.”  He recommends: “Find something else to say about life.")

"act out" (This is a colloquialism that you must avoid, unless you are discussing infants. Babies and young children “act out,” adults do not.)

"twists and turns"

"came into play"

“about” when used in the following way:  The British Empire was "not exclusively about race or colour, but was also about class and status." 

Here’s Benjamin Schwarz’s criticism of the use of “about” in this manner: Most egregious is Cannadine's repeated use of "about," as in the passage quoted above. What does he mean when he asserts that the empire itself, or a method of rule, was "about" this and that? Is he maintaining that these were motivating forces? ("Horses" can't be a motivating force. Can "class"?) His dependence on this word often seems to lead Cannadine to confound flummery and policy, and also ends and means. To argue that the British used ornamental trappings as an instrument of rule is one thing; but to assert that, guided by what he calls their "Burkeian wisdoms and customary conservative modes," British statesmen and imperial administrators ran their empire as a sort of Colonial Williamsburg writ large, for the purpose of "safeguarding the traditional social order and preserving the traditional way of life" of the peoples they ruled, is quite another.  Benjamin Schwarz, “A Bit of Bunting,” (A Review of David Cannadine’s Ornamentalism: How the British Saw their Empire), Atlantic Monthly, November 2001

I will add more as the course proceeds, so keep checking this list.  Feel free to send me your own suggestions.

3.     3.    Abstract and vague words or phrases

As a writer, you must use concrete and precise language to express your main point effectively. For this course, I want you concentrate on improving your precision in the following areas:

Inappropriate Context and Overgeneralization, “We’re dealing with something big here!”

Effective writing deals with a precise historical context.  You must limit the scope of your essays to the subject and time period that you are discussing instead of tackling all human beings and all of human history.  In other words, avoid any variation of the following phrases:

"Ever since the beginning of history…"

"Throughout all time…"

Giving Human Qualities and Force to Inanimate or Virtual Subjects or “Society made me do it!”

Remember that people are the proper subject of historical study, because only people (and the weather, geological changes, and epidemic illnesses—but these are not abstract but real) can exert force over the course of historical events.

Virtual or abstract entities, say, “society” or the “nation,” have no such power.  So avoid such phrases as “Society forces people….”

NOTE: I think we can all acknowledge that certain abstract forces—such as social norms, values, and conventions—shape human action and behavior, but be very explicit when you make this point.

“THIS”: The “This is…” or “This proves…” Syndrome

Avoid using the pronoun “This” to begin your sentences, particularly when the reader cannot discern any obvious referent or antecedent in the previous sentence.  Instead of beginning sentences with “This,”’ use a precise noun or phrase that refers to a specific object, person, or referent in the previous sentence.  Particularly avoid any construction in which you begin a sentence with the words, “This proves….”  Show, don’t tell, the reader how one thing “proves” another thing.

Improprieties

Improprieties are legitimate words that an author uses incorrectly.  The most common version of this error is the current fad that uses nouns for verbs, such as:

"impacted"

"maximized"

"referenced"

"accessed"

"opinioned"

"serviced"

“transitioned”

“partnered”

As with any fad, I am sure this one will fade away in time, but if you rid your writing of these improprieties now, you will not have to do it later.

Misspellings

With modern computer word processors, your papers should have no spelling errors.  But you should always proofread your paper, rather than relying on your spellchecker to catch words that are appropriate in one context, but not appropriate in another context.

The four most common misspellings I have discovered in academic papers are:

"there" for "their"

"loose" for "lose"

“it’s” for “its” (the possessive pronoun.  Remember—“it’s” is the contraction of “it is”)

“lead” for “led” (the past tense form of “to lead.”  “Lead” when pronounced like “led” refers to a soft metal.)

Dates

Spell all century numbers

            twentieth century (not 20th century or 20th century with superscript)

Spell decades without the apostrophe

            1980s (not 1980’s)

            You can also spell out decades: the eighties

QUOTES

Avoid anonymous quotes that fail to indicate the speaker or writer of the quote.  Instead, make sure that you provide the reader with proper attribution (the speaker) and, even better,

extract the phrase or phrases from the quote that illustrate your argument and integrate them into your own prose

Here’s an example based on the opening lines of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address

POOR: During the Civil War, the Union’s political leaders advanced a new, and even radical, version of American history.  “Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

BETTER: During the Civil War, the Union’s political leaders advanced a new, and even radical, version of American history.  As President Lincoln declared, “Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

EVEN BETTER (note the position and information provided in the attribution):  During the Civil War, the Union’s political leaders advanced a new, and even radical, version of American history.  “Four score and seven years ago,” Lincoln declared in his 1863 Gettysburg Address, “our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

BEST: During the Civil War, the Union’s political leaders advanced a new and even radical version of American history.  President Abraham Lincoln expressed this new history in his 1863 Gettysburg Address.  Lincoln maintained that the United States had not only been “conceived in liberty” but that the founders of the “new nation” had expressly “dedicated [it] to the proposition that all men are created equal.”  Note the use of brackets—in this case, [it]—allows you to insert words in the quote to clarify its meaning.  

FINALLY!   AVOID UNNECESSARY PRELIMINARIES IN YOUR INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION

In your introductions, eliminate all phrases that begin, “This paper will…”, and eliminate all proceeding phrases that describe explicitly the organization of the paper, “First, it will show”…, and so on).   In your conclusion, avoid beginning with “In conclusion,…” and then

repeating what you wrote in the previous paragraphs.  Rather than wasting space in your introduction on these phrases, which the late historian Christopher Lasch calls “unnecessary preliminaries,” tell the reader something significant about your topic or your stand on the topic.  In the conclusion, seal your argument with a final inference that connects your evidence to your argument, and show the implications of your argument.  (In other words, generalize from your findings).

Source: I have derived this section of the worksheet from Christopher Lasch, Plain Style: A Guide to Written English, ed. Stewart Weaver, (Philadelphia, 2002). I also recommend that you pick up a copy of Strunk and White, Elements of Style, which is the standard writing guide for academics.

 http://history.latech.edu/writing_center_files/writingworksheetfall2006dma.htm

The website above is from where the information came.   It is an excellent guide.

Some Reading Strategies That Work Anytime

Predict

Use Clues from the text or illustrations to predict what will happen next.

I think… because…

I’ll bet… because…

I suppose… because…

I think I will learn… because…

Question

Ask questions as you read.  Ask some questions that have answers in the text.  Use the question words, who, what, when, where, why, how, and the phrase “what if”.  Try asking some questions that can be inferred.  Use clues from the text plus your experiences.

Clarify

How can you figure out a difficult word or idea in the text?

Reread, Reread, Reread!

Think about word “pieces” you know or the word’s “base word”.

Sound the word out if it is uncommon to you.  It may trigger a memory.

Read on, but only after you have looked the word up in the dictionary if you are sure can not infer its meaning from context.

Ask, “Does this make sense?”

Talk to a friend, or teacher

Summarize

Using your own words, tell the main ideas paragraph by paragraph.  They should all have one!! Tell the main ideas from the text in order.  This text is about…This part is about…

The above 4-part information, (adapted slightly by me) on reading, is from a book entitled, Reciprocal Teaching at Work,  by Lori D. Oczkus, (2006).  Teachers were specifically invited in the book to photocopy this content. 

Signal Phrases

When using citations (and I hope you use a few!!) there are signal phrases to watch ( and optionally employ for variety) to ensure you use the parenthetical citation correctly.

For example:

“What is a Mutant?  A thing accursed in the sight of God and man!” (Wyndham 27).

Note here there is nothing to denote author or page number in the quotation itself.

Every part of the human must be the norm or it has no soul.  Since God only produces perfection things that look similar to us are invalid and must be considered soulless and banished.  In this way, we will not contaminate our kind and bring Tribulation back to the earth (Wyndham 55).  Note that here there is no “direct” quotation. There is no signal phrase to give the reader any idea of page number, book, or author. Hence, we do the same as above in the first example.

In Wyndham’s book The Chrysalids, Uncle Axel stated that a wax figure could have all the qualities of a norm, but what made a true human was its mind (79).

Note that the reader has been given the name of the book and author in the “signal phrase" at the beginning of the sentence.  All you need is the page number from where the idea originated in the bracketed citation!!

Wyndham states through the character of Michael, “the stupidest norm is happier than we are” (86). 

Note that the reader has still been given the Author’s name and has likely mentioned the title of the book in their introduction.  Thus, here, only the page number is needed once again. 

“ ‘I could have managed it by myself if I had another hand’ ” (Wyndham 26).

Note that there is a single quotation mark within the quotations marks.  Reason: It came from a book and it is dialogue.   Therefore, double-quotation marks must be used.

                            When I was small I would sometimes dream of a city- which was strange because it began before I even knew what a city

                            was. But this city, clustered on the curve of a big blue bay, would come into my mind.  I could see the streets, and the buildings

                            that linked them, the waterfront, even boats in the harbour; yet, waking, I had never seen the sea or a boat… And the buildings

                            were quite unlike any I knew.  (Wyndham 1)

Note here that this is a long quotation!! Should you choose to do this type of quotation, do it sparingly.  Further, note that we need something to tell us what it is.  That is, what kind of quotation are we dealing with?  Above, it was about signal phrases and placement of quotation marks and parenthetical citations!  Now the rules look to have changed, but there is a logical similarity.  What makes this look like a quotation?        1. It is longer.

                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. It appears to read like prose from a book.              3. It is double-indented from both sides..

Since it looks like a quotation, and because it will not follow the “flow” of your writing on a particular page, the rules change slightly.  1.  No quotations marks!  It is plain to see that it already is a quotation.   2.  There is no period at the end of the parenthetical citation, but instead placed at the end of the quotation where it belongs due to its length.  3.  Do include author’s name in a parenthetical reference because it is proper to do so.  Use the 40 word/4-line rule.  If the quotation is 4 lines or more, or absolutely over 40 words, you do it like this!!  Remember!!!

            This ends our brief lesson on quotations in your work.  You should use (Wyndham pg.) frequently when you write major assignments based on his work.  This goes for any author’s work in any medium.  You would expect the same from others even on the level that someone repeated a good joke you told them and took the credit instead of crediting you!  While you are analyzing, crediting John Wyndham or any author of a work every 2-3 lines is a good idea.  It does not mean you are stupid.  It means you are smart enough to give credit where credit is due in addition to being recognized that you are smart enough to use the work you have been given for your own purposes.  Remember to use your own brain, but include quotations to support your assertions. Also, you did not know what happened in the book, play, article, poem before you

read it, (unless it was authored by you) therefore, you must give it credit.  Give up the urban myth, (if it actually is one) that using and citing quotations and, frequently citing authors’ works makes you look dumb.  The best critical writers, essayists, expository writers, reviewers,  some novelists, and especially research-writers do exactly the same thing, including famous ones.  If you use the information appropriately, and cite correctly, it actually suggests to your reader that you are well-read, intelligent, and capable.  So why not do this?  Mr. N.

Essay Checklist

Below are many items that you should ask yourself when you have completed what you believe to be the final draft of your essay.  If the answer is yes, you may ensure that many minor mistakes and phrasing problems can be eliminated.  Further, if the answer is know to many of these questions than a reader's assessment of your work will indicate this, ( and in a negative way from your standpoint).  I hope you find these helpful.

Essay Writing Guidelines/Checklist

Making sure these items receive appropriate attention may ensure you attain the mark you expect to receive if your proofreading is ongoing and you correct items/issues where necessary.  These are "stylistic guidelines".

·         Did you carefully read the instructions on the topic/instruction sheet(s)?

·         Does the content of your essay reflect the instructions?

·         Have you stated a clear purpose or central idea? (THESIS!)      In your introduction!

·         Does the first paragraph include a purposeful introduction following the format given (where necessary)

·         Does the body of the essay support the introduction?

·         Do paragraphs follow each other logically?

·         Does the essay have a smooth flow? (Logical placement of sentences/ideas and transitional sentences between paragraphs)  Do your facts connect to your topic?

·         Does the last paragraph create a sense of closure? Do spiral back to earlier ideas that you have mentioned in the "body" but offer new avenues to explore later!

·         Is the language and content appropriate for the intended audience?

·         Are sources cited properly?

·         Has the essay been proofread by at least two other people?

·         Did you “listen” to what you have written?  Read your essay out loud to yourself and you may hear mistakes that you may miss with silent reading alone.  I find some occasionally when I write!   Reading something repeatedly may not lead to error correction consistently due to eye strain and waning concentration using the same approach to proofreading.

·         Is there a proper title page or demographic identification on page one? 

·         Are pages numbered, with your last name before each number, starting with the first page of actual text-writing?  NB:  The "first page of actual text/essay writing" is NOT a title page.  If you have a dedicated title page (and you may with MLA although there is none required) do not number this page, but do follow the proper format of 1/3 page down for title 1/2 page down for name, and 2/3 page down for the rest of the required demographic information.

·         Did you connect your proofs, to your actual given topic/thesis?  Is your title restated at the top and centered on page 1.  Page 1 is not your title page!

·         Do you have a “Works Cited” page?  Is "Works Cited" the actual "title" of this page?  No other title will do!!  Is it centered?  Is the required information there in its entirety?  Did you employ the "hanging indent" when required to use more than one line to give the appropriate information?

   "Whew"

Mr. Nauss tries to dispel (no pun intended) the damage done by the internet.

Accept, Except - Accept means to receive; while except means to exclude.

Adverse, Averse - Adverse means difficult; Averse means having a strong feeling against (like an aversion)

Affect, Effect - An Effect is a result; Affect usually means to alter.

Alright - This just isn't a word. You should use all right in formal writing.

Assure, Ensure, Insure - Assure means to guarantee; Ensure means to make sure, and Insure should only be used when talking about insurance.

Compliment, Complement - A Compliment is praise; to Complement is to go well with something else.

Could Of - This doesn't make sense. Use Could Have.

Discreet, Discrete - Discreet is to be careful; Discrete means distinct.

Farther, Further - Farther refers to distance; Further means more.

Foreword, Forward - A Foreword is the beginning of a book; Forward is a direction.

i.e. , e.g. - In Latin i.e means "that is", while e.g means "for example".

Its, It's - Its is possessive - something that belongs to someone, It's is short for it is.

Labtop, Laptop - Labtop is not a word. The computer sits on your Lap, not your Lab.

Like - Don't Say Like fifteen times in a sentence. Like is not a placeholder.

Loose, Lose - Loose is the opposite of tight; Lose is the opposite of win.

Precede, Proceed - something Precedes if it comes first; Proceeds if it follows.

No, Know - No is the opposite of yes; Know refers to something you've learned. (or in this case haven't learned)

Than, Then - Than is used for comparisons; Then means it came next.

There, Their, They're - There is a place; Their is something that belongs to them, They're is short for They Are

To, Two, Too - Two is a number, Too means also, and To is used with verbs (going to).

Weather, Whether - Weather is what the meteorologist always predicts wrong; Whether is used when making a choice.

Who's, Whose - Whose is possessive, Who's is short for who is.

Your, You're - Your is something that belongs to you; You're is short for you are.