Week 8Week 8

OutlineOutline• EvolutionEvolution• Characteristics of LanguageCharacteristics of Language• Children’s language development Children’s language development

– (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics)pragmatics)

• Theories of language acquisitionTheories of language acquisition• Bilingualism Part IBilingualism Part I

EvolutionEvolution

• Modern humans appeared 150 000 years Modern humans appeared 150 000 years agoago

• All technological advances appear to have All technological advances appear to have occurred in the last 40 000 yearsoccurred in the last 40 000 years

Brief History of Human EvolutionBrief History of Human Evolution

4 3 2 1

Australopethicus Africanus

Homo Erectus

Presen

t

Homo Sapiens

Neanderthal

Earliest Homonid Fossils

Earliest stone tools

Brain expansion

FireAdvances in stone tools

Art

Cities

EvolutionEvolution

• Modern humans appeared 150 000 years agoModern humans appeared 150 000 years ago• All technological advances appear to have All technological advances appear to have

occurred in the last 40 000 yearsoccurred in the last 40 000 years• Appearance of speech may have been related Appearance of speech may have been related

to sudden changes in vocal apparatusto sudden changes in vocal apparatus1.1. Short, rounded tongueShort, rounded tongue2.2. Larynx is lower in throat than in other Larynx is lower in throat than in other

previous speciesprevious speciesThese changes allow for greater control over These changes allow for greater control over

vocal apparatus, and hence more sounds vocal apparatus, and hence more sounds can be madecan be made

Evolution Con’dEvolution Con’d

Two theories of the evolution of language:Two theories of the evolution of language:• Discontinuity TheoryDiscontinuity Theory

– Believe that language is unique to humans, Believe that language is unique to humans, didn’t evolve over time, but happened didn’t evolve over time, but happened abruptly, reflected by sudden changes in the abruptly, reflected by sudden changes in the vocal apparatus that allowed speechvocal apparatus that allowed speech

• Continuity TheoryContinuity Theory– Believe that language occurred very Believe that language occurred very

gradually, is evolved from calls and gestures gradually, is evolved from calls and gestures of ancestors, and came from gradual of ancestors, and came from gradual increase in brain size; changes in VA just increase in brain size; changes in VA just allowed it to happenallowed it to happen

Attempts to teach our relatives Attempts to teach our relatives languagelanguage

• VickiVicki– Tried to get her to speak; Tried to get her to speak;

FailedFailed

• WashoeWashoe– Learned a small number of Learned a small number of

signssigns

• Nim ChimpskyNim Chimpsky– Failed to do anything but Failed to do anything but

imitate and repeat same imitate and repeat same signssigns

• KanziKanzi– Successfully acquired Successfully acquired

YerkishYerkish

• ChantekChantek– Successfully learned signSuccessfully learned sign

Primate Language, con’dPrimate Language, con’d

• Attempts at teaching primates Attempts at teaching primates language are moderately successfullanguage are moderately successful

• Takes A LOT of timeTakes A LOT of time• Typical communication involves Typical communication involves

reinforcers like food (Chantek e.g.)reinforcers like food (Chantek e.g.)• Does not appear to be a natural Does not appear to be a natural

acquisition for primate speciesacquisition for primate species

Characteristics of Language Characteristics of Language (Hockett, 1961)(Hockett, 1961)

• SemanticitySemanticity– Symbols convey meaningSymbols convey meaning

• ArbitrarinessArbitrariness– No resemblance between word and No resemblance between word and

referentreferent• DiscretenessDiscreteness

– Signals don’t vary continuouslySignals don’t vary continuously

Characteristics of Language con’dCharacteristics of Language con’d

• Duality of PatterningDuality of Patterning– Contingent on discreteness, words Contingent on discreteness, words

have both a whole form, and can be have both a whole form, and can be broken downbroken down

• ProductivityProductivity– Highly creative, can make new Highly creative, can make new

sentences all the timesentences all the time• DisplacementDisplacement

– Talk about things not in front of usTalk about things not in front of us– Reflect on past or future eventsReflect on past or future events

Does anyone else have language?Does anyone else have language?SemanticitySemanticity

• Honeybees: yes, a Honeybees: yes, a waggle indicates a waggle indicates a food source, so it food source, so it has meaning to the has meaning to the members of the members of the hive hive

• Vervets: yes, their Vervets: yes, their calls mean calls mean something to the something to the kin and group kin and group matesmates

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

• Honeybees: No, Honeybees: No, the dance is at an the dance is at an angle relative to angle relative to food source and food source and sunsun

• Vervets: yes, calls Vervets: yes, calls have nothing to do have nothing to do with predators with predators they refer tothey refer to

DiscretenessDiscreteness

• Honeybees: yes Honeybees: yes and no: waggles and no: waggles for near and far for near and far are discrete, but are discrete, but waggle more for waggle more for certain amountscertain amounts

• Vervets: yes: one Vervets: yes: one call indicates one call indicates one thing, and another thing, and another call another thingcall another thing

Duality of PatterningDuality of Patterning

• Honeybees: noHoneybees: no • Vervets: noVervets: no

ProductivityProductivity

• Honeybees: Yes, Honeybees: Yes, can signal new can signal new locations, and locations, and different kinds of different kinds of locationlocation

• Vervets: No, Vervets: No, productivity would productivity would endanger kin!endanger kin!

DisplacementDisplacement

• Honeybees: yes, Honeybees: yes, but in a limited but in a limited wayway

• Vervets: no, calls Vervets: no, calls are never made in are never made in absence of absence of predatorpredator

Other species?Other species?

• African ElephantsAfrican Elephants• WhalesWhales• DolphinsDolphins

Children’s Language Development Children’s Language Development

Stages of Phonological DevelopmentStages of Phonological Development

StageStage FeaturesFeaturesReflexive Crying (0-8 Reflexive Crying (0-8 weeks)weeks)

Mainly crying and Mainly crying and vegetative soundsvegetative sounds

Cooing and Laughter Cooing and Laughter (8-20 weeks)(8-20 weeks)

Mainly vowel sounds and Mainly vowel sounds and laughter, more sociallaughter, more social

Vocal play (16-30 Vocal play (16-30 weeks)weeks)

Transition between cooing Transition between cooing and babbling; some and babbling; some syllablessyllables

Reduplicated babbling Reduplicated babbling (25-50 weeks) (25-50 weeks)

Make many sounds over and Make many sounds over and over, like bababaover, like bababa

Jargon (9-18 months)Jargon (9-18 months) Speech-like sound patterns Speech-like sound patterns emergeemerge

Phonological development con’dPhonological development con’d

• Notice overlap of phases in infancyNotice overlap of phases in infancy• Children make mistakes in Children make mistakes in

phonologyphonology• Deaf infants stop after stage 3Deaf infants stop after stage 3• Receptive VS Expressive LanguageReceptive VS Expressive Language

Role of IntentionalityRole of Intentionality

• Must to intend to communicate in Must to intend to communicate in order to communicateorder to communicate

• Earliest intention is non-specific and Earliest intention is non-specific and not goal-related, like play, joint not goal-related, like play, joint attentionattention

• By 8 months, communicative By 8 months, communicative gestures are in place, which are gestures are in place, which are gradually replaced by wordsgradually replaced by words

Language PerceptionLanguage Perception

• Problem of segmentation”Problem of segmentation”– ““Do you want some mango?”Do you want some mango?”– ““What’s a semmango?”What’s a semmango?”

• Infants very good at separating Infants very good at separating sounds of speech (Aslin’s work)sounds of speech (Aslin’s work)

• Prosodic Bootstrapping HypothesisProsodic Bootstrapping Hypothesis• MothereseMotherese

Morphological DevelopmentMorphological Development

• When speech begins it is “holophrastic”When speech begins it is “holophrastic”• Morpheme = smallest unit of meaningMorpheme = smallest unit of meaning• Relatively universal acquisition order of Relatively universal acquisition order of

morphology (e.g. present tense 1morphology (e.g. present tense 1stst, , possessives later, contractions last)possessives later, contractions last)

• Ways to measure: MLU, conjugationWays to measure: MLU, conjugation• Mistakes: Overregularization (goed, Mistakes: Overregularization (goed,

wented, feets)wented, feets)

Syntactic DevelopmentSyntactic Development

• Initially, speech is telegraphic but gets more Initially, speech is telegraphic but gets more complex, and eventually we need…complex, and eventually we need…

• Syntax = knowledge of sentence structure and Syntax = knowledge of sentence structure and how things go togetherhow things go together

• Sentences get bigger between 2 and 4Sentences get bigger between 2 and 4• Syntax development in predictable Syntax development in predictable

– Start using Wh- questions (where first, then why and Start using Wh- questions (where first, then why and how)how)

– Use more negationsUse more negations– Produce more complex sentencesProduce more complex sentences

Semantic DevelopmentSemantic Development

• Children acquire words rapidly Children acquire words rapidly – At 18 months have about 50 wordsAt 18 months have about 50 words– By 24 = 200 words (37 words/month)By 24 = 200 words (37 words/month)

Patterns of lexical Patterns of lexical growthgrowth

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516

2.5 week intervals starting at 14 months

Cu

mu

lati

ve v

oca

bu

lary

Spurt at 16mtSpurt at 19.5 mtSpurt at 22 mtGradual word learner

Lexical growth from 10-50 Lexical growth from 10-50 wordswords

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10 20 30 40 50

Word level

Per

cen

tag

e o

f to

tal

voca

bu

lari

es General NominalsSpecific NominalsAction wordsModifiersOthers

Semantic DevelopmentSemantic Development

• Children acquire words rapidly Children acquire words rapidly – At 18 months have about 50 wordsAt 18 months have about 50 words– By 24 = 200 words (37 words/month)By 24 = 200 words (37 words/month)

• Seem to use fast-mapping (Ability to learn Seem to use fast-mapping (Ability to learn new words based on very little input)new words based on very little input)– Earlier words very context-bound; this changes in Earlier words very context-bound; this changes in

second yearsecond year

• Overextension and underextensionOverextension and underextension• Problem of mapping (knowing “shoes” doesn’t Problem of mapping (knowing “shoes” doesn’t

just refer to laces)just refer to laces)• Seem to have strategies for assigning meaning Seem to have strategies for assigning meaning

to words:to words:

Processing constraints used to assign Processing constraints used to assign meaning to wordsmeaning to words

• Object Scope Constraint Object Scope Constraint – Word refers to whole object and not partsWord refers to whole object and not parts

• Taxonomic ConstraintTaxonomic Constraint– Words label categories of similar objects with similar Words label categories of similar objects with similar

perceptual featuresperceptual features

• Mutual ExclusivityMutual Exclusivity– Each word has one label and that different words refer Each word has one label and that different words refer

to separate non-overlapping categoriesto separate non-overlapping categories

Can you show me a dax?Can you show me a dax?

Semantic DevelopmentSemantic Development

• They use Syntactical Bootstrapping: They use Syntactical Bootstrapping: they will use word order to assume they will use word order to assume meanings of wordsmeanings of words

This person is nissing.This person is nissing.

Can you show someone else Can you show someone else nissing?nissing?

Children will use the syntactic cue from the sentence to determine which part of the picture was “nissing”

Pragmatic DevelopmentPragmatic Development

• By the age of 3, children are adept with their By the age of 3, children are adept with their audienceaudience

• They know to phrase requests in a certain way:They know to phrase requests in a certain way:– 3 year old: “Every night I get an ice cream”3 year old: “Every night I get an ice cream”– Babysitter: “That’s nice”Babysitter: “That’s nice”– 3 year old: “Even when there’s a babysitter I 3 year old: “Even when there’s a babysitter I

get an ice cream”get an ice cream”

They understand that not everything is literal, They understand that not everything is literal, and that some questions are rhetoricaland that some questions are rhetorical

By 4, they adapt their speech when speaking to By 4, they adapt their speech when speaking to younger siblingsyounger siblings

Theories of Language Development: Theories of Language Development: NativismNativism

• Based on Chomsky’s linguistic theoryBased on Chomsky’s linguistic theory• Surface VS Deep structureSurface VS Deep structure• Deep Structure = Universal GrammarDeep Structure = Universal Grammar• Posits the Language Acquisition Device to Posits the Language Acquisition Device to

acquire surface structureacquire surface structure• We have to learn principles and We have to learn principles and

parameters of our own specific languageparameters of our own specific language– E.g. Head-first VS head-lastE.g. Head-first VS head-last– Pro-drop languagesPro-drop languages

LennebergLenneberg points out features of points out features of language that make it uniquely human:language that make it uniquely human:

• Species SpecificSpecies Specific• Species UniformSpecies Uniform• Difficult to DelayDifficult to Delay• Regular SequenceRegular Sequence• Anatomical Structures related to Anatomical Structures related to

languagelanguage• Genetically based language disorders Genetically based language disorders

(disorders that run in family)(disorders that run in family)

““Speech is Special” Speech is Special” hypothesishypothesis

1.1. Different areas light up during auditory vs. speech Different areas light up during auditory vs. speech taskstasks

2.2. Critical period for language but not hearingCritical period for language but not hearing

3.3. Dissociation between speech and language and Dissociation between speech and language and hearing functions in aphasicshearing functions in aphasics

4.4. Right ear advantage in humansRight ear advantage in humans

5.5. Phonetic mode of perceptionPhonetic mode of perception

6.6. Acoustic tradingAcoustic trading

7.7. Categorical perceptionCategorical perception

8.8. Audiovisual speech perception and intermodal Audiovisual speech perception and intermodal integrationintegration

9.9. Symmetry between production and perceptionSymmetry between production and perception

More evidence…More evidence…

• We are able to create language from nothingWe are able to create language from nothing• Pidgins Pidgins

– Structurally simple communication systems Structurally simple communication systems arising from 2 people who share no common arising from 2 people who share no common languagelanguage

– Hawaiian Pidgin Hawaiian Pidgin

• CreolesCreoles– Languages formed when pidgin is developed into Languages formed when pidgin is developed into

a complex, true grammatical languagea complex, true grammatical language– Children of aboveChildren of above

• Deaf e.g.Deaf e.g.– Nicaraguan Sign LanguageNicaraguan Sign Language

The Critical Period HypothesisThe Critical Period Hypothesis

• Children appear to learn language better than Children appear to learn language better than adultsadults

4 lines of evidence:4 lines of evidence:• Feral or socially deprived childrenFeral or socially deprived children

– Never acquire language properlyNever acquire language properly

• The case of Second Language Acquisition The case of Second Language Acquisition (Johnson & Newport)(Johnson & Newport)

• Deaf ChildrenDeaf Children– Can never learn traditional signing systemsCan never learn traditional signing systems

• Brain PlasticityBrain Plasticity– If injured when young, other areas of the brain will take If injured when young, other areas of the brain will take

overover

Potential Problems with Critical Potential Problems with Critical PeriodsPeriods

• Feral children?Feral children?• Johnson & Newport VS Bialystok & Johnson & Newport VS Bialystok &

MillerMiller– Results depend on languages tested Results depend on languages tested

(Spanish VS Korean)(Spanish VS Korean)– Results vary when modality is variedResults vary when modality is varied

• Problems with nativism in generalProblems with nativism in general– Categorical perception of phonemes AND Categorical perception of phonemes AND

signs AND colour, and other animals do itsigns AND colour, and other animals do it– Not enough explanatory powerNot enough explanatory power

Theories of Language Development 2:Theories of Language Development 2:Social-Interaction HypothesisSocial-Interaction Hypothesis

• Most common name associated: BrunerMost common name associated: Bruner• No innate mechanismsNo innate mechanisms

– rather language arising from our social rather language arising from our social interactions, and out of social necessityinteractions, and out of social necessity

• Parents use the Language Acquisition Parents use the Language Acquisition Support SystemSupport System

• This allows adults to speak more slowly, This allows adults to speak more slowly, simpler, fewer wordssimpler, fewer words

• Suits the limited information processing Suits the limited information processing capacity of younger childrencapacity of younger children

Social Interaction HypothesisSocial Interaction Hypothesis

Lines of evidence:Lines of evidence:• Pre-linguistic turn-taking: promotes and Pre-linguistic turn-taking: promotes and

encourages language acquisitionencourages language acquisition• Child-directed speech (main features)Child-directed speech (main features)

– We use higher frequenciesWe use higher frequencies– More various frequencies (highs and lows)More various frequencies (highs and lows)– More rising frequency contours (going from More rising frequency contours (going from

low to high)low to high)– Regulates baby’s mood, behaviour, and Regulates baby’s mood, behaviour, and

attention, and relays mom’s moodattention, and relays mom’s mood– Restricted vocabulary, paraphrasing, limited Restricted vocabulary, paraphrasing, limited

to contextto context

Social Interaction HypothesisSocial Interaction Hypothesis

• As we mature the people around us will As we mature the people around us will speak faster, and in more complex speak faster, and in more complex sentencessentences

• Same phenomenon as when we speak Same phenomenon as when we speak English to a presumed foreignerEnglish to a presumed foreigner

• Language comes about from social Language comes about from social interaction and out of social necessityinteraction and out of social necessity

Theories of Language Development Theories of Language Development 3:3:

Locke’s Neurolinguistic TheoryLocke’s Neurolinguistic Theory1.1. Vocal Learning (onset prenatal)Vocal Learning (onset prenatal)

1.1. Hear sounds, learn them, prefer themHear sounds, learn them, prefer them

2.2. Revolves around social cognitionRevolves around social cognition

2.2. Utterance acquisition (onset 5 to 7 months)Utterance acquisition (onset 5 to 7 months)1.1. Utter words and short phrases, but really hold no Utter words and short phrases, but really hold no

meaningmeaning

2.2. Again, revolves around Social Cognition Again, revolves around Social Cognition

3.3. Grammatical Analyses (onset 20-37 months)Grammatical Analyses (onset 20-37 months)1.1. Acting on info stored from previous phase, try to extract Acting on info stored from previous phase, try to extract

rulesrules

2.2. Focus on analysisFocus on analysis

4.4. Elaboration and Integration (onset 3 years+)Elaboration and Integration (onset 3 years+)1.1. Processing both social and grammatical infoProcessing both social and grammatical info

2.2. Can take in new info and organize itCan take in new info and organize it

Neurolinguistic TheoryNeurolinguistic Theory

• Posits an internal innate grammatical module Posits an internal innate grammatical module that kicks in in the third phase, and is able to that kicks in in the third phase, and is able to interpret a lot of infointerpret a lot of info

• Some supporting evidence:Some supporting evidence:– Correlation between vocabulary size and correct Correlation between vocabulary size and correct

grammar usage in preschoolersgrammar usage in preschoolers– Explains impoverished L2 acquisition: Missing Explains impoverished L2 acquisition: Missing

too much info from phases 1 and 2 to be able to too much info from phases 1 and 2 to be able to get to phase 3get to phase 3

See bidirectional relationship of structure and See bidirectional relationship of structure and function, where innate module won’t kick in function, where innate module won’t kick in without having a need to functionwithout having a need to function

Problem: Black box, innate mechanismProblem: Black box, innate mechanism

Bilingualism Part 1Bilingualism Part 1

• What are effects of speaking 2 languages What are effects of speaking 2 languages from birth?from birth?

• Does not appear to be at a linguistic levelDoes not appear to be at a linguistic level– Some languages are better at some tasks (E.g. Some languages are better at some tasks (E.g.

Spanish with phonological tasks)Spanish with phonological tasks)– No reliable advantage in aspects of language No reliable advantage in aspects of language

developmentdevelopment

Bilingualism, con’dBilingualism, con’d

• How do we assess whether a child is How do we assess whether a child is bilingual?bilingual?

– Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Receptive)(Receptive)

– Video or Storytelling (Expressive)Video or Storytelling (Expressive)– Parental reportParental report

Bilingualism con’dBilingualism con’d

• Metalinguistic awareness: what we Metalinguistic awareness: what we know about language, grammar, etc…know about language, grammar, etc…

• Perhaps learning 2 languages will Perhaps learning 2 languages will increase awareness of language increase awareness of language generallygenerally

• Tasks:Tasks:– Piagetian Sun-Moon TaskPiagetian Sun-Moon Task– Grammaticality JudgmentsGrammaticality Judgments– Moving WordMoving Word

Sun – Moon ProblemSun – Moon Problem

If everyone agreed to change the names for the sun and the moon, so we would call the sun, the moon, and the moon, the sun, what would be up in the sky when we go to bed at night?

Answer: the sun

What would the sky look like?

Answer: dark

Scores on Sun-Moon Type tasksScores on Sun-Moon Type tasksBialystok, 1988Bialystok, 1988

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Monolingual

Early bilingual

Late bilingual

Grammaticality JudgmentsGrammaticality Judgments

Correct:Correct: Apples grow on trees.Apples grow on trees.

(Right)(Right)

Incorrect:Incorrect: Apples growed on trees.Apples growed on trees.

(Wrong)(Wrong)

Anomalous:Anomalous: Apples grow on noses.Apples grow on noses.

(Right)(Right)

Wrong:Wrong: Apples growed on noses.Apples growed on noses.

(Wrong)(Wrong)

Grammaticality Judgments (7-Grammaticality Judgments (7-year-olds)year-olds)

Bialystok, 1986Bialystok, 1986

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Correct Incorrect Anomalous Wrong

Monolingual

Bilingual

*

Grammaticality Judgments (9-Grammaticality Judgments (9-year-olds)year-olds)

Bialystok, 1986Bialystok, 1986

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Correct Incorrect Anomalous Wrong

Monolingual

Bilingual

*

Moving Word TaskMoving Word Task

dogdog dogdog

Proportion correct in Moving Word Proportion correct in Moving Word Task by age and groupTask by age and group

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

4 years 5 years

Age

Pro

por

tion

Cor

rect

Monolingual

French Bilingual

Chinese Bilingual

Moving Word Task by Language Moving Word Task by Language GroupGroup

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

4 years 5 years

Age

Pro

por

tion

Cor

rect Monolingual

French Bilingual

Chinese BilingualHebrew Bilingual

Conclusions about Language Conclusions about Language DevelopmentDevelopment

• Remarkable regularity across children Remarkable regularity across children and cultures in rate of developmentand cultures in rate of development

• Mechanisms are as of yet not agreed uponMechanisms are as of yet not agreed upon• Different life experiences like bilingualism Different life experiences like bilingualism

can alter how we understand aspects of can alter how we understand aspects of languagelanguage