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Psychologists do more than just wonder about human behavior:

they conduct RESEARCH

Two Types of Research Used in Two Types of Research Used in PsychologyPsychology

Applied ResearchApplied Research – clear and practical reasons and used for clear and practical reasons and used for

researchresearch

Ex: If a psychologist was trying to come up with a Ex: If a psychologist was trying to come up with a new behavior therapy to stop heroin use, it new behavior therapy to stop heroin use, it would be would be applied researchapplied research

Basic ResearchBasic Research – no immediate, real-world uses but no immediate, real-world uses but

explores interesting questionsexplores interesting questions

Ex: Studying the differences between cultures Ex: Studying the differences between cultures and physical beauty is an example of and physical beauty is an example of basic basic researchresearch

Things that make research Things that make research scientificscientific

Research Must Be Research Must Be ReplicableReplicable

Must be able to be copied by others to get Must be able to be copied by others to get similar similar reliable data reliable data

the best and most reliable studies are replicated the best and most reliable studies are replicated over and overover and over

Things that make research Things that make research scientificscientific

Research Must Be Research Must Be PrecisePrecise Meaning research has to be to the point and easily Meaning research has to be to the point and easily

understood understood To be precise psychologists use To be precise psychologists use

Operational DefinitionsOperational Definitions a definition of terms so basic that when others a definition of terms so basic that when others

read your study they know read your study they know exactly what you are exactly what you are looking for or looking for or measuringmeasuring

Example – if you are trying to measure sense of Example – if you are trying to measure sense of humor – how would you humor – how would you

make it precise?make it precise?

What can cause research to What can cause research to go wrong??go wrong??

What exactly do I What exactly do I mean by bias??mean by bias??

BiasBias Any influence in research that unfairly increases the Any influence in research that unfairly increases the

possibility we will reach a particular conclusion possibility we will reach a particular conclusion

Types of BiasTypes of Bias Researcher Bias, Confirmation Bias, Researcher Bias, Confirmation Bias,

Experimenter BiasExperimenter Bias when when researchersresearchers look for and accept evidence that look for and accept evidence that

supports their beliefs and supports their beliefs and ignoreignore or or rejectreject evidence evidence that prove false their beliefsthat prove false their beliefs

Participant Bias (or subject bias)Participant Bias (or subject bias) when when research participantsresearch participants respond in a certain respond in a certain

way way because they know they are being because they know they are being observedobserved

act how they think the researcher wants them to actact how they think the researcher wants them to act

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias when when researchersresearchers believe, after learning believe, after learning the the

outcome outcome of research, that they knew it all alongof research, that they knew it all along

Hawthorne Effect

• short-lived increase in productivity

• the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change

• So even a control group may experience changes and affect results of experiment

Whether the lights were brighter or dimmer, production went up in the Hawthorne electric plant.

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Scientific Method in Psychology

• Scientists develop theories through the scientific method

• The scientific method is the process used in psychology to discover knowledge about human behaviour and mental processes

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Scientific Method in Psychology (cont’d)

• The first step is to state the problem

• Psychologists must ask questions that can be answered

• The questions must be specific and defined in a clear way

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Scientific Method in Psychology (cont’d)

• The second step is to develop a hypothesis

• A hypothesis is an educated guess about the answer to the question that has been posed

• Hypotheses often emerge from theory

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Scientific Method in Psychology (cont’d)

• Step three is to design a study• Researchers must identify key variables and choose a suitable

method for investigation• Researchers also must consider how many participants will be

required and who the participants will be

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Scientific Method in Psychology (cont’d)

• The fourth step is collect and analyze data

• Techniques must be selected that do not bias the results

• Statistical methods help summarize the data that have been collected

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Scientific Method in Psychology (cont’d)

• The fifth step is draw conclusions and reporting results

• Researchers report results to the scientific community by making presentations at conferences or by publishing their findings in a journal

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Experimental Method

• Psychological research often takes the form of an experiment

• An experiment is a procedure in which researchers systematically manipulate and observe elements of a situation to test a hypothesis

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• A variable is characteristic of a situation or a person that is subject to change or that differs within or across situations or persons

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• The independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter

• The dependent variable is the behavior or response that is expected to change because of the experimenter’s manipulation

Independent VariableIndependent Variable Factors that are manipulated in an experimentFactors that are manipulated in an experiment

The variable that should cause something to happenThe variable that should cause something to happen

Dependent VariableDependent Variable The variable that should show the effect of The variable that should show the effect of

changing the IV changing the IV

the way you can figure this out is the way you can figure this out is …”…”IfIf……thenthen…”…” IfIf = IV = IV thenthen = DV = DV

- - “If students study for a quiz before going to “If students study for a quiz before going to sleep, sleep, rather than in the morning, then they rather than in the morning, then they will get will get higher test scores”higher test scores”

Experimenters try to hold everything Experimenters try to hold everything else constant so that the independent else constant so that the independent variable is the cause of the observed variable is the cause of the observed

effects but this doesn’t always happen effects but this doesn’t always happen because of…because of…

Independent Variable

• Whatever is being manipulated in the experiment.

• Hopefully the independent variable brings about change. If there is a drug in an

experiment, the drug is almost always the independent variable.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable would be the effect of the drug.

• Whatever is being measured in the experiment.

• It is dependent on the independent variable.

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• A sample is the limited number of people researchers select to be part of the experiment and who represent a larger group

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• An operational definition is a definition of a variable in terms of the methods or procedures used to study that variable

• Studying defined as 20 minutes per day over three days is an operational definition

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• Participants are the individuals who take part in an experiment and whose behaviour is observed and recorded

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Experimental Method (cont’d)

• The experimental group “receives” the independent variable

• The control group is a comparison group who are tested on the dependent variable but do not receive the independent variable

3 Types of Research you will 3 Types of Research you will have to know!!!have to know!!!

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive ResearchCorrelational ResearchCorrelational ResearchExperimental ResearchExperimental Research

Descriptive Descriptive ResearchResearch

describes the “who, what, when, where” of a situation

NOTNOT concerned with causes or how something works onlyonly about describing what is going on

What is going on in this picture?

We cannot say exactly, but we can describe what we see.

This is called…

Research Type #1Research Type #1

3 Types of Descriptive Research

• The Case Study

• The Survey

• Naturalistic Observation

Descriptive Research Type #1The Case StudyThe Case Study

• Where one person (or situation) is observed and studied in depth to gather information.

For example, if I wanted to study personality and abnormal behavior how would a case study go about it??

Case Studies

• A detailed picture of one or a few subjects.

• Tells us a great story…but is just descriptive research.

• Does not even give us correlation data.

The ideal case study is John and Kate. Really interesting, but what does it tell us about families in general?

Can study a behavior in depth and get Can study a behavior in depth and get quality quality info info on that caseon that case

The results of the case study are usually The results of the case study are usually

not not generalizablegeneralizable to the rest of to the rest of the the population. population.

One persons case would One persons case would notnot be a valid be a valid representation representation of the whole populationof the whole population

WeaknessWeakness

StrengthStrength

Descriptive Research Type #2The SurveyThe Survey

• Uses interviews or questionnaires to gather information like attitudes and beliefs

•The Good – Allows generalization– Cheap and anonymous– Can get a diverse and large

population

Has both pros and cons when Has both pros and cons when usedused

Survey Method: The Bad

• Social Desirability BiasSocial Desirability Bias – Give socially acceptable answers not truth

• Volunteer BiasVolunteer Bias– People who volunteer may not be representative of whole population

• Problems with wording and answer optionsProblems with wording and answer options

Where are surveys used in daily life?

Descriptive Research Type #3 Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

• Observing and recording behavior in natural environment – No interacting with subjects at

all – just an observer– “taking the lab into the field”

What are the benefits and detriments of Naturalistic

Observation?+ = natural behavior

- = observers may see different things- = can’t control the environment or outside factors

Field Trip

• We will stay together as we walk around the school grounds.

• We are to stay quiet and observe

• There is nothing special set up, I just want you to LOOK

How many signs in the hallway?How many times did you see the word Huskies?How many cars in the parking lot?Did a plane fly over?How many people did you pass?

Correlational Research

Explores relationships or links (correlations) between variables

Example – mothers smoking during pregnancy is “correlated”“correlated” with increased risk of SIDS in

babies

Descriptive vs. Correlational Descriptive Research - - - describes Correlational Research - - - links or relationships

between things

Research Type #2

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research• #1 thing to remember in Correlational Research

Correlation does not equal causation!!!!!Correlation does not equal causation!!!!!• It is important to understand that CR does NOT

say that one variable causes another but rather that they are somehow related

There is a correlation between ice cream and murder rates. Does that mean that ice cream causes murder?

For Example…

Remember…correlation does not equal causation!!!!!

Measuring the Strength of Relationships

• Relationship of variables is measured using

correlation coefficientcorrelation coefficient– A statistical measure (a number) of A statistical measure (a number) of

strength of relationship of variablesstrength of relationship of variables • (ex. Ice cream and murder rates)

– Can vary -1.00 to +1.00Can vary -1.00 to +1.00 (more on this later)

• Correlations or relationships can go in two directions– Positive– Negative

Types of Correlation

Positive Correlation• The variables go in

the SAME direction.

Negative Correlation• The variables go in

opposite directions.

Studying and grades hopefully has a positive correlation.

Heroin use and grades probably has a negative correlation.

Experimental Research

Explores cause and effectcause and effect relationships by manipulating and measuring variables

Eating too many Onions causesBad Breath

Research Type #3

Extraneous or Confounding Variables variables that you don’t count on that

could change or influence the DV you want to check for these to make sure they don’t mess up

what you are looking for with the IV

Determine the type of experiment: Blind vs. Double Blind

- blind – participants are kept in the dark about

purpose or about hypothesis- double-blind

– both the participants and researcher are kept in the dark - placebo

– an inactive pill that has no known effect (sugar pill)

Mini ActivityMini Activity

Design an experiment you might be Design an experiment you might be interested to conduct:interested to conduct:Come up with a questionCome up with a questionForm a hypothesisForm a hypothesisCome up with your variables (IV, DV)Come up with your variables (IV, DV)Operational DefinitionOperational DefinitionConfouding Variables?Confouding Variables?Any bias?Any bias?What you think the outcome will be?What you think the outcome will be?

20 students randomly assigned to

experimental group

Wear headphonesdaily in study hall

Average grades atthe end of the quarter

40 students randomly selectedAll Study hall students(population)

Average grades atthe end of the quarter

Not allowed to wear headphonesin study hall

20 students randomly assigned to

control group

Hypothesis – students who are assigned to wear headphones in study hall will have higher average grades at the end of the quarter than those banned from wearing headphones

Sample

IV

DV DV