Week 1

Introduction to Psychology•Overview•Scientific Method•Brief History•Future of Psychology

Definition of PsychologyPsychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Observable behaviorsUnobservable thought processes

Why, where & how psychology is used…

The Biological foundations of behaviorbiopsychology

biological bases of behavior

Sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinkingexperimental psychology

process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking

cognitive psychologyhigher mental processes

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Understanding change and individual differences

developmental psychologyhow people grow and change from conception to death

personality psychologyattempts to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behavior over time

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Physical and mental healthhealth psychology

relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

clinical psychologystudy, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior

counseling psychologyeducational, social, and career adjustment problems

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Physical and mental healtheducational psychology

teaching and learning processes

school psychologyassessing children with academic or emotional problems

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Understanding our social networkssocial & group psychology

how people are affected by others

Multicultural psychologypsychological factors related to cultural behavior and developmentpsychological factors of special interest groups such as women, gay & lesbian clients, clergy

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Understanding our social networksindustrial-organizational psychology

psychology of the workplace

consumer psychologypeople’s buying habits, effects of advertising

cross-cultural psychologypsychological functioning of various cultures and ethnic groups

Specialization areas:

(Feldman, 1999)

Newer specialty areasvirtual reality & cyberpsychologytelehealthevolutionary psychologyclinical neuropsychologyenvironmental psychologyforensic psychologysport and exercise psychologyprogram evaluation

Pie chart of specialized research

(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Psychologists workplace33% universities and colleges22% self-employed19% private for-profit companies 9% private not-for-profit organizations 7% state or local government 5% schools 5% government(Feldman, 1999)

Why, where & how psychology is used…

Psychologists: a statistical portrait60% male but the % women is increasingMost found in the United States

(about 2/3)Less than 6% minority

(Feldman, 1999)

Education of a psychologist

How do people become psychologists?PhDPsyDMaster’s degree

EmpiricismScientific psychology builds on the philosophy of empiricism that knowledge comes through experience and observation, not through speculation.

Tabula Rasa – at birth minds are like a blank slate so everything we learn must be observed and experienced.

Critical ThinkingScientific psychology involves critical thinking, assessing claims and making judgments about their accuracy based on well-supported evidence.

TheoryScientific psychologists gather evidence from research on particular phenomenon. Then, they propose theories, or explanations to account for, predict and suggest ways of controlling certain phenomena. Theories help organize results in a useful manner.

HypothesisScientific psychologists make specific assumptions or predictions based on data that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

Hypotheses are educated guesses.

(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

Scientific Method    Theory - A coherent set of interrelated ideas

that helps to make predictions and explain data    Hypothesis - Specific assumptions or

predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy

The Scientific Method involves 3 steps:    Collect information (data)    Draw conclusions    Revise research conclusions or theory

Developtheory

The color of a race car is related to its racing speed.

Formhypothesis

Racing cars with red paint runslower than non-red cars.

Testhypothesis

Record top speed and color of manydifferent cars and analyze the data.

Scientific Method in Psychology

Do the data support the theory?Revise the theory to better fit the data.

Refinetheory

(Richardson, 1999)

Research Strategies

How does Psychology describe, predict & explain behavior and mental processes?

Observational StudiesCorrelational StudiesExperiments

1.2.3.

(Richardson, 1999)

Research aims to:DescribePredictControl Explain

Phenomena

Research MethodsLaboratory observation    Observations of behavior in a controlled

setting with many of the complex factors of the “real world” removed

Naturalistic observation    Observations of behavior in real-world setting

with no effort made to manipulate or control the situation

Types of Observational Studies

Naturalistic ObservationObserve behavior of organisms in natural environment.

Problem:Like other Observational techniques, behavior is observed, not explained.

(Richardson, 1999)

Research MethodsInterviews - Asking questions to find out about a

person’s experiences and attitudes

Look out for: Social desirability * The tendency of participants to tell the interviewer

what they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than what they truly feel or think

Questionnaires (surveys) - Similar to structured interviews except that the respondents read the questions and mark their answers on paper rather than verbally responding to an interviewer

Types of Observational Studies

The SurveyStudy of a large number of individuals in less depth.

Problem:Surveys are vulnerable to biased sample error. Biased samples do not represent the general population.

Research Methods

Case study

  An in-depth look at a single individual (or organization), used mainly by clinical psychologists when the unique aspects of an individual’s life (or organization’s development) cannot be duplicated.

The Case StudyStudy of a small number of individuals in great depth.

Problem:A small number of individuals may not represent the general population.

(Richardson, 1999)

Standardized tests - Tests that require people to answer a series of written and/or verbal questions.  Individual’s test score is totaled to yield a single score. Individual’s score is compared with the scores of a large group of similar people.

Research Methods

Research Methods

Correlational Research - Research with the goal of describing the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.

CorrelationsDo people become less active as they get older?Do people become less active as they get older?

r - statistical relationshipbetween 2 variables (activity

level & age)

Act

ivit

y le

vel

ŸŸŸ

Ÿ

ŸŸŸ Ÿ

ŸŸ

ŸŸŸ

Ÿ

ŸŸ

Ÿ

Ÿ

Ÿ ŸŸ

ŸŸ

ŸŸ

(-) r

Age(Richardson, 1999)

Research Methods

Experimental Research - Allows psychologists to discover behavior’s causes.  

Experiment - A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated and all other factors are held constant.

Experimental Research Method

    Independent variable - The manipulated, influential, experimental factor in an experiment.

    Dependent variable - The factor that is measured in an experiment. It can change as the independent variable is manipulated.

Experimental Research Methods

    Experimental group - The group who experience is manipulated

    Control group - A comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor

    Random assignment - Assignment of participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

RandomAssignment

ControlCondition

Placebo

ExperimentalCondition

Real Medication

Experiments

(Richardson, 1999)

Experimental Research Warnings

   Watch out for:

Experimenter bias - The influence of the experimenter’s own expectations on the outcome of the research.

Research participant bias - The influence of research participants’ belief.

Placebo effect - Occurs when participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental

treatment, produce the desired outcome.

Experimental Research

 Double-blind experiment - Neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group treatment, produce the desired outcome. This helps reduce biases.

Brief History of Psychology Structuralism (Wundt, 1870s)

Fundamental elements that form the foundation of thinking, consciousness, and emotionsIntrospection

Functionalism (James, 1890s)The function of mental activity and behavior

Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler, Frankl, 1912-30s)

“The whole is different from the sum of its parts”

Brief History of Psychology Behaviorism (Watson, Pavlov & Skinner, 1920-50s)

Watson proposed psychology should focus on observable behavior such as responses to stimuli, in case of “Little Albert and the rat” in 1915Pavlov tracked Classical Conditioning of dogs’ responses to stimuli associated with feeding times, bells, salivation, etc. in 1904Skinner proposed Operant Conditioning in 1953 with his Skinner box

Psychoanalysis (Freud, 1920s)Psychological processes and hidden conflicts with the mind motivated behavior. These unconscious drives can cause anxiety, stress, personality disorders and neurosis.Free association, dream interpretation, stages of development

Humanism (Rogers & Maslow, 1950s)Humans are capable of inner change through exploring personal growth, unconditional positive regard, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Modern perspectivesThe biological perspective

Behavior from the perspective of biological functioning (nature)

The psychodynamic perspectiveBehavior is motivated by inner forces

(nature & nurture)

The cognitive perspectiveHow people know, understand, and think about the world (nurture)

More Modern PerspectivesThe behavioral perspective

observable behavior should be the focus of study

The humanistic perspectivepeople are in control of their livesfree will

Key Questions in Psychology

Nature versus Nurturehow much of our behavior is due to heredity and how much is due to environment?

Conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior

how much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware?

Key QuestionsObservable behavior versus internal mental processes

Should psychology concentrate solely on observable behavior?

Freedom of choice versus determinism

How much of behavior is a matter of choice?

(Richardson, 1999)

Key IssuesIndividual differences versus universal principles

How much of behavior is a consequence of the unique and special qualities that each of us possesses?

(Richardson, 1999)

Future of PsychologyPsychology will become more specializedNew perspectives will evolveExplanations for behavior will include genetic, environmental, biological, and social influences

(Richardson, 1999)

(Feldman, 1999)

Future of PsychologyPsychological treatment will become more accessible and socially acceptable

Psychology’s influence will grow

Psychology will consider the country’s growing diversity

(Feldman, 1999)

ReferencesFeldman, M. (1999). Making the grade. CD-Rom. McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com.Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator, 2.0. CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. Richardson, K. (1998). Introduction to psychology. Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at:http://www.monmouth.edu.