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Announcementsand today’s schedule
Today: Television, Chapter 8Quiz Wednesday on Television
Chapter Eight
Invention of the TVPhilo T. Farnsworth
Plowing father’s farm inspired design for scanning an imageRCA paid $1,000,000 for patents after long litigation
Vladimir Zworykin: RCA team: IconoscopeTV’s commercial debut: NBC, April 30, 1939
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TV technology developmentNational Television Systems Committee (NTSC)
525 lines and 30 frames per second, 60 interlaced scans to eliminate flicker—mostly unchanged today
Freeze 1948 to 1952: No new stations, but TV continued to grow in major cities, reaching 15 million homes by 1952
1948: 18 stations in 12 cities
Color TV: 1952—first colorTV show: “Bonanza”
FCC’s Sixth Report and Order (1952)Did a number of things:
Ended 1948 TV application freeze Opened UHF band for TVReassigned many VHF stations to reduce interferenceEstablished non-commercial educational TV by reserving channels in hundreds of communities
VHF (original channels): Very high frequency, channels 2-13UHF (introduced in 1952): Ultra high frequency, channels 14-83 (reduced to 14-69, with extras reassigned to cell phones)
FCC did not require UHF tuners on TVs until 1964
“Golden Age of TV”TV was live: programs recorded on film by filming TV screenLive drama anthologies: “Playhouse 90” had 133 episodes (1956-61), 90-min. live dramaNews and public affairs programs
Evening news: “Camel NewsCaravan” with John CameronSwayze (15 min. nat’l newscast)“See It Now” with EdwardR. Murrow, who bashed Sen.Joseph McCarthy and Houseun-American Activities Committeefor “Red Scare”
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Rise of the networks AT&T had coaxial cable interconnecting stations by 1946
NBC linked WNBT in New York with stations in Philadelphia, Schenectady, and Washington
Three successful networks grew out of radio: NBC, CBS, and ABC
Fourth network, Dumont Network,had no radio network backing,only lasted until 1955
Commercial practices Programs had single commercial sponsor, commercials part of program (e.g., “soap operas” sponsored by soap companies; Kraft Television Theatre by Kraft Foods)Change in commercials
Encouraged participatingsponsorshipAdvertisers paid for spotcommercials: one-minuteNetwork took greatercontrol of program content
95% of all stations were affiliates
End of the “Golden Age”Ended as ratings become paramount
Buying and selling of spots became tied to cost per thousand viewersDrove programs aimed atelite eastern audience off
Program success basedon low production costand high ratings (e.g.,sitcoms, quiz shows…and today, reality TV)
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TV ratings: A.C. Nielsen Co.Random sample size = more than 5,000 households, with over 13,000 people (99.4 mill. U.S. households)
Audimeter: Automatic monitoringPeople meter: Set-top box “Sweeps” determine ad rates
Ratings: Estimate of percentage of total population watching a particular TV stationShare: Estimate of percentage of people watching TV who are watching a particular TV station
TV goes to HollywoodLucille Ball’s Desilu Productions was first to move from NYC to Hollywood
She did it to retain control over her programmingStudios start producing programs for networks
ABC got content from Disney(“Mickey Mouse Club”) andWarner Brothers (“77 Sunset Strip”)
Studies later profited fromselling programs as rerunsStudios also sell movies to networks
NBC’s “Saturday Night at the Movies”
Quiz show scandal“$64,000 Question” (1955) sponsored and produced by Revlon“Twenty-One” scandal (1957)
Charles Van Doren, professor atColumbia University, won$129,000 and admitted beinggiven answers in advance
Networks reexaminedrelationship betweensponsors and programsResurgence of game shows in 1999
“Who Wants to Be a Millionaire”
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Nixon-Kennedy 1960 presidential debate65 million people watched
Radio listeners picked Nixon as winnerTV viewers picked Kennedy as winner
A vast wasteland?!Newton Minow: FCC Chairman appointed by JFK, used term at National Association of Broadcasters meeting in 1961 TV had become oligopoly, three networks, and FCC tried to break networkcontrol
Fin-Syn:“Financial Interest andSyndication Rules” (networkscouldn’t own programming)ended in 90sPrime Time Access Rule: stoppednetwork programming between7 and 8 P.M.
Public television (PBS) FCC reserves licenses for educational TV after 1948 freezeCarnegie Commission on Educational Television report on state of educational TV (1967) > Public Broadcasting Act of 1967established PBS and Corporation for Public Broadcasting (funding)Programming sources
Major PBS stations: WGBN,WNETChildren’s Television Workshop:“Sesame Street”British imports: “Masterpiece Theater”
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Cable TV: Community Antenna TV (CATV)Intended at first to boost broadcast signals
John Walson – late 1940s, Mahanoy, Penn., demonstrated TVs in appliance store, let neighbors connect to his system via towers that boosted signals
1965-72: FCC imposed freeze over cable services in top 100 broadcast markets if any UHF television operator objected to it, to “protect” still-new UHF services
WTCG (now WTBS) Atlanta viasatellite
Multiple System Operators (MSOs)Support channels only on cable, monthly fee
Cable competitionDBS: direct broadcast satellite
Geosynchronous orbitPrimestar, DirecTV
Programming fee and cost of equipment Areas where there is no cable
Home videoVideocassette rentalShifting of programs
Network changes As audience aged, networks lost audience sharePrograms increase in extremes of violence and sex Changes in programming
More racially diverse: “I Spy,” and “Julia”Evening soaps: “Dallas”Prime time sports: “Monday Night Football”
Change of ownership ABC acquired by Capital Cities CommunicationCBS acquired by investor Larry TischNBC acquired by GE
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New TV networksRemoval of Fin-Syn rules allowed wealthy investors to develop alternative networks
Fox: Rupert Murdock’s News Corp., also owns 20th Century Fox and production studioWB: AOL Time-Warner,also owns HBO, CNNUPN (United ParamountNetwork): Viacom
Narrowcasting: Newnetworks targeted viewers 18-34 (“90210,” “Simpsons”)
“Big Three” add more sex and violence
New trogramming trends:Reality-based TV Old programming formulas not profitable
Cost of production outstripped income from advertising“Big Three” attract less than half audience
Cheap programmingReality programming—“America's Funniest HomeVideos,” talk and cop shows Prime time quiz shows—“Who Wants to Be a Millionaire”Combination reality and game shows—“Survivor”Low costs! No scripts or actors
Network changedance partners Telecom Act of 1996 relaxes rules on media ownershipNBC: Owned by General Electric
Also owns a share of PAX, MSNBC, and CNBC
ABC: Owned by Disney Also owns cable network ESPN, and The Disney Channel
CBS: Owned by ViacomAlso owns UPN, MTV, and Showtime
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Digital TVHigh-definition television (HDTV): Digital image/sound, large screen with 16:9 aspect ratio Picture is “like looking through a window”In 2006 all analog TV stations “go dark”
You will need a newHDTV or set-top boxOld programs mustbe digitized500+ digital stations are now on-airCable systems mustonly carry analog signal
Personal and interactive TV TiVo and ReplayTV: Cross VCRwith computer hard drive
Store compressed video, instantreplay and pause program
Video-on-demand: cable industry option Add Internet function to TV programs
Microsoft WebTV:interactive content
Video over the Internet:most connections stilltoo slow to support
“The Big Five”AOL Time Warner
WB Network, HBO, CNN, Headline News, TNT, Turner Classic Movies, TBS, Warner Brothers movie studio, Warner Cable, Time Magazine
DisneyDisney Studios, ABC, ESPN, Disney Channel, Lifetime, E!, A&E, Disneyland, 10 TV stations
ViacomCBS, Paramount, UPN network, 17 TV station, TNN, MTV, VH-1, Nickelodeon, TV Land, BET
News CorpTwentieth Century Fox, FX, Fox News, 23 TV stations, publishing
General ElectricNBC, MSNBC, CNBC, 13 TV stations
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SynergyMultiple benefits from integrating production and various forms of distribution Cross promotion: e.g., AOL/Time Warner…
Warner Brothers studio: produces TV series “Felicity”WB Network: distributes seriesTime Magazine: promotes series Warner Cable: delivers series to home viewerNot to mention toys, clothes, notebooks, etc…
Television advertisersNational advertisers
Advertisements carried on networks Up front season: blocks of ads sold before fall season starts
National spot advertisersNational advertisers buy air time from local stations Purchase air time through national representatives
Local advertisers
New TV hegemonyCultural diversity?
White male middle-class hegemonyWomen and minorities under-represented before and behind camera: Hispanics are 11% of population but 3% of TV roles
Excessive horizontal integration
Limits diversity of content Vertical integration
Big five conglomerates dominate production AND distribution
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Children and TVChildren’s Television Act of 1990 mandated that TV serve educational and informational needs of children
Rules are general enough to allow “Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles” to be counted as educational…?
V-chip: Telecom Act of 1996 required new TVs be sold with device that allows parents to block undesirable programs
TVY – All childrenTVY7 - Directed to older childrenTVG – General audienceTVPG – Parental guidance suggestedTV15 – Parents strongly cautionedTVM – Mature audience only
Fairness DoctrineEncourage dissection of issues
Most stations did not abide by rules
Held to be constitutional regulation in Red Lion case (1969)1987: Deregulation, and no more FD!
Protection of commercial broadcasting Broadcasters have powerful lobby in Washington (politicians want happy media!)Broadcasting will remain advertiser-supported (free)
Cost added to all goods and services we buy
Government makes cable carry local stations, and may require them to be carried by DBS and broadband too