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Chapter 10
Campaigns and Elections
Campaigns and Elections
Elections in America: Elections and Democracy
Elections and democracy
• Elections provide a peaceful means to change the government
• There are tens of thousands of elected official in the United States– Elections are held at the local, state, and national levels
• Elections help hold elected officials accountable to the public– Accountability is critical in democracy
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Elections in America: An Overview
Overview of U.S. elections
• Elections in the United States occur on fixed dates– Presidential elections: happen once every four years on the first
Tuesday in November (following the first Monday)– Congressional elections: held every two years on the first Tuesday
in November (following the first Monday)– Midterm elections: congressional elections that do not coincide with
a presidential election
Elections in America: Administration
Election administration
• State and local governments are primarily responsible for running elections– Establishing and staffing poll places– Processing mail-in ballots– Verifying and determining voter eligibility– Determining how and where people vote
Elections in America: Types of Elections
Types of elections
• Primary election: an election held to select a party’s candidate for the general election– Closed primary: a primary election in which only voters of the party
in which they are enrolled can participate– Open primary: a primary election in which all registered voters,
including independents, can participate
• General election: follows the primary elections and determines who is ultimately elected to office
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Elections in America: Different Democratic Methods
Different democracies use different methods to determine election winners
• Majority system: the winner must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast (50 percent plus 1)– Majority systems include a provision for a runoff election
• a runoff election is a “second-round” election between the top two candidates from the first round
• Plurality system: the winner is the candidate who earns the most votes (but not necessarily a majority)– Used in most elections in the United States
Elections in America: Different Democratic Methods, Part 2
Third type of electoral system
• Proportional representation: competing political parties win legislative seats in proportion to the vote won by party– Example: A party that won 30 percent of the vote in the election
would earn roughly 30 percent of seats in the legislature – Used in most European nation and advanced democracies– Proportional representation gives a voice to smaller parties in
government
Elections in America
Ballots
• Before 1890, ballots were provided by the political parties– Each party printed its own ballot
• party ballots only listed the names of the party’s own candidates
• this encouraged “straight-ticket voting” (selecting candidates from the same party for all offices on the ballot)
• By the start of the 1900s, ballots were prepared by the government– Adoption of the Australian (long-form) ballot, which included the
names of all candidates from all parties on the ballot
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Elections in America: Ballots
Ballots vary in the United States from county to county
• Variations of ballots include– Paper ballots– Mechanical voting machines– Computerized systems
• Controversy in 2000 election led to some reform– Help Americans Vote Act (HAVA): Pushed for nationwide
improvements in voting systems
Legislative Elections and Electoral Districts
Legislative districts
• Boundaries are sometimes drawn by states– Districts are drawn every 10 years– The process of redrawing districts is known as redistricting
• The geographic shape of district boundaries may change due to several factors– Population shifts and changes (as determined by the U.S. census)– Partisanship
Legislative Elections and Electoral Districts: Key Court Cases
Important court decisions
• Baker v. Carr (1962): the Supreme Court ruled that the federal courts can intervene in the drawing of legislative districts
• Later court decisions ruled that districts for Congress and state legislature must be roughly equal in population– Districts must adhere to the principle of “one person, one vote”
• The U.S. House district population is roughly 700,000
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Legislative Elections and Electoral Districts: Redistricting
Politics of redistricting
• Drawing of legislative districts is political• The party that controls the process wants a partisan
advantage– Gerrymandering: strategy of drawing legislative districts to favor a
political party• Term comes from nineteenth-century Massachusetts governor
Elbridge Gerry, who allegedly drew a district in the shape of a salamander
Electoral Districts
Legislative Elections and Electoral Districts: Gerrymandering
Strategies behind gerrymandering• Dispersing voters of one party into two or more districts
dilutes that party’s power• Concentrating voters of one party into as few districts as
possible ensures it cannot win outside those districts• Gerrymandering often results in “safe” districts where
there is little two-party competition– It also can result in the creation of “majority-minority” districts, in
which racial or ethic minorities constitute a majority in the district
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Presidential Elections: The Nominations
The first stage of the process in a presidential election is the nomination phase
• Nomination involves primary elections and caucuses– A caucus is a meeting of voters to choose the party’s candidate
• One-third of states use a caucus rather than a primary election• The most famous is the Iowa caucus (first on the calendar)
– The New Hampshire primary follows the Iowa caucus– In both Iowa and New Hampshire there is a heavy emphasis on
grassroots politics (face-to-face communication)
Presidential Elections: Party Conventions
Party convention
• In the nation’s first 50 years, there were no party conventions– Presidential nominations were done by congressional caucuses
• known as the “King Caucus”
• Party conventions ultimately replaced the King Caucus– State party leaders picked delegates from the 1830s to the mid-
1900s– Primaries and caucuses now select delegates– Delegates draft the party platform and formally nominate the
party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates
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Presidential Elections
Becoming president• Voters technically select “electors” in the general election
– They are not voting directly for candidates; instead, the voters select the candidate who goes to the electoral college
• The electors chosen for the electoral college select the president– The state party of the winning candidate typically chooses the
electors– The number of electors in each state equals the size of that state’s
congressional delegation (House members plus two Senators)– There are 538 electors in all; the winning candidate needs 270
votes
The Electoral College: Butterfly Ballots
Direct Democracy Elections
Twenty-four states have an initiative process
• Ballot initiative– Proposed law or policy change that is placed on the ballot by
citizens or interest groups for a popular vote
• Referendum– Law proposed by a legislature that is referred to the public for a
vote of approval or rejection
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Direct Democracy Elections: Recall Elections
Eighteen states have recall elections• A recall election allows voters to remove state officials from
office before their term expires– A recall election is held when a minimum threshold of voters sign a
petition calling for one• in California, the threshold is 12 percent • California removed its governor, Gray Davis, in 2003 via a recall
election• in 2012, Wisconsin governor Scott Walker faced a recall election
but won and remained in office
Election Campaigns
Campaigning for office
• A campaign is an effort to win the backing of– Donors– Activists– Voters
• Incumbents (candidate who already hold office) have advantages– Already well known– Little difficulty attracting supporters and donors
Election Campaigns: The Necessary Steps
Steps in campaigning
• Candidates start a campaign and begin to raise money by– Forming an exploratory committee– Filing papers announcing the candidacy
• Campaigns are about how politicians run for office– Strategies depend on the office, party, and candidate, as well as
contemporary issues, the electorate, technology
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Campaign Organization Chart
Election Campaigns: Advisers
Campaign organization
• Advisers– Assist with professional strategic decisions about organization, ads,
budgeting, and executing the campaign– Top advisers include the campaign manager, media consultants,
pollsters, and financial and press relations experts
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Election Campaigns: Fund-Raisers
Campaign organization
• Fund-raisers– Identify donors and find allies for indirect spending– Try to appeal to both large and small donors– Some candidates spend more time soliciting donations than
engaging in any other campaign activity
Election Campaigns: Polling
Campaign organization
• Pollsters– They test ad messages; find out what voters think of their
candidate and the opponents (strengths and weaknesses)– Nearly all campaigns make extensive use of polling– Polls help campaigns craft strategy
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Election Campaigns: Strategy
Two important campaigns within the campaign
• Grassroots campaign– People intensive: requires volunteers to knock on doors, hand out
leaflets, and organize rallies– Very important for local and congressional candidates
• Mass media campaign– Money intensive: relies on TV, radio, and newspaper– Very important for statewide and presidential candidates
Election Campaigns: Media
Media exposure is critical to a campaign
• Candidates buy ads; television ads are the primary vehicle– Television ads consist of 15-, 30-, and 60-second spots– Outside groups and parties buy “independent” ads
• Candidates also try to generate free media coverage– Appear on talk shows for interviews– Electronic tall hall meeting: candidates talk with citizens– Use of digital media
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Election Campaigns: Debates
Debates• An opportunity to see candidates outside the “campaign
bubble”– Involve direct face-to-face exchanges with the opponent rather
than stage-managed public appearances
• Usually involve civilized disagreement– The Republican primary debates of 2016 were uncharacteristically
harsh
• Can be important in very competitive elections– Some argue that TV debates helped Kennedy win over Nixon in
1960
Election Campaigns: Micro-Targeting
Micro-Targeting
• Different voters care about different issues– Micro-targeting designs campaign ads and messages for specific
demographic groups of voters
• Used since the 2000 election– Began with the George W. Bush campaigns in 2000 and 2004– Grew more sophisticated with the Obama campaign
• used unprecedented survey work with statistical algorithms
Money and Politics
The United States is different from other democracies in the world, many of which finance elections through public money
• Court rulings allow unlimited spending– Buckley v. Valeo (1976): introduced the concept that money is
“speech”• allowed unlimited independent PAC expenditures and unlimited
spending by candidates on their own campaign
– Citizens United v. FEC (2010): ruling that independent spending by corporations and unions is protected by the First Amendment
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Sources of Campaign Funds
Campaigns have at least six sources of funds
1. Individual donors2. Political action committees (PACs)3. 527, 501(c), and Super PAC committees4. Political parties5. Public money6. The candidates themselves
Sources of Campaign Funds: Individual Donors
Individual Donors
• Contributions are limited to– $2,700 per candidate per election– $5,000 per federal PAC per calendar year– $30,400 per national party committee per calendar year– $10,000 to state and local committees per calendar year
Sources of Campaign Funds: PACs
Political action committees (PACs)
• Established by corporations, labor unions, interest groups, or other advocacy groups
– Their purpose is to channel contributions from their members to political campaigns
• Contributions from PACs to candidates are limited• There are no limits on independent expenditures
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Sources of Campaign Funds: 527 and 501c(4) Groups
527 and 501c(4) groups
• 527 groups engage in issue advocacy– No limits on donations to them
• 501c(4) groups may not spend more than half of revenue for political purposes
– There are no limits on donations to 501c(4) groups– There are no disclosure requirement of donors to 501(c)(4) groups
Sources of Campaign Funds: Super PACs
Super PACs
• Engage by making independent expenditures only (no contributions to candidates)
– There are no limits on donations to, or spending by, Super PACs– Super PACs are required to disclose donors’ names
How Voters Decide
Three major factors influence voters’ decisions at the polls
1. Partisan loyalty– Most likely to assert itself in less visible races
2. Issues and policy preferences– Some voters cast their ballot for candidate whose positions on issues
of importance they believe to be closest to their own
3. Candidate characteristics– A candidate’s race, ethnicity, religion, gender, geographic
background, or social background may be a factor
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How Voters Decide: Partisanship
Consumer Confidence and Presidential Elections
Profile of Campaign Donors
Donors
• Education level, income, age, and interest– Americans with some college education or a college degree are much
more likely to make a political contribution – Americans with less disposable income contribute less of their
financial resources– Americans over age 50 contribute much more than those under 50– Americans who claim to have an interest in politics are more likely to
donate
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Public Opinion Poll: Q1
Do you think voters make decisions based on the influence of campaign ads?
a) Yes, campaign ads influence voter decisions.b) No, people already know whom they prefer before
seeing the ads.
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Public Opinion Poll: Q2
The redistricting process is controversial and is conducted differently in each state. Who should draw district lines?
a) state legislaturesb) nonpartisan state demographers, using only
population data and mapsc) a bipartisan committee of elected officials and public
interest groupsd) an appointed, bipartisan panel of state judges
Public Opinion Poll: Q3
Should the Democratic and Republican parties have a national primary to select their party’s presidential nominees instead of a state-by-state system?
a) Yes, one national primary would be better.b) No, a state-by-state system is best.
Public Opinion Poll: Q4
Should there be limits on the amount of money candidates can spend on campaigns?
a) yesb) no
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Public Opinion Poll: Q5
Should we get rid of the electoral college or change the way that it operates (using the Maine and Nebraska models)?
a) end the electoral college and elect presidents by popular vote
b) change to a system like the one Nebraska or Maine has implemented
c) keep the current system in place.
Additional Information
Following this slide, you will find additional images, figures, and tables from the textbook.
Election Day
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Table 10.1: The 2016 Primaries and Caucuses Calendar
Presidential Candidates: Ted Cruz
Electoral College versus Popular Vote
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Sources of Campaign Funds: Limit on Campaign Donations
Average House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1980-2014
Electing the President: Steps in the Process
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Distribution of Electoral Votes, 2016
America Side by Side: Campaign Laws in Comparison
Presidential and Vice Presidential Candidate Nominations
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Campaign Advertisements
Campaign Advisers
John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon: The First Televised
Presidential Debate
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Campaign Staff
The DNC E-mail Leak
Campaign Promises
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Personal Attacks, Scandal, and Campaign Strategy
The White Working Class Vote