Westlaw Document 21-34-37

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11 CLMJAL 175 Page 111 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

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Colum&ia Journal o' Asian La(!)ring 1**7

Arti+le

*175 T,- COLONAL ROOT! O/ CRMNAL PROC-R- N T,- P,LPPN-!

Am Rossa&i /Na13

Co)right 4+ 1**7 Colum&ia Journal o' Asian La(6 Am Rossa&i

. ntrou+tion

Centuries o' +olonial rule )ro'ounl in'luen+e /ili)ino so+ial8 )oliti+al8 an legal institutions. /ili)inola(8 in )arti+ular8 e#ol#e as a snthesis o' inigenous8 !)anish 4Roman8 an Ameri+an +ommon la(s8 ea+h &uiling on its 'orerunner to +reate a sstem uni9ue to the Phili))ines. As a su++ession o' alien )o(ers+oloni:e the Phili))ines8 the )reser#e some o' the e;isting la(s8 altering onl those in +on'li+t (ith their o(n an aing a 'e( to en+om)ass ne( +ommer+ial8 )oliti+al8 or religious +onitions. $hen the !)anishesta&lishe a +olonial go#ernment in 15<58 the initiall )ermitte the nati#e inha&itants to +ontinue (ith mano' their inigenous +ustoms instea o' im)osing their o(n traitions eri#e 'rom the Roman legal +oe. Asthe &e+ame more entren+he8 ho(e#er8 the !)anish attem)te to su&#ert man o' the +ustomar la(s.Ameri+an o''i+ials8 (ho is)la+e the !)anish in 1=*=8 generall ao)te the same )oli+ & in+or)orating+ertain 'eatures o' Roman la( (hile simultaneousl tolerating some o' the remaining nati#e legal traitions.

The Ameri+ans thus re( on mu+h o' the e;isting su&stanti#e la( &ut also 'oun that the !)anish ha 'aileto introu+e la(s o' )ro+eure to the ar+hi)elago. Moreo#er8 the 'e( )ro+eural measures that the !)anish

&rought (ith them a))eare to &e in+onsistent (ith Ameri+an +on+e)ts o' >usti+e. $ithin t(o ears o' their arri#al8 .!. +olonial o''i+ials issue "eneral Orers No. 5=8 (hi+h institute a +oe o' +riminal )ro+eure that(as more +onsonant (ith Ameri+an legal ieals. The +oe o' +riminal )ro+eure the Ameri+an +olonialsintrou+e in 1*008 remains #irtuall un+hange in 1**7 an go#erns )resent?a +riminal )ro+eure in thePhili))ines. Thus )ro+eural re'orms o' the +olonial )ast ha a tremenous im)a+t on the +urrent /ili)ino legalsstem.

*176 $hen the ra'te an im)lemente su+h legal o+uments as "eneral Orers No. 5= in the earlt(entieth +entur8 Ameri+an +olonials enliste the ai o' the /ili)ino eu+ate elite8 the ilustraos. Throughouttheir tenure in the Phili))ines8 Ameri+an o''i+ials em)loe the assistan+e o' the ilustraos to legitimi:e their rule. This +olla&oration ena&le the Ameri+an o''i+ials to go#ern the ar+hi)elago through eu+ateintermeiaries an 'ree them 'rom ire+t aministration o' the lo(er?+lass /ili)inos. /N13

Although man o' the rights Ameri+ans o''ere the /ili)inos (ere similar to those guarantee to .!.+iti:ens uner the Constitution8 the +olonial regime ne#er 'ormall e;tene +i#il rights to the inha&itants o' theslans. Most im)ortantl8 uring the Ameri+an o++u)ation8 the /ili)inos ne#er ha the right to a trial & >ur8 a+ornerstone o' Ameri+an emo+rati+ #alues.

!ee%ing to a#ert an )ossi&le threat to their +ontrol o' the Phili))ines8 the Ameri+an +olonials ele+te not toin+lue >ur trials in "eneral Orers No. 5=. The 'eare that gi#ing the orinar /ili)ino a eterminati#e role inthe >ui+ial sstem might )ose a +hallenge to their authorit. To >usti' this e+ision8 the +olonial regimereasone that sin+e the /ili)inos ha ne#er ha >ur trials8 the Ameri+ans (ere not e)ri#ing them o' a right(hi+h the ha on+e en>oe. Ameri+an o''i+ials also asserte that the ma>orit o' /ili)inos i not )ossess theintelle+tual +a)a+it or +ultural so)histi+ation to >uge their )eers +om)etentl8 e;hi&iting the Orientalist attitue

)re#alent in man +olonials throughout Asia. /N23


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11 CLMJAL 175 Page @11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

Most -uro)eans (ho +ame to Asia in the nineteenth +entur +arrie (ith them the so?+alle (hite manBs &uren an a ut to +i#ili:e &ut not asso+iate (ith the nati#es. Assuming the nati#es (ere not +a)a&le o' li#inguner $estern la(s8 +olonials o'ten limite inigenous a++ess to their o(n legal sstems8 sometimesaministering their +olonies uner a ual legal stru+ture8 /N@3 (ith one set o' la(s 'or the 'oreigners an one'or the nati#e inha&itants. $hen ut+h traers esta&lishe the ut+h -ast nies Traing Com)an in 1<028 the+onu+te their transa+tions a++oring to ut+h la(s rather than a&iing & the nati#e aat +ustoms. $ithin a'e( ears8

*177 se)arate +ourts (ere esta&lishe 'or the ut+h +ommunit so that a 9uite autonomous-uro)eanB legal sstem 9ui+%l gre( u) &esie the one4s inigenous to the islans. /rom the #er

&eginning o' ut+h +onta+t there'ore8 $estern la( an lo+al +ustomar la( (ere seen as istin+t entitiesser#ing se)arate +lientele??the one 'oreign an -uro)ean8 an the other inigenous Asian. /ND3 aniel !.Le#8 a s+holar o' nonesian la(8 (rote that these segregate legal sstems 'a+ilitate e''i+iente;)loitation o' the inigenous )eo)les. /N53 n the )ro+ess o' e;)loiting the nati#es8 ut+h8 Ameri+an8an Eritish +olonists8 (ho im)ose a similar segregate legal an )oliti+al sstem in Malasia8 /N<3o'ten re'use the nati#es their &asi+ +i#il rights.

,o(e#er8 &e+ause esta&lishment o' a +olon is in+onsistent (ith Ameri+an emo+rati+ #alues8 /N73Ameri+an o''i+ials attem)te to >usti' their o++u)ation o' the Phili))ines8 asserting that the (oul not 'ollo(the )ath o' traitional -uro)ean im)erialism. The +laime the (oul not e;)loit the Phili))ines 'or their o(ne+onomi+ gain /N=3 as ha the ut+h in nonesia or the Eritish in Malasia. nstea8 the (oul remain in thePhili))ines onl long enough to instru+t the nati#es in +i#ili:e rule an emo+rati+ la( /N*3 &e+ause theassume that (ithout Ameri+an guian+e the Phili))ine slans (oul 'all into (ies)rea anar+h. /N103

Thus8 the Ameri+ans introu+e +hanges8 'a+ilitate & the ilustraos8 +hara+teri:e )rimaril & )ro+euralrather than su&stanti#e la(s. The institute "eneral Orers No. 5=8 in )art to emonstrate to the /ili)inos thatthe rights o' the a++use (ere )aramount in a >ust an emo+rati+ so+iet. ,o(e#er8 their e+ision not toim)lement a )ro+eural sstem (hi+h in+lue >ur trials e;em)li'ies +olonial attitues in the nineteenth *178

an earl t(entieth +enturies an a esire to retain )o(er in the hans o' the elite8 ieas in+onsistent (ith trueemo+ra+.

. The !)anish -ra 41521?1=*=

The arri#al o' the !)anish ushere in an era o' 'oreign rule an an introu+tion o' non?inigenous legalinstitutions to the Phili))ine slans. /ernao e Magellan8 a Portuguese na#igator em)loe & the !)anish8rea+he the Phili))ines in 15218 though the !)anish i not trul ominate the slans an esta&lish a +olonialgo#ernment until a'ter 15<5. T(o main grou)s o' !)aniars arri#e in the Ar+hi)elago uring the ne;t t(o+enturiesF Catholi+ missionaries (ho ho)e to +on#ert the /ili)inos an +olonial aministrators (ho soughte+onomi+ gain. /or+e to rea+h a +om)romise that re+on+ile their +on'li+ting interests8 religion an )ro'it8 the!)anish go#ernment &uilt an em)ire aroun the inse)ara&le union o' the Chur+h an the state. /N113 Theseual o&>e+ti#es sha)e the )oli+ies o' the +olonial aministration.

A. Roman La( in the Phili))ines /N123

sing the moi'ie Roman la(s as a moel8 the !)anish +ro(n ena+te the Re+o)ila+iGn e las Lees elos Rees e las nias8 or the La( o' the nies8 on Ma 1=8 1<=0. This +oe +onsiste o' +Hulas or +olle+tionso' orers +arrie out in the name o' the %ing6 /N1@3 e+retos or orers +on+erning the +hur+h +arrie out in thename o' the %ing6 /N1D3 resolu+iones or orers renere & some su)erior authorit on 9uestions ulsu&mitte8 an therea'ter sent to the in'erior authorities 'or their guian+e6 /N153 reglamentos or (ritteninstru+tions 'rom the +entral *179 go#ernment6 an orenamientos /N1<3 an )ragmIti+as8 /N173 &oth orers'rom the %ing relating to matters not +o#ere in the +Hulas. /N1=3 Though these o+uments i not +onstitutea +ohesi#e an +om)rehensi#e +oe o' la(s8 the +ontaine man o' the regulations that go#erne thePhili))ines in the 'irst ears o' !)anish rule.

n ho)es o' a#erting nati#e resistan+e8 the +olonial go#ernment )ermitte the /ili)inos to retain their

)agan la(s as long as the i not &latantl +on'li+t (ith !)anish traitions8 a )ra+ti+e (hi+h the Ameri+ans












































11 CLMJAL 175 Page D11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

+ontinue in their ears o' rule. John Phelan8 an historian o' the Phili))ines8 (rote o' the !)anish )erio thato(r an inheritan+e . . . re+ei#e re+ognition in the !)anish la( +ourts as +ustomar la( in all inter?/ili)inolitigations. The !)aniars i not o&>e+t to the )re?,is)ani+ traition o' the groom )ro#iing the o(r8although this +ustom i''ere 'rom !)anish usage. /N1*3 n general8 ho(e#er8 the !)anish #ersion o' Romanla( re)la+e man inigenous regulations. /or legal matters not +o#ere in the La( o' the nies8 the authoritiesturne to the Coe o' Castile 4the /uero Ju:go8 /uero Real8 an !iete Partias o' Al'onso 8 all (ritten )rior to12<< A.. or the later No#Ksima Re+o)ila+iGn e Castilla8 im)osing still another set o' la(s on the /ili)inosan re9uiring la(ers to master aitional +oes. As one legal historian e;)lains8 the /ili)ino la(er (hose+ase (as not etermine & the La(s o' the nies or an statute su&se9uentl )asse 'or or e;tene to theislans 'oun himsel' thro(n &a+% on the an+ient !)anish Coes. /N203

E. !)anish Courts in the Phili))ines

n aition to &ringing Roman la(s to the Phili))ines8 the !)anish rulers also introu+e a ne( +ourtsstem. The go&ernaor+illo8 or #illage leaer8 a /ili)ino8 (ho +oul o'ten meiate an resol#e +on'li+ts on thelo+al le#el (ithout resorting to more 'ormal )ro+eeings8 ha >urisi+tion o#er +i#il +ases an )ett +riminal

is)utes. ,e +oul also settle 9uestions a&out lan &ounaries an o(nershi). ' the )arties (ishe to a))eal hise+isions8 the too% their +ase to the ne;t rung o' the &ureau+ra+8 )resenting their arguments &e'ore the !)anishal+ales maores. The al+ales maores also )resie o#er all initial +riminal +ases an +i#il suits *180

in#ol#ing su&stantial sums. Their e+isions +oul8 in turn8 &e a))eale to the Auien+ia Territorial e Manila 4Auien+ia8 /N213 the !u)reme Court o' Manila. /N223

/irst 'orme in 15=D8 the Auien+ia remaine as the highest +ourt in the Phili))ines 'or most o' the )erioo' !)anish rule. /N2@3 The &o (as +om)ose o' one +hie' >usti+e8 t(o )resients o' +ham&ers 4+i#il an+riminal &ran+hes8 eight asso+iate >usti+es8 aitional >usti+es 'or #a+an+ies 4magistraos su)lentes8 an an3attorne?general an other o''i+ials. /N2D3 The Auien+ia re#ie(e all +riminal +ases8 (hether a))eale or not8 (ith the )o(er to o#errule an o' the lo(er +ourtsB e+isions an all +i#il +ases that (ere a))eale. /N253Presiing o#er the Auien+ia8 the "o#ernor?"eneral ha the 'inal sa in all +riminal +ases an +i#il +ases ona))eal in the Phili))ines8 +om&ining the e;e+uti#e an the >ui+ial &ran+hes o' the go#ernment. /N2<3 As the

!)anish sstem o' >usti+e in the Phili))ines &e+ame more ominant8 !)anish o''i+ials se)arate the Auien+iainto t(o &ran+hes8 one 'or +i#il +ases an the other 'or +riminal +ases. -a+h &ran+h ha se)arate >usti+es /N273heae & a Presient. /N2=3

The last a))ellant &o (as the Coun+il o' the nies in !)ain. ,o(e#er8 is)utes among /ili)inos rarelrea+he the Coun+il8 as the +olonial go#ernment trie to issuae the nati#es 'rom (asting their time an moneon (hat the !)anish generall thought to &e minor isagreements. /N2*3

E the mile o' the nineteenth +entur8 the !)anish +olonial go#ernment ha ena+te numerous la(sregulating e#erthing 'rom mining *181 an +ommer+e to militar >usti+e an 'oreign (ater rights8 ho)ingthrough its legal sstem to +reate a )ros)erous Catholi+ +olon. Although the earl +olonialists attem)te to

)reser#e nati#e legal +ustoms8 & 1==78 !)anish traitions ha re)la+e almost all o' the inigenous )ra+ti+es.

/N@03 "eorge A. Mal+olm8 a Pro'essor o' La( at the ni#ersit o' the Phili))ines in the earl t(entieth+entur8 )raise these la(s8 (riting that the !)anish sstem (as & 'ar the most #alua&le monument o' legislation8 not merel o' !)ain &ut o' -uro)e8 sin+e the )u&li+ation o' the Roman 4Justinian Coe. /N@13The +ulmination o' these !)anish la(s (as the Penal Coe o' 1==78 ena+te on the e#e o' the !)anish(ithra(al 'rom the Phili))ines.

C. Criminal La( an Pro+eure

Eeginning (ith a se+tion e'ining a +rime8 the Penal Coe o' 1==7 is )rimaril a list o' +rimes an the+orres)oning )unishments 'or ea+h. /N@23 t )ro#ies no guian+e 'or trial )ro+eures nor oes it o''er thee'enant an legal rights. n his re)ort to Presient $illiam M+inle in 1*008 $illiam ,o(ar Ta't8 amem&er o' the Phili))ine Commission8 e#ote a short se+tion to +riminal la( an )ro+eure uring the!)anish regime. ,e (rote thatF








































a +oe o' +riminal )ro+eure i ne#er e;ist in the Phili))ines8 not e#en an arrange +om)ilation o' la('ul )ro#isions relating to +riminal )ro+eure. There (ere onl s+attere )ro#isions in the 'orm o' la(s8 roal +eulas8 roal orers8 an autos a+oraos . . . . Although there (as no sstemati+ la( or +om)lete &o o' la(s in re'eren+e to +riminal )ro+eure8 still a +onstant an uni'orm )ra+ti+e e;iste inall )ro#in+es throughout the islans. /N@@3 The )ra+ti+e in+lue trials in 'ront o' a >usti+e a))ointean uner the su)er#ision o' the "o#ernor?"eneral. The !)anish ne#er im)lemente a sstem o' >urtrials in their tenure o' the Phili))ines &ut instea )ermitte a >uge to rener all e+isions. /N@D3

*182 A +riminal trial in the !)anish +olonial Phili))ines &egan (hen the a++using )art 'ile a +om)laint8(hi+h o'ten in+lue t(o +om)letel i''erent +rimes +ommitte & t(o istin+t ini#iuals in se)aratelo+ations. The unerling assum)tion (as that the allege +riminals (ere relate. A'ter the )rose+ution 'ile the+om)laint (ith the lo(er +ourt8 a )erio %no(n as the sumario &egan.

The la(ers +onu+te the sumario in the a&sen+e o' the e'enant. /N@53 -9ui#alent to a )erio o' is+o#er in the nite !tates8 the sumario (as8 in e''e+t8 a )erio (hen ea+h sie in#estigate an resear+heits +ase. n his stu o' the Phili))ines8 James LeRo8 e'ine it as the summar )ro+eure )reliminar to thee'enantBs3 arraignment on a 'ormal +harge. /N@<3 The sumario o'ten e;tene o#er a )erio o' ears8 (ith

the e'enant s)ening the time in )rison8 'or the !)anish ha no sstem o' &ail in +ases that ha a )enalt o' )resiio +orre++ional8 or a time greater than si; months. /N@73 Although the sumario (as in some (as similar to is+o#er8 Ameri+an +riminal )ro+eure manates that +ounsel a#ise the e'enant o' all the )ro+eeingsan that the la(ers +onu+t the is+o#er as e;)eitiousl as )ossi&le??a shar) istin+tion 'rom the !)anish?im)ose arrangement in the Phili))ines.

/ollo(ing sumario8 the trial &egan. At this time the )arties a#ise the e'enant o' the +harges against him.On+e +ogni:ant o' the allegations8 the a++use (as re9uire to o''er e#ien+e regaring the +rime (ith (hi+h he(as +harge. ' he remaine silent8 the +ourt inter)rete this to mean that he (as guilt an he (as +harge'ormall. /N@=3 n theor8 he ha the right to 'or+e the )rose+ution to sho( him all the e#ien+e su))orting the+harges8 &ut in )ra+ti+e this s+ar+el ha))ene. /N@*3 n 'a+t8 !)anish la(s )ermitte the e'enant no +i#ilrights &ut 'or+e him to a))ear in +ourt (hile the )rose+ution )resente its +ase against him8 (ith the &uren o'

)roo' an )rou+tion o' e#ien+e on the e'enant. /ND03 The state an elite interests )reominate o#er

ini#iual rights.

*183 . The !)anish Catholi+ Chur+h in the Phili))ines

!)anish authorities integrate the Catholi+ Chur+h into their sstem o' go#ernment an legal +oes. /ND13!)anish la(8 'or e;am)le8 ga#e the )arish )riests the right to suggest +aniates 'or the >ue: e )a: as (ell asa++ess to the muni+i)al +ourt. The Ar+h&isho) o' Manila ha the right to sit on the aministrati#e +oun+il8 an+hur+h o''i+ials o'ten )er'orme )oliti+al 'un+tions. n aition8 the most )o(er'ul man in the Phili))inego#ernment8 the "o#ernor?"eneral8 're9uentl mele in +hur+h a''airs.

The Catholi+ Chur+h o'ten )lae a signi'i+ant role in the !)anish +olonial aministration. The +lerg're9uentl ser#e as a lin% &et(een the /ili)ino )eo)le an the +olonial aministration8 so that the /ili)inos i

not 'eel isolate 'rom the go#ernment. /ND23 The !)anish go#ernment e)ene on the +lerg to +ontrol anin large )art aminister its +olon. /ND@3 Parish )riests or 'riars at the lo+al le#el sometimes ar&itrate moralan +i#i+ is)utes. Thus8 the &ureau+ra+ an the Chur+h (ere inter+onne+te 'or mu+h o' the !)anish +olonialregime8 /NDD3 an as Ro&les (rote8 'or all )ur)oses8 the Chur+h 'rom 1=<1 to the +lose o' the +entur (as

)art o' the go#ernment )ro)er. /ND53 !u+h unit )re#ente the !)anish regime 'rom +oo)erating (ith theilustraos8 the eu+ate elite o' the Phili))ines8 &e+ause8 as (e shall note8 the ilustraos sought the se)aration o' +hur+h an state.

-. The -n o' the !)anish -ra

E the 1==0Bs8 man oung /ili)inos ha )er+ei#e that &oth the !)anish +olonial regime an the Catholi+Chur+h ha s)ent mu+h o' the )ast three hunre ears e)ri#ing the /ili)inos o' &asi+ e+onomi+8 )oliti+al8 anlegal rights. /rom their )ers)e+ti#e8 the !)anish +olonists ha e;)loite the inigenous )eo)le 'or their o(n

e+onomi+ an religious gain. n o))osition to this )er+ei#e o))ression8 a num&er o' /ili)inos 'ollo(e the lea






































11 CLMJAL 175 Page <11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

o' the re'orm?mine /ili)ino intelle+tual elite8 the ilustraos8 (ho initiate a nationalist mo#ement.

*184 !ome o' the ilustraos ha tra#ele to !)ain to re+ei#e (hat the assume to &e a su)erior eu+ation

una#aila&le to them in the Phili))ines. /ND<3 uring their time a&roa8 the stuie -uro)ean )hiloso)h8 )arti+ularl the #ie(s stemming 'rom the -nlightenment. /ND73 Man &e+ame a+ti#e in the )ro)aganamo#ement8 +riti+i:ing the !)anish +olonial regime in the Phili))ines an urging the +olonials to re'orm their

)oli+ies. /ND=3 These ilustraos +alle 'or ini#iual rights8 li&erties an guarantees o' )erson8 )ro)ert anomi+ile8 (ith 'reeom o' (orshi) an +om)lete se)aration o' +hur+h an state8 /ND*3 )rin+i)les (hi+h

)arallele later Ameri+an ieals. n 1===8 a grou) o' ilustraos8 the Aso+ia+iGn ,is)ano?/ili)ina8 )ro)ose aseries o' la(s that (oul aress su+h issues. The Aso+ia+iGn )lanneF to (or% 'or 41 the re'orms in the

>ui+iar an the )enitentiar8 42 the e#elo)ment o' Phili))ine agri+ulture8 4@ the +onstru+tion o' roas8 4Dre'orms in the go#ernmental aministration8 45 the +om)ulsor tea+hing o' the !)anish language in s+hools8an 4< the esta&lishment o' se+onar s+hools. /N503 Although the ilustraos i not attem)t to o#erthro(the !)anish regime8 the +olonials mo#e to +rush the /ili)ino nationalists8 (ho )ose a threat to the +olonialaministration.

et8 in orer to e'le+t an i''use some o' the ilustraosB +riti+ism8 the !)anish +olonials attem)te tore'orm )art o' the legal sstem. n 1=*0 an 1=*18 less than ten ears &e'ore the Ameri+ans arri#e in thePhili))ines8 the !)anish rulers o#erhaule the sstem o' >usti+e. E roal e+ree8 the go#ernment e+lare thatea+h to(n must ha#e a >ue: e )a: or a >usti+e o' the )ea+e. "i#en )o(ers to hear an o''er >ugments in +i#il+ases in#ol#ing less than t(o hunre ollars an in )reliminar +riminal +ases8 the >ue: e )a: resol#e minor is)utes8 o'ten +on+erning )ro)ert or inheritan+e rights. /N513 The >ue: e )a: ao)te most o' thego&ernaor+illoBs >ui+ial uties8 )ermitting the go&ernaor+illo to 'o+us e;+lusi#el on his aministrati#e'un+tions. /N523 n its re'orms8 the +olonial *185 go#ernment also shi'te the )o(er o' su)er#ising the +ourtsa(a 'rom the al+ales maores an turne it o#er to the +i#il go#ernor8 an attem)t to +reate a more +entrali:esstem o' >usti+e that (oul e'le+t some /ili)ino resentment. /N5@3

-#en (ith these re'orms8 the !)anish >ui+ial sstem (as still ine''i+ient. /irst8 an ini#iual +oul o&>e+t tothe >uge an initiate a+tion against him at an )oint in the )ro+eeings. The entire trial then ha to &e mo#e to

another +ourt8 )resie o#er & a ne( >usti+e8 &ut no e+ision +oul &e renere on the main issue until the )ro&lems (ith the 'irst >uge ha &een resol#e8 thus greatl lengthening the trial )ro+ess. /N5D3 !e+on8 theAuien+ia +ontinue to re#ie( e#er +riminal trial an all +i#il +ases that ene in a+9uittal. /inall8 !)anish

>usti+es (oul o'ten listen to the testimon o' one (itness 'or an hour or so an then a>ourn 'or a (ee% or more &e'ore hearing 'rom the ne;t (itness. /N553 !u+h elas an )ro+eural i''i+ulties angere man /ili)inosan +ontri&ute to unrest in the late nineteenth +entur.

. The Ameri+an -ra

E the late 1=*0Bs8 Phili))ine resistan+e to the !)anish ha gaine su+h strength that & August o' 1=*= there#olutionaries +ontrolle most o' the ar+hi)elago8 (ith the e;+e)tion o' the +it o' Manila. The nite !tates8(hi+h sought to &e+ome a )o(er in the Pa+i'i+8 su))orte the /ili)inos8 an &e+ame em&roile in the !)anish?

Ameri+an $ar8 )artl to gain in'luen+e o#er the Phili))ines8 an other non?Pa+i'i+ !)anish +olonies. The!)anish +olonial )o(ers (ere (ea% an (ere +om)elle to su&mit to Ameri+an 'or+es a'ter an e;tremel &rie' (ar.

ire+t nite !tates in#ol#ement in Phili))ine go#ernment an la( stemme 'rom the a'termath o' the!)anish?Ameri+an $ar. The !)anish +ee the Phili))ines8 Puerto Ri+o an Cu&a to the nite !tates uner theTreat o' Paris signe in e+em&er o' 1=*=. Rati'ie & the .!. Congress shortl therea'ter8 the Treat initiatean era o' (hat the Ameri+an go#ernment terme &ene#olent assimilation /N5<3 'or the Phili))ines. This

)hrase8 (hi+h >usti'ie #irtual anne;ation o' the Phili))ines8 im)lie that Ameri+an rule (oul i''er 'romgo#ernan+e & the -uro)ean im)erialists.

*186 Asserting that their moti#e in the Phili))ines (as to tea+h an +i#ili:e the nati#es8 /N573 theAmeri+ans is+laime an +olonial intentions. A++oring to .. /ielhouse8 a s+holar o' +olonial theor8

+olonialism means e;)loitation & the 'oreign so+iet an its agents (ho o++u)ie the e)enen+ to ser#e



































their o(n interests8 not that o' the su&>e+te )eo)le. /N5=3 nitiall8 Ameri+ans i not enter the Ar+hi)elago'or their o(n e+onomi+ or religious gains8 as the !)anish ha8 an there'ore8 in their ees8 i not +oloni:e thePhili))ines8 &ut rather ao)te the +ountr uner (hat /ielhouse terme a trusteeshi). ,e (rote that atrusteeshi) im)lies that the em)ire entaile a moral res)onsi&ilit 'or the (el'are an e#olution o' thee)enen+ies so that )oli+ must &e 'ormulate (ith their interests in the 'ore'ront. /N5*3

n'amiliar (ith /ili)ino +ulture an so+iet (hen the arri#e8 the Ameri+ans relie on the ilustrao elite tohel) e'ine their +olonial )oli+ an to )ersuae other /ili)inos that Ameri+an rule (as in their &est interests.Eelie#ing that +on+eing to Ameri+an rule (oul o''er them )ri#ileges the ha not %no(n uring the !)anishregime8 man ilustraos +oo)erate (ith Ameri+an o''i+ials in the Phili))ines an the Ameri+ans ultimatel

)a+i'ie the +ountr8 & (inning o#er the elites o' (ealth an eu+ation. /N<03

$ith Ameri+an +ontrol +ame .!. la(8 (hi+h (as an Angli+an or Common La( sstem ao)te 'rom theEritish. Changing )erioi+all to re'le+t ne( so+ial e#elo)ments8 this la( has its &asis in a +ourt sstem o' >urtrials8 )ermitting an a++use to &e >uge & a grou) o' his )eers8 rather than one lone >usti+e. $hen thePhili))ines +ame uner Ameri+an >urisi+tion8 the +olonial aministration )romote a graual shi't 'rom Roman

la( an inigenous )ra+ti+es to(ars Common La(8 (hile )ermitting +ertain as)e+ts o' Roman la( aninigenous traitions to +ontinue. Though Ameri+an +olonial rulers manate the use o' man elements o' theCommon La(8 the ne#er introu+e a sstem o' >ur trials. nstea the 'o+use on se)arating +hur+h an statean im)osing +oes o' )ro+eure in the Ar+hi)elago.

*187 A. Militar Rule??The !+hurman Commission 41=*=?1*01

1. ni#ersal !u''rage an !e)aration o' Chur+h an !tate

As Commaner?in?Chie' o' the nite !tates8 Presient $illiam M+inle rule the Phili))ines 'or nearlthree ears until a ne( sstem o' go#ernment (as esta&lishe. Neeing aministrators o' the +olon to e;e+utehis orers8 he +reate the /irst Phili))ine Commission an a))ointe Ja+o& !+hurman8 Ma>or?"eneral -l(ell !.

Otis8 Rear Amiral "eorge e(e8 Charles er&8 an ean C. $or+ester. The CommissionBs )rimar uties(ere to )romote .!. interests an to )ro#ie 'or the se+urit o' Ameri+ans in the Phili))ines. /N<13 uringthis initial )hase8 Ameri+an aministrators sought )rin+i)all to reme the errors o' )ast rulers rather than too''er ne( initiati#es. /N<23 Commissioner $or+ester later (rote that the Ameri+ans ao)te the )oli+ o'

)assing no la(s e;+e)t in +ase o' emergen+. /N<@3

The Commission 'irst ena+te legislation that )ermitte /ili)ino males to #ote i' theF 41 +oul s)ea% anrea -nglish or !)anish6 42 o(ne )ro)ert #alue at more than 500 )esos 4at that time .!. 2506 or 4@ hahel a go#ernment )osition uring !)anish +olonial rule. /N<D3 The la( manate that muni+i)al o''i+ers &e/ili)inos ele+te & )o)ular #ote. nli%e the !)anish8 the Ameri+ans i not a))oint go#ernment o''i+ials. etthose /ili)inos eligi&le to #ote an there'ore hol o''i+e8 onl a&out three )er+ent o' the total )o)ulation8 (eregenerall mem&ers o' the same +lass o' )eo)le 'rom (hom the !)anish ha +hosen their &ureau+rats8 theilustraos. n sum8 the nite !tates +on'irme the )o(er o' the esta&lishe /ili)ino elite.

n the Phili))ines8 the !)anish +olonial go#ernment an the Catholi+ Chur+h ha +olla&orate8 o'teno)erating as one unit. Eut Ameri+an legal )rin+i)les8 as em&oie in the Constitution8 (oul not san+tion su+hinterlo+%ing relationshi)s &et(een +hur+h an state. Thus8 on e+em&er 1=8 1=*=8 shortl a'ter the signing o' the Treat o' Paris8 the .!. go#ernment mae its 'irst su&stantial +hange in Phili))ine la( & issuing "eneralOrers No. <=. This la( introu+e +i#il marriage to the Phili))ines8 the initial ste) in the .!. e''ort to se)arate+hur+h an state. *188 !u+h re'orms +oin+ie (ith ilustrao #isions o' a ne( so+iet an thus the assiste theAmeri+ans in e''orts to +reate a se+ular go#ernment.

2. nitial Colla&oration

n 1=**8 Trinia ,. Paro e Ta#era8 an other ilustraos8 +ame &e'ore the !+hurman Commissionenoun+ing &oth /ili)ino a+tions against the nite !tates go#ernment an anti?Ameri+an sentiments. The




















11 CLMJAL 175 Page =11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

Ameri+ans reali:e that these men (oul )ro#e use'ul allies in the 'uture. As leaers o' the )eo)le the must &e the +hie' agents in se+uring their )eo)lesB loal o&eien+e to the ne( go#ernment.B /N<53

The Ameri+ans relie on ilustrao la(ers in )arti+ular8 'or assistan+e in e#elo)ing an im)lementing legal+oes that +on'orme to Ameri+an >ui+ial stanars. O(en Ln+h8 a legal s+holar o' the Phili))ines8 (rote thatamong the ilustraos8 la( (as the most attra+ti#e )ro'ession3. The great am&ition o' most /ili)inos in a

)osition to o so (as to stu la( an enter the go#ernment ser#i+e.B /N<<3 More s)e+i'i+all8 la( (as+onsiere a )ass)ort to the )oliti+al arena /N<73 an a num&er o' ilustraos3 (ere largel in#ol#e (iththe )ra+ti+e8 tea+hing8 an stu o' the la(. /N<=3 n Mi+hael CullinaneBs list o' im)ortant /ili)ino )oliti+al'igures an ilustraos8 nearl thirt?si; )er+ent (ere mem&ers o' the legal )ro'ession8 a higher )er+entage thanin an other )ro'ession. Cullinane note that (hen Ma>or?"eneral Otis8 the Militar "o#ernor o' the Phili))inesin 1*008 &egan re'orming the sstem o' >usti+e8 he a))ointe t(ent?eight ilustraos to )ositions on the +ourts./N<*3 Thus8 the Ameri+ans allo(e the ilustraos to ominate the /ili)ino >ui+ial )ro+ess 'rom the outset8e#en a))ointing the ilustrao Caetano Arellano as Chie' Justi+e o' the Phili))ine !u)reme Court in June o' 1=**.

The Ameri+ans )ermitte the !)anish +ourt sstem to remain essentiall untou+heF /ili)ino >usti+es o' the )ea+e8 most o' (hom (ere ilustraos8 )resie o#er the lo+al +ourts an too% +harge o' routine legal matters8 &utthe highest +ourt o' a))eals (as the .!. !u)reme Court instea o' the !)anish Coun+il o' the nies. n sum8the !+hurman *189 Commission relie hea#il on the )o(er an the %no(lege o' the ol /ili)ino elite8 as iits su++essor8 the Ta't Commission.

@. "eneral Orers No. 5=??The Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure

The Ameri+ans introu+e a se+on ma>or +hange to Phili))ine la( on A)ril @08 1*00 (hen Ma>or?"eneralOtis issue "eneral Orers No. 5= as the Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure 'or the Phili))ines. /N703 To +om)osethis +oe8 Otis enliste the ai o' a grou) o' ilustrao la(ers an >usti+es 'amiliar (ith the !)anish legal sstemthen in )la+e. The Coe8 (hi+h (ent into e''e+t on Ma 158 1*008 in+lue a +lause that all e;isting la(s shoulremain #ali unless s)e+i'i+all re)eale or moi'ie. /N713 On the assum)tion that an entirel ne( +riminal+oe (oul isru)t the (or% o' >uges an la(ers (ho (ere alrea 'amiliar (ith the )resent sstem8 the .!.militar go#ernment +hose onl to ao)t ne( )ro+eural la(s. /N723 t le't the su&stanti#e Roman la(s inta+t8(ith one aministrator )raising the e;isting Penal Coe as a )rou+t o' the &est legal mins o' !)ain. /N7@3Thus Ameri+an o''i+ials )ermitte mu+h o' the !)anish su&stanti#e +riminal la( to +ontinue 'or it (as notin+onsistent (ith their legal traition.

,o(e#er8 the Ameri+ans also in+or)orate inno#ations & introu+ing the /ili)inos to the (rit o' ha&eas+or)us8 a )ri#ilege guarantee in the .!. Constitution. /N7D3 The sought to alle#iate the )ro&lemsengenere & the la+% o' )ro+eural rights in the !)anish sstem an its harsh )unishments. The (rit o' ha&eas+or)us is intene to test the legalit o' the etention or im)risonment an to release a )erson 'rom unla('ulim)risonment. /N753 Through the ine''i+ien+ o' their >ui+ial sstem8 the !)anish ha etaine man /ili)ino

)risoners 'ar longer than their ma;imum )ossi&le )rison senten+e. Consiering the !)anish )ra+ti+e to &e +ruel

an unusual )unishment8 the Ameri+ans )ermitte )risoners to 'ile 'or a (rit o' ha&eas +or)us i' the &elie#ethe (ere (rongl etaine. /N7<3

"eneral Orers No. 5= also +hange the manner o' 'iling a +om)laint. A s(orn statement usuall 'ile &the aggrie#e )art in a lo(er +ourt 4o'ten the Justi+e o' the Pea+e +ourts in the Phili))ines8 or a +om)laint*190 initiate a legal )ro+eeing. The Orers no( re9uire that the +om)laint &e )resente soon a'ter theallege o''ense ha &een +ommitte. /N773 The !)anish ha &een more la; a&out the timeliness o' the 'iling8

&ut the ne( Ameri+an regulations manate that a +om)laint ha to &e su&mitte as soon as the )arties &e+amea(are o' the in'ra+tion to insure a++ura+ an truth'ulness.

,a#ing no 'ormal +oe o' )ro+eure8 the !)anish o''ere no guian+e 'or 'iling a +om)laint. "eneral Orers No. 5= o''ere an entire se+tion e#ote to the )ro+eures in#ol#e in su&mitting su+h a o+ument8 /N7=3in+luingF 41 the 'ull an true name o' the e'enant4s6 42 the esignation o' the o''ense6 4@ the a+ts

+om)laine o' in )lain language6 4D a statement that the o''ense (as +ommitte in that +ourtBs >urisi+tion6 an







































11 CLMJAL 175 Page *11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

45 the names o' the )ersons in#ol#e in the o''ense. /N7*3

Re9uiring a esignation o' the o''ense +om)elle the )erson 'iling the +om)laint to 'o+us on the o''ense an

etermine i' it ha an +han+e o' su++ess &e'ore he tie u) the +ourts (ith 'ri#olous litigation. !in+e this se+tion+ontaine onl the a++usersB #ersion o' the 'a+ts8 the o''ener +oul &e +on#i+te o' either a gra#er or a lesser o''ense i' other e#ien+e emerge (hen the +ase (ent to trial.

Pursuant to this se+tion8 the )erson &ringing +harges ha to o+ument the a+ts that +onstitute3 the +rimeor )u&li+ o''ense in orinar an +on+ise language . . . in su+h a 'orm as to ena&le a )erson o' +ommonunerstaning to %no( (hat is intene. /N=03 This o+ument )ro#ie the +ourt (ith the allege a+tions that+om)rise the o''ense. /ailing to use 'ormal or statutor language i not rener the +om)laint in#ali8 &ut the+orre+t 'ormat ha to &e use. /N=13

*191 The last su&stanti#e re9uirement 'or the +om)laint that "eneral Orers No. 5= introu+e (as that it &e 'ile in the +orre+t >urisi+tion. n te+hni+al terms8 >urisi+tion is the )o(er +on'erre & la( u)on a >ugeor +ourt to tr a +ase8 the +ogni:an+e o' (hi+h &elongs to them e;+lusi#el. /N=23 A +ourtBs >urisi+tion (as

generall etermine & t(o main 'a+torsF the geogra)hi+ limits o#er (hi+h the +ourt )resie an the t)e o' a+tion?? +i#il or +riminal. /N=@3

The 'inal +hange in the 'iling o' a +om)laint that the Ameri+ans institute #ia "eneral Orers No. 5= (asthat the a++user ha to 'ile a se)arate +om)laint 'or ea+h o''ense +harge. ner the !)anish sstem8 the

)rose+ution +oul 'ile one +om)laint 'or multi)le o''enses. Otis etermine that the !)anish )ro+eure (as+um&ersome &ut +on+urre that one +om)laint +oul +harge an o''ense (ith more than one a+t as long as thea+ts (ere relate. /N=D3

!u&se9uent to the 'iling o' a +om)laint8 the ne( sstem o' )ro+eure manate a )reliminar e;aminationto etermine i' the arrest o' the o''eners (as (arrante. /N=53 At that time8 a >usti+e o' the )ea+e hear thee)ositions o' the )rose+ution an hisher (itnesses. The Ameri+ans shi'te the &uren o' )roo' an )rou+tion

o' e#ien+e to the )rose+ution so that it (as u) to the a++user to )rou+e su''i+ient e#ien+e to +on#i+t /N=<3at the )reliminar e;amination. Thus8 uner "eneral Orers No. 5=8 the e'enant (as )resume inno+ent until )ro#en guilt8 in+reasing the &uren on the )rose+ution. /N=73

The ne( legal )hiloso)h re)resente a ramati+ shi't 'rom the !)anish sstem. Prote+tion o' the rights o' the a++use &e+ame a )aramount +onsieration in this sstem o' +riminal )ro+eures. Onl i' the Justi+e o' thePea+e agree that the e#ien+e &e'ore him (as satis'a+tor *192 an )ro#ie reasona&le grouns 'or theallege o''enerBs arrest i he issue a (arrant 'or the arrest. /N==3

ner the .!. Coe8 a'ter the a++use (as arreste8 he a))eare &e'ore the Justi+e o' the Pea+e (hoe;)laine the allegations o' the +om)laint. n +ontrast to the !)anish sstem8 the o''ener +onse9uentl %ne( allthe +harges against him. This ne( Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure o''ere greater e9ualit &et(een the a++user anthe a++use.

/ollo(ing an arrest8 the Justi+e o' the Pea+e etermine &ail. The Ameri+an >ui+ial sstem in thePhili))ines )ermitte an o''ener to &e release on &ail8 )ro#ie he (as not +harge (ith a +a)ital o''ense./N=*3 ner the !)anish sstem8 the a++use languishe in )rison until his +ase (ent to trial. et e#en uner "eneral Orers No. 5=8 the a++use (as not )ermitte a &ail hearing. nstea8 the Justi+e o' the Pea+e set &aila++oring to the o''ense +harge an the anger to so+iet the o''ener )ose.

'8 at an stage uring these )ro+eeings8 the o''ener &elie#e he (as &eing (rongl etaine8 he +oul )etition the +ourt 'or a (rit o' ha&eas +or)us. Although Ameri+an +ourts in the Phili))ines i not grant these(rits li&erall8 the i re#ie( ea+h ini#iual re9uest. /N*03

A'ter the Justi+e o' the Pea+e ha )u&lishe the amount o' the e'enantBs &ail8 the )arties agree on a trial

ate. "eneral Orers No. 5= guarantee the right to a s)ee trial. /N*13 n ire+t res)onse to their +riti+ism o'




































the ine''i+ien+ o' the !)anish >ui+ial sstem8 the Phili))ine Commissioners &orro(e this se+tion o' "eneralOrers No. 5= on a s)ee trial 'rom the .!. Constitution. /N*23 !)ee is not e'ine either in the +oe o'

)ro+eure 'or the Phili))ines or in the .!. Constitution &ut +ase la( is use'ul here in e;)laining the meaning o' this term. n 1*0=8 the Phili))ine trial +ourt re+esse a homi+ie trial 'or si; months8 an the .!. !u)remeCourt hel that this a>ournment i not #iolate the right to a s)ee trial. /N*@3 Thus s)ee +oul &einter)rete rather loosel.

The most signi'i+ant Ameri+an inno#ations in the Phili))ine legal sstem entaile )ro#iing rights to thee'enant at trial an allo(ing trials to &e o)en to the )u&li+. /N*D3 n their >ui+ial sstem8 the !)anish+olonials ha not )ermitte the a++use to &e in#ol#e or +on'ronte uring the trial *193 )ro+ess. /N*53 Thus8

)rior to Ameri+an o++u)ation8 the /ili)inos (ere un'amiliar (ith )ro+esses su+h as +ross?e;amination an theright to a))ear in )erson to e'en onesel'.

"eneral Orers No. 5= se+ure the e'enantBs right to ha#e an attorne )resent at the trial8 a right alsoguarantee to e'enants in the nite !tates legal sstem. /N*<3 ' the e'enant (ere una&le to em)lo anattorne8 the +ourt (oul a))oint one 'or him. The /ili)ino Chie' Justi+e o' the Phili))ines summari:e the

+hanges that ensue (hen the Commission institute "eneral Orers No. 5=F

This la(8 &ase u)on the a++usator sstem8 has a&olishe the in9uisitorial )erio so erogator o' the rights o' the a++use8 an (hi+h (as the 'ounation o' our 'ormer +riminal )ro+eure6 the time'ormerl ta%en u) & this in9uisitorial sstem (ithout the right o' inter#ention on )art o' the a++use(hi+h at times (oul &e )rolonge 'or ears8 e)enent u)on the i''i+ult o' in#estigation8 has &eensa#e6 the long )erio o' )re#enti#e )unishment su''ere & man )ersons uring the long summare;amination is no( a#oie8 (hi+h sai e;amination (as +arrie on onl 'or the )ur)ose o' in#estigatingthe +ommission o' a +rime an (hether an )erson (as guilt thereo'6 the ne( )ro+eure )ro#ie 'or a+om)lete e9ualit &et(een the a++user an the a++use8 &et(een the )rose+ution +arrie on & the"o#ernment an the e'ense o' his )ersonal li&ert an se+urit inter)ose & the e'enant6 initiation8'ull )ro#ies all that is ne+essar 'or a +om)lete e'ense8 an is an a&solute sa'eguar o' )ersonalse+urit6 this unou&tel8 is the greatest &ene'it +on'erre u)on the inha&itants o' this +ountr. /N*73

"eneral Orers No. 5= also introu+e the +on+e)ts o' emurrer an )lea &argaining to the Phili))ine >ui+ial sstem. A e'enant emurs (hen he or she amits all the allegations o' the +om)laint &ut asserts thatsu+h allegations are insu''i+ient to 'orm a +ause o' a+tion renering the )lainti''Bs +ase in#ali. A )lea8 on theother han8 is a ire+t res)onse to the +harge. "eneral Orers No. 5= o''ere 'our t)es o' )leasF 41 guilt6 42not guilt6 4@ a 'ormer >ugment o' +on#i+tion or a+9uittal o' the o''ense +harge8 (hi+h ma &e )leae either (ith or (ithout the )lea o' guilt6 *194 an3 4D on+e in >eo)ar8 (hi+h ma &e )leae (ith or (ithout a )leao' guilt. /N*=3

A e'enant8 (ho o''ers a guilt )lea ma8 at an time &e'ore >ugment on the )lea8 (ithra( it ansu&stitute a not guilt )lea instea. /ollo(ing the )lea8 the e'enant )ro+ees to trial.

E. Right to a Jur Trial An The !tatus o' The Phili))ines uring The !+hurman Commission -ra

Trials in earl t(entieth?+entur Phili))ines resem&le those in the nite !tates at the time though thela+%e >ur trials8 a traitional sm&ol o' Ameri+an emo+ra+. The Re)ort o' the Phili))ines to the Presient in1*00 ini+ate that the Commission originall intene to gi#e the /ili)inos the right o' a >ur trial. The authors(rote that +riminal )ro+eure uner the !)anish +oes is ar&itrar an not in a++oran+e (ith rules )re#ailingeither in /eeral or !tate sstems. n ue time it shoul &e moi'ie. There shoul &e trial & >ur an manother +hanges. /N**3 et although man other +hanges i ta%e )la+e8 the Ameri+ans ne#er im)lemente

>ur trials in the Phili))ines.

The .!. Constitution guarantees the right to a >ur trial 'or all +riminal o''enses. /N1003 The !i;thAmenment e+lares that in all +riminal )rose+utions8 the a++use shall en>o the right to a s)ee an )u&li+trial8 & an im)artial >ur. /N1013 Permitting /ili)inos this right meant the .!. Constitution (oul ha#e toa))l to the +olon8 'or neither "eneral Orers No. 5= nor an other la(s the Ameri+ans introu+e aresse

the issue o' a >ur trial. The ilemma 'or the nite !tates (as t(o'ol. The Constitution gi#es Congress the































)o(er to go#ern all territories legitimatel a+9uire. /N1023 et shoul Congress &e &oun & the Constitutionin e#ising legislation 'or these territories an +om)elle to o''er the +i#il rights im)li+it in the Constitution tothe resients o' these territories Ameri+ans in the earl t(entieth +entur i#erge in their res)onse to this9uestion.

T(o sies arose to e&ate these issues??those Ameri+ans an /ili)ino ilustraos (ho su))orte the&ene#olent assimilation )oli+ an their *195 o))onents (ho (ere o'ten asso+iate (ith the anti?im)erialistmo#ement that ha 'orme in res)onse to Ameri+an +oloni:ation o' the Phili))ines.

!u))orting the )oli+ o' &ene#olent assimilation (ere those Ameri+ans (ho ha originall intene toremain in the Phili))ines onl 'or a 'e( ears or until the /ili)inos (ere +a)a&le o' sel'?go#ernment. This grou)in+lue Ameri+an Commissioners8 )oliti+ians8 an &usinessmen in the Phili))ines an the nite !tates8 (hoseinitial ieas o' (ithra(ing 'rom the ar+hi)elago ene (hen the )er+ei#e the o))ortunities a#aila&le 'or

)ersonal a#an+ement. Most ilustraos su))orte the )oli+ o' &ene#olent assimilation &e+ause there+ogni:e the )otential &ene'its Ameri+an +oloni:ation +oul o''er them. The ilustraos e;)e+te an re+ei#e

)oliti+al an >ui+ial )o(er in e;+hange 'or their assistan+e to the +olonial regime. n a +urious sm&iosis8 &oth

Ameri+an o''i+ials an /ili)ino ilustraos ma ha#e +a)itali:e u)on their share )er+e)tion that orinar/ili)inos (ere someho( in+a)a&le o' sel'?go#ernment.

These attitues )ermitte o''i+ials su+h as $illiam ,o(ar Ta't to >usti' Ameri+an +olonial )oli+ies8in+luing e)ri#ing the /ili)inos o' the right to a trial & >ur. n 'a+t8 in 1*018 e;)ressing the sentiments o' mostAmeri+an +olonists in the ar+hi)elago as (ell as the elite /ili)inos8 Ta't sai

ha#e not +onsiere it a#isa&le to introu+e an 'as li%e trial & >ur o' our )eers into maministration. Plain straight?'or(ar ealing is m motto. A /ili)ino at his &est has onl learne hal' hisut to man%in. ,e +an &e trie &ut he +anBt tr his 'ello( man. t ta%es him too long. Eut in time ho)eto ha#e them traine to a )oint (here the +an &e goo men an true at the 9uest. /N10@3

lustrao Eenito Legara8 an attorne himsel'8 e+hoe these attitues in a letter to Presient M+inle. ,e(rote that the /ili)inos (ere in+a)a&le o' sel'?go#ernment 'or the are unou&tel (ithout )oliti+al

)re)aration8 totall ignorant8 an o not %no( (hat is goo 'or them8 /N10D3 im)ling that the (erein+a)a&le o' )arti+i)ating in a >ui+ial sstem &ase on the )rin+i)le o' trial & >ur.

n the earl t(entieth +entur8 man Ameri+ans an elite /ili)inos )er+ei#e the a#erage /ili)ino aso++u)ing a lo(er rung on the *196 e#olutionar laer. n 'a+t8 the o''i+ial 1*0@ +ensus +onu+te in the !uluQone uring Ameri+an o++u)ation /N1053 istinguishe &et(een the +i#ili:eB an the (ilB inha&itants o' the Phili))ine slans8 /N10<3 (ith the +i#ili:eB re)resenting an $esterners (ho li#e in !ulu an the(ilB the inigenous inha&itants o' the islan. A .!. Arm "eneral statione in the Phili))ines (rote o' theinha&itants o' !uluF the are essentiall i''erent )eo)le 'rom us in thought8 (or an a+tion an their religion(ill &e a serious &ar to an e''orts to(ars Christian +i#ili:ation. /N1073 As -(ar !ai e;)laine in his(or% on Orientalism8 im)erialists o'ten )er+ei#e

-uro)ean ientit as a su)erior one in +om)arison (ith all non?-uro)ean )eo)les an +ultures.There is in aition the hegemon o' -uro)ean ieas a&out the Orient8 themsel#es reiterating -uro)eansu)eriorit o#er Oriental &a+%(arness8 usuall o#erriing the )ossi&ilit that a more ine)enent8 or more s%e)ti+al thin%er might ha#e ha i''erent #ie(s on the matter. /N10=3

Ameri+an +olonists o'ten enigrate Phili))ine +ulture in orer to >usti' their e''orts to $esterni:e the/ili)inos. /N10*3 On o++asion8 Ameri+an +olonial o''i+ials statione in the Phili))ines )er)etuate mthsa&out the /ili)inos & grou)ing them together an attri&uting negati#e +hara+teristi+s to them in general terms.Their (ritings a&out the re)ute &a+%(arness o' Asian so+ieties ser#e to >usti' their e+ision not to introu+e

>ur trials to the earl Ameri+an?o++u)ie Phili))ines. Phili))ine Commissioner Eernar Moses +hara+teri:ethe /ili)inos as &eing a stage o' +i#ili:ation istin+tl lo(er than that o' the +i#ili:e )eo)les o' the $est./N1103 James A. LeRo8 !e+retar to Commissioner $or+ester8 summari:e these $estern attitues in a

)assage 'rom his &oo% on /ili)ino li'e in the earl t(entieth +enturF

there is a +ertain s+hool o' e;)erts (hi+h maintains that Orientals are not onl )ra+ti+all i''erent in




























man (as to?a *197 'rom the ominant )eo)les o' the O++ient8 &ut that the are inherentl i''erent &eings8 ha#ing a mental +onstitution not reall to &e unerstoo & $esterners8 an +a)a&le o' moern )rogress8B as the $esterner #ie(s )rogress8 onl to a limite egree8 an uner the guian+e o' O++ientalmentors. /N1113

Asserting that Orientals (ere in+a)a&le o' moern )rogress on their o(n8 these Ameri+ans +oul >usti'intrusion on the Phili))ines as a means o' tea+hing the nati#es (as to o#er+ome their &a+%(ar (a o' li'e.Man +olonials asserte that8 (ith $estern in'luen+e an guian+e8 the nati#e so+ieties +oul a+hie#e a higher le#el o' +i#ili:ation. Phili))ine Commissioner Lu%e $right (rote that the great mass o' them /ili)inos3 +are

&ut little uner (hat 'orm o' go#ernment the li#e8 an the eu+ate an intelligent among them as a rulere+ogni:e their utter ina&ilit to maintain an ine)enent go#ernment o' their o(n. /N1123

Partiall in res)onse to su+h attitues an )oli+ies in the Phili))ines8 an anti?im)erialist mo#ement arose inthe nite !tates. ts mem&ers +hallenge the #ie( that /ili)inos (ere un)re)are 'or su+h +onstitutional rightsas trial & >ur. Com)ose o' a (ie an #arie mem&ershi) 'rom Re)u&li+an !enator "eorge /ris&ee ,oar o' Massa+husetts /N11@3 to soliers statione in the Phili))ines8 su+h as Lieutenant John . /or8 .!.N.8 anErigaier "eneral Charles A. ing8 /N11D3 the anti?im)erialists argue that the /ili)inos (ere inee

su''i+ientl +om)etent to aminister their o(n a''airs. A'ter a #isit to the Phili))ines in the earl 1*00Bs8Congressman John /ran%lin !ha'roth o' Colorao (rote that there are #er 'e( )eo)le (ho are not +a)a&le o' sel'?go#ernment. /N1153 The anti?im)erialists thus +ham)ione the e;tension o' the right to trial & >ur tothe /ili)inos8 setting the stage 'or a length legal an )oliti+al struggle o#er the issue.

Ameri+an +olonial o''i+ials an the anti?im)erialists (ere at os on the issue o' trial & >ur. n e&ating(hether the /ili)inos ought to &e )ermitte this right8 &oth sies loo%e to Ameri+an +ase la( )re+eent to *198

&olster their arguments. ra(ing on a +ase 'rom 1=D58 )ro)onents o' >ur trials argue that &e+ause the nite!tates ha a+9uire the Phili))ines8 Ameri+an rather than !)anish la(s must a))l. n this +ase8 the .!.!u)reme Court hel that e#er nation a+9uiring territor8 & treat or other(ise8 must hol it su&>e+t to the+onstitution an la(s o' its o(n go#ernment an not a++oring to those o' the go#ernment +eing it. /N11<3

To re'ute this assertion8 mem&ers o' the Phili))ine Commission an the ilustraos +ite a later +ase8

res)oning that so long as e;isting nati#e la(s (ere not in +on'li+t (ith the nite !tates Constitution or other .!. la(s8 the 'oreign la(s +oul remain in )la+e. /N1173 A region ha to ha#e solel Ameri+an la(s onl i' it

&e+ame a .!. territor an (as no longer a 'oreign +ountr. n +ontinuing to e'en the a&sen+e o' >ur trials inthe Phili))ines8 some Ameri+an +olonial o''i+ials asserte that the !)anish ha not institute su+h a sstem anthus no )re+eent e;iste in the slans. The /ili)inos ne#er ha e;)erien+e trials (ith >uries an8 there'ore8 theAmeri+ans (ere not e)ri#ing them o' this right. /N11=3

n 1*018 mem&ers o' Congress is+usse the status o' the Phili))ines an its +riminal )ro+eure (ith a &rie' mention o' trial & >ur in re'eren+e to treason (ithin the Phili))ines. Re'le+ting the interests o' &oth theAmeri+ans in the Phili))ines an the ilustraos8 -lihu Root8 the .!. !e+retar o' $ar at the time8 su))orte a

&ill (hi+h he ho)e Congress (oul ao)t 'or the Phili))ines. t e+lare that an ini#iual 'oun guilt o' treason (oul &e im)risone an senten+e to har la&or 'or no less than 'i#e ears in aition to a 'ine o' notless than 108000. /N11*3

!enator "eorge ,oar8 an anti?im)erialist 'rom Massa+husetts8 o&>e+te to this harsh )unishment. ,ee;)laine that to &e guilt o' treason in the nite !tates a )erson must +ons)ire against his o(n go#ernment.!in+e a /ili)ino +harge (ith treason (as a+tuall rea+ting against 'oreign rule8 su+h se#ere )unishment (as+ruel an unusual. /N1203 n aition8 he )ointe out that the stanar 'or treason in the t(o +ountries i''ere.n the nite !tates8 treason +onsiste o' a+tual le#ing (ar against the "o#ernment or gi#ing ai an +om'ortto the enemies8 (hile treason in the Phili))ine slans is a #er i''erent thing8 /N1213 sin+e mere a#o+a+o' ine)enen+e (as +onsiere treasonous. Continuing8 he (rote that8 at *199 least in the nite !tates8 theo''ense &oth o' the traitor an o' the )erson +harge (ith mis)rision o' treason is to &e trie & a >ur o' )eersan 'ello(?+iti:ens o' the )erson +harge an in a istri+t )re#iousl as+ertaine (here the o''ense (as+ommitte. /N1223 ,e im)lie that the Ameri+ans shoul o''er the /ili)inos the same rights an )ri#ilegesthat the o''ere their o(n )eo)le rather than im)osing harsher )unishments8 (ithout re+ourse to trial & >ur8

on the inigenous /ili)inos.



































11 CLMJAL 175 Page 1@11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

As the e&ate +ontinue8 the senators &egan to argue a&out the a))li+a&ilit o' the Constitution to thePhili))ines. n 1*018 !enator Jose)h E. /ora%er o' Ohio e;)laine that8 as the ilustraos atteste8 most la(ers

an >uges in the Phili))ines i not unerstan some o' the rights guarantee to .!. +iti:ens in theConstitution8 su+h as trial & >ur. Thus8 he suggeste8 it (oul &e im)ra+ti+al to )ro''er these rights in thePhili))ines.

C. The Phili))ine 4Ta't Commission an the Phili))ine Assem&l 41*01?1*07

The )erio o' militar rule 'inall ene in 1*01 (hen the .!. Congress )asse the !)ooner Amenment/N12@3 4(hi+h trans'erre )o(er o#er the Phili))ine slans 'rom the Presient o' the nite !tates8 asCommaner?in?Chie'8 to the Congress an mae the "o#ernor?"eneral the sole e;e+uti#e authorit in thePhili))ines. /N12D3 The amenment )ro#ie thatF

all militar8 +i#il8 an >ui+ial )o(ers ne+essar to go#ern the Phili))ine slans . . . shall8 untilother(ise )ro#ie & Congress8 &e #este in su+h )erson or )ersons an shall &e e;er+ise in su+h

manner as the Presient o' the nite !tates shall ire+t8 'or the esta&lishment o' +i#il go#ernment an'or maintaining an )rote+ting the inha&itants o' sai slans in the 'ull en>oment o' their li&ert8

)ro)ert8 an religion. /N1253 Presient M+inle8 still uner the im)ression that the /ili)inos (ere in+a)a&le o' sel'?go#ernment8+ommissione the !e+on Phili))ine Commission in 1*01 to (or% (ith the ilustraos in aministering an *200

+i#ili:ing the Phili))ine slans. A))ointing $illiam ,o(ar Ta't8 ean C. $or+ester8 Lu%e -. $right8 ,enrC. e8 an Eernar Moses8 he +hose ne( +ommissioners (ith the e;+e)tion o' ean $or+ester8 the soleholo#er. This ne( agen+ &e+ame %no(n as the Ta't Commission a'ter its )resient8 $illiam ,o(ar Ta't.

n his instru+tions to the Ta't Commission8 M+inle em)hasi:e that the go#ernment o' the Phili))inesshoul &e esta&lishe 'or the ha))iness8 )ea+e8 an )ros)erit o' the )eo)le o' the Phili))ine slans. /N12<3,e a#ise them that +ertain )rin+i)les su+h as li'e an li&ert (ere essential to a strong go#ernment an thus

ha to &e instille in the /ili)ino +ulture. As he ha (ith the !+hurman Commission8 M+inle instru+te thene( Commissioners that the (ere in the Phili))ines mainl to insure that no in>usti+e o++urre. ,e a#isethem that the shoul re'rain 'rom ma%ing an su&stantial +hanges in the la(s unless the e;isting la(s #iolateAmeri+an ieals o' >usti+e. /N1273 Ta't8 in turn8 )ro'esse that his mission in the Phili))ines (as to eu+atethem slo(l in the (as an +ustoms o' the +ountr the nite !tates3. /N12=3

n its 'irst ma>or legislation 'or the slans8 the .!. Congress )asse the Organi+ A+t o' the Phili))ineslans or the Phili))ine Eill o' 1*02 4Organi+ A+t. This A+t'ormall shi'te the go#ernment o' thePhili))ines 'rom militar to +i#ilian rule. The .!. Congress organi:e a >ui+ial sstem (hi+h in+lue the!u)reme Court an numerous lo(er +ourts o(n to the muni+i)al le#el. /N12*3 The most /ili)ini:e &ran+ho' the +entral go#ernment8 i.e. the +ourt sstem8 in+lue the Chie' Justi+e8 t(o inigenous Justi+es o' the!u)reme Court8 /N1@03 an a ma>orit o' nati#e >uges in the muni+i)al +ourts. /N1@13 The Ameri+ans

)ermitte the Justi+e o' the Pea+e +ourts to remain an installe /ili)ino >usti+es to hea these +ourts. Although

there (ere some /ili)inos (ithin the >ui+ial a))aratus8 the ma>orit o' higher?)la+e >uges (ere Ameri+ans./N1@23 n aition8 those /ili)inos (ithin the sstem (ere )rimaril re)resentati#e o' the elite u))er +lass8 theilustraos. The Ameri+an o''i+ials i not +onsier that /ili)inos (oul &e +on+erne a&out (hi+h o' theinigenous )eo)le the sele+te to *201 &e on the +ourt. The assume that )ro#ie the Justi+e (as /ili)ino8the )eo)le (oul &e satis'ie regarless o' the >usti+eBs ruling stle or +lass. /N1@@3

The .!. Presient a))ointe >usti+es to the Phili))ine !u)reme Court8 an the "o#ernor?"eneral sele+te >usti+es 'or the Courts o' /irst nstan+e an the Justi+e o' the Pea+e. The .!. !u)reme Court (as the highesta))ellate +ourt 'or +riminal an +i#il +ases in the Phili))ines. ,o(e#er8 'e( +ases rea+he this le#el sin+e the!u)reme Court ealt onl (ith +onstitutional issues an the Constitution i not a))l to the ar+hi)elago.

n rea+hing e+isions8 +ommon la( +ourts in the Phili))ines stuie )rior .!. +ase la( either in thePhili))ines8 nite !tates or other .!. territories. The +ourts +onsiere lo+al la(s (hen there (as no e;isting

+ommon la( on the issue an (hen the traitions i not +on'li+t (ith Ameri+an &elie's. Prior !)anish e+isions
































11 CLMJAL 175 Page 1D11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

(ere onl )ersuasi#e authorit8 not )re+eent8 an i not )re+lue lo+al +ourts 'rom e;er+ising ine)enent >ugment. /N1@D3

Li%e the !)anish rulers8 the Ameri+an +olonial aministration )ermitte the numerous muni+i)al +ourts toresol#e most +i#il +ases8 &ut +riminal +ases ha to &e argue in 'ront o' Ameri+an >usti+es. The Commission )ermitte the +ourts to +ontinue to em)lo the !)anish la(s in &oth +i#il an +riminal +ases &ut >usti+es ha toe;amine an a))l Ameri+an )ro+eural la( in the +onu+t o' +riminal trials. /N1@53 An la(s in+onsistent(ith Ameri+an &elie's ha alrea &een e;+ise 'rom the Phili))ine la( +oes. The Ameri+ans 'oun that themain 'la( uring the !)anish regime (as that la(s (ere )oorl aministere an &elie#e that the short+omings(ere not in the la(s themsel#es.

. Right to a Jur Trial uring The Ta't Commission -ra

Although the Organi+ A+t an the ne( >ui+ial sstem le't the (rit o' ha&eas +or)us inta+t an8 in theor8o''ere a host o' other Constitutional rights an 'reeoms8 /N1@<3 it 'aile either to e;ten or to en the righto' a >ur trial to the )eo)le in the Phili))ines. The A+t8 ho(e#er8 state e;)li+itl that !e+tion 1=*1 o' the .!.

Re#ise !tatutes o' 1=7= i not *202 a))l to the Phili))ines. /N1@73 !e+tion 1=*1 )ro#ie that theConstitution an all la(s o' the nite !tates (hi+h are not lo+all ina))li+a&le shall ha#e the same 'or+e ane''e+t (ithin all the organi:e Territories8 an in e#er Territor herea'ter organi:e as else(here (ithin thenite !tates. /N1@=3

Thus8 although the right to a trial & >ur +oul not &e a++e)te in the Phili))ines as im)lie la(8 nor +oul this right &e automati+all is+ounte &e+ause Congress ha not s)e+i'i+all ini+ate its #ie(s on theissue.

n 1*0D8 a .!. !u)reme Court +ase8 orr #. nite !tates8 aresse the issue o' (hether8 in the a&sen+e o' a Congressional statute e;)ressl +on'erring the right8 a trial & >ur (as ne+essar i' the e'enant in a .!.territor ha mae su+h a re9uest. /N1@*3 n this +ase8 the >usti+es e;)laine that Ameri+ans (ent to the

Phili))ines to tea+h /ili)inos ho( to go#ern themsel#es an uring times o' )u)ilage8 territories ane)enen+ies o not +onstitute a so#ereign )o(er. /N1D03 There'ore8 Congress ha the )o(er to esta&lish anis)ose o' rules 'or the territories /N1D13 as (ell as the right to ena+t la(s 'or these regions (ithout su&>e+tingthem to .!. restri+tions. /N1D23 Congress ha thus a+te (ithin its Constitutional manate in not e;teningthe right o' a trial & >ur to the Phili))ine slans. The right to a >ur trial (as not8 the Court +ontinue8 a'unamental one su+h as the right to a s)ee an )u&li+ trial. t (as rather a metho that the state ha theo)tion o' em)loing. /N1D@3 !in+e Presient M+inle ha not san+tione a >ur trial sstem in hisinstru+tions to the Commission nor 'ormall e;tene su+h a )ri#ilege to the ar+hi)elago8 the Court eterminethat a trial in the Phili))ines nee not in+lue a >ur. /N1DD3

To >usti' not instituting >ur trials8 the Phili))ine Commission re( u)on another .!. !u)reme Court +asein 1*05. eli&erating o#er the status o' Alas%a8 /N1D53 the Court istinguishe &et(een a territor o' thenite !tates an a territor &elonging to the nite !tates. The Court e'ine a territor o' the nite !tates as

an area in+or)orate into the *203 nite !tates &ut not et a state8 su+h as Alas%a or Ne( Me;i+o. !in+e thePhili))ines an Puerto Ri+o8 on the other han8 (ere territories go#erne & the nite !tates an (ere notslate to &e in+or)orate as states8 the onl &elonge to the nite !tates /N1D<3 The Phili))ine Commissionuse this e+ision as a rationale 'or )ermitting trials (ithout >uriesF as a territor that onl &elonge to thenite !tates8 the Phili))ines +oul not em&ra+e the Constitution as its o(n. Ameri+an la(ma%ers thus a#oiethe Constitutional re9uirement o' a right to a >ur trial in the Phili))ines.

Congress mae its 'inal >ugment on this issue a'ter is+ussions (ith the Chie' Justi+e o' the !u)reme Courto' the Phili))ines8 the ilustrao8 Caetano Arellano. n a hearing &e'ore the .!. !e+retar o' $ar an +ertainCongressmen in 1*058 Chie' Justi+e Arellano state thatF

e#en among the +lass o' )ersons in these slans (ho are 'airl (ell eu+ate8 o not &elie#e that(e +oul e;)e+t them to ha#e the sta&ilit o' >ugment (hi+h (oul &e ne+essar 'or them to )ass 'airl

an >ustl u)on the 9uestions that a >ur (oul ha#e to e+ie. /N1D73










































This >ugment )lease the Ameri+an +olonial o''i+ials in the Ar+hi)elago. As )re#iousl note8 man+olonial Ameri+ans &elie#e that most /ili)inos i not ha#e the intelle+tual +a)a+it or +ultural so)histi+ationto unerstan the intri+a+ies o' >uging their )eers in trial. Or )erha)s the sim)l use this rationale to en/ili)inos a right integral to the Ameri+an emo+rati+ sstem o' >usti+e. ,istorian Peter !tanle note that manAmeri+an +olonists +onsiere the /ili)inos to &e ignorant8 su)erstitious8 an +reulous in remar%a&le egreean that so+ial regeneration (as essential. /N1D=3 n 'a+t8 Ta't (rote in 1*01 that no /ili)ino >ui+iar+oul ha#e an ae9uate +on+e)tion o' (hat )ra+ti+al +i#il li&ert is. /N1D*3 Naturall8 su+h attitues ser#eto >usti' this unermining o' a signi'i+ant 'eature o' Phili))ine legal so#ereignt. t also )erha)s o''ere arationale 'or Ameri+ans to stra +onsiera&l 'rom their original intention o' remaining in the Phili))ines >ustlong enough to esta&lish a sstem o' sel'?go#ernment.

*204 Although not e#en Ameri+ans in the Phili))ines (ere )ermitte trial & >ur8 /N1503 their .!.+iti:enshi) i )ermit them )re'erential treatment (ithin the legal sstem. Ameri+ans li#ing in the +olon (ho+ommitte +riminal o''enses (ere not senten+e to the same )unishments as their /ili)ino +ounter)arts (ere 'or similar +rimes. /or e;am)le8 Lieutenant Preston Ero(n o' the .!. Arm (as su))ose to &e is+harge 'romser#i+e an senten+e to 'i#e ears in )rison 'or murering a /ili)ino. The +ourt8 on re#ie(8 'urther e+rease

this e;traorinaril mil senten+e. t )ermitte him to remain in the ser#i+e &ut his )a (as reu+e & 'i't )er+ent 'or nine months8 an he (as shi'te o(n thirt 'i#e )la+es on the )romotion list. E +ontrast8 thesenten+es 'or /ili)inos (ere ne#er shortene. /N1513

A'ter assuming o''i+e in 1*018 the Ta't Commission initiate man +hanges in the la(s o' the Phili))ines &ut retaine "eneral Orer No. 5=8 (hi+h remains the &asis o' the e;isting Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure o' thePhili))ines. Although numerous re#isions ha#e ta%en )la+e8 Phili))ine +riminal )ro+eure toa is moele onthe Ameri+an )ro+eure o' the earl 1*00Bs. /N1523

/rom 1*01 to 1*078 the .!. Congress grauall ena+te la(s that &rought the Phili))ine legal stru+ture+loser to the .!. sstem. Though the .!. Constitution i not a))l to the Phili))ines8 the /ili)inos (erea++ore man o' the rights guarantee & the Constitution an8 in )arti+ular8 the Eill o' Rights 4(ith thee;+e)tion o' the right to a trial & >ur. es)ite the a&sen+e o' >ur trials8 the earl Ameri+an era (as reno(ne

'or the introu+tion o' ini#iual 'reeoms8 s)ar%ing a moern /ili)ino historian to remar% that in the earlAmeri+an era the /ili)inos en>oe the era o' 'reeom??'reeom o' religious (orshi)8 'reeom o' the )ress8'reeom to assem&le )ea+ea&l 'or the reress o' grie#an+es8 'reeom to +hange omi+ile8 an 'reeom o' s)ee+h. /N15@3

Ca)itali:ing on Orientalist &elie's similar to those ahere to & the -uro)ean +olonials8 the Ameri+an+olonials >usti'ie &oth their o++u)ation an their restri+tion o' ini#iual rights8 in+luing the right to trial &

>ur. $ith the assistan+e o' the ilustraos8 Ameri+an o''i+ials introu+e a *205 'ormal +oe o' +riminal )ro+eure to the slans shortl a'ter their arri#al in an initial attem)t to instru+t the /ili)inos in +i#ili:ela(s. /or more than thirt ears 'ollo(ing their arri#al8 the +ontinue thus to +i#ili:e the nati#es.

. A Erie' Loo% at the -n o' the Ameri+an -ra an the Post ne)enen+e ears

A. "o#ernment ner the Jones Eill 4O+to&er 1<8 1*1<?No#em&er 158 1*@5

As )art o' his +am)aign in 1*128 emo+rati+ )resiential +aniate $ooro( $ilson agree to grantine)enen+e to the Phili))ines as soon as he (as +on'ient that the /ili)inos (ere +a)a&le o' sustaining asta&le go#ernment on their o(n.

Almost immeiatel a'ter assuming o''i+e8 Presient $ilson sent an a#isor to the Phili))ines to assess the+ountrBs reainess 'or sel'?go#ernment. Although $ilsonBs a#isor returne (ith a glo(ing re)ort on the/ili)inosB +a)a+it to go#ern themsel#es8 the .!. Congress i not grant the /ili)inos )artial sel'?go#ernment

)o(er until 'our ears a'ter re#ie(ing this re)ort to $ilson. /N15D3

ner )ressure 'rom a 'e( li&eral .!. Congressmen an the /ili)ino )eo)le 'or greater ine)enen+e8 the
























11 CLMJAL 175 Page 1<11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

Congress )asse the Jones La( in August o' 1*1<. !ee%ing to satis' the /ili)inos an to 9uell +riti+ism8Congress )asse this &ill (hi+h o)ene & noting that it is esira&le to )la+e in the hans o' the )eo)le o' thePhili))ines as large a +ontrol o' their omesti+ a''airs as +an &e gi#en them (ithout8 in the meantime8 im)airingthe e;er+ise o' the rights o' so#ereignt & the )eo)le o' the nite !tates. /N1553

Congress thus re)la+e the Ameri+an?ominate Phili))ines Commission (ith a legislature that in+lue anall?/ili)ino !enate an a ,ouse o' Re)resentati#es (ith )o)ularl ele+te o''i+ials. The .!. go#ernmentasserte that it (or%e to train more /ili)inos so the (oul &e e9ui))e to run their o(n go#ernment. /N15<3-#en though there (ere more /ili)inos in legislati#e an >ui+ial )ositions8 the Ameri+an "o#ernor?"eneralretaine #eto )o(er an the right to a))oint all Ca&inet o''i+ials. *206 Moreo#er8 Ameri+an >usti+es +om)risethe ma>orit on the Phili))ine !u)reme Court8 an the highest +ourt o' a))eals remaine the .!. !u)remeCourt. Thus the Jones La(8 though a graual ste) to(ars an ine)enent Phili))ines8 still le't most o' thee+ision?ma%ing )o(er in the hans o' Ameri+ans.

E. Common(ealth an ne)enen+e

The Tings?M+u''ie A+t o' 1*@D +reate the Common(ealth o' the Phili))ines an )ro#ie 'or ine)enen+e 'rom .!. +ontrol in 1*D<. On Jul 18 1*D08 the !u)reme Court o' the Phili))ines )romulgate theRules o' the Court 4(hi+h in+lue rules on +riminal )ro+eure +oi'ie 'rom "eneral Orer No. 5= as Rules10< to 122. /N1573

These Rules o' the Court remaine un+hange until 1*<D8 (hen the !u)reme Court issue the Re#iseRules o' the Court (ith Rules 110 to 127 entitle Criminal Pro+eure. Although the +ourt )romulgate thene( rules to in+or)orate )ost?ine)enen+e +ase la( an +ourt rulings sin+e 1*D08 the rules i''ere little 'rom"eneral Orer No. 5=. nstea8 the Rules re'ine the "eneral Orer. /or e;am)le8 the Re#ise Rules in+lue a

)ro#ision ini+ating that a legitimate groun 'or ismissal o' . . . a3 +ase is that the 'a+ts allege in thein'ormation o not +onstitute an o''ense. /N15=3 This rule emanate 'rom a 1*<@ 'rauulent mortgage +ase in(hi+h the )lainti''Bs +om)laint 'aile to su))l su''i+ient in'ormation to +harge the e'enants (ith the o''ense./N15*3 The !u)reme Court also in+or)orate Peo)le #. Pla:a /N1<03 (hi+h )ermitte a )art to amen a+om)laint at an time &e'ore the e'enant entere his or her )lea. /N1<13 There'ore8 e#en though the !u)remeCourt issue ne( rules o' +riminal )ro+eure8 in realit8 the Court i not stra 'ar 'rom the su&stan+e o' "eneral Orer No. 5=.

C. The Mar+os ears

1. The -arl ears an Martial La(

/erinan Mar+os assume o''i+e as Presient o' the Phili))ines in 1*<58 an in 1*<* &e+ame the 'irst )resient in the nationBs histor to &e *207 reele+te. uring the 'irst 'e( ears o' his rule8 the Phili))inese;)erien+e a mar%e e+onomi+ im)ro#ement8 ue in )art to in+rease ri+e )rou+tion an e;)ort o' a ne(lis+o#ere strain o' ri+e. /N1<23 ,o(e#er8 +ulti#ating this ri+e re9uire e;)ensi#e hea# ma+hiner 'ar

&eon the means o' the a#erage 'armer. Thus onl the (ealth lano(ners ha the o))ortunit to share in thisin+rease )ros)erit. Rea+ting to rumors o' amasse (ealth among the elite8 /ili)ino stuents8 'armers8 anla&orers &egan to rall against Mar+os in earl 1*<*8 an this #iolen+e es+alate 'or the ne;t three ears. nho)es o' gaining +ontrol o#er the +haos in his +ountr8 Mar+os e+lare martial la( in 1*728 uring (hi+h timeno +hange o++urre to the Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure. /inall in 1*=18 Mar+os li'te martial la( ana))ro;imatel 'our ears later8 the !u)reme Court issue its most re+ent #ersion o' the Coe o' CriminalPro+eure.

2. 1*=5 Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure

The Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure that go#erns )resent?a +riminal )ro+eure in the Phili))ines (as lastre#ise in 1*=5. /N1<@3 ,o(e#er8 the 1*=5 Coe &arel +hange the &asi+ )ro+eure that the Ameri+ansesta&lishe in 1*00 through "eneral Orer No. 5=. nstea8 the aitions slightl altere the Coe to in+or)orate




























so+ietal +hanges +onsistent (ith e;isting moern la(. n his analsis o' the e;isting Coe8 /ran+is+o - Lim8 as+holar o' /ili)ino +riminal la(8 (rote that a num&er o' the +hanges introu+e & the ne( Rules ha#e &eenao)te 'rom e;isting statutes8 in+luing the Constitution8 an settle >uris)ruen+e o' the !u)reme Court on+riminal )ro+eure. /N1<D3 These +hanges in+lue su+h s)e+i'i+ re#isions as the 'ollo(ingF 41 (here to 'ilea +riminal +om)laint6 /N1<53 42 ho( the state +oul initiate a+tion on the e+easeBs &ehal' (hen a #i+tim o' aseition8 a&u+tion8 or ra)e (ho ha no sur#i#ing relati#es ie &e'ore 'iling a +om)laint6 /N1<<3 an 4@ ho(to in+or)orate the Luna #. Pla:a +ase 41*<= 4(hi+h hel that the )rose+ution neee to )resent su''i+ient 'a+tsto the >uge to +on#in+e him or her that )ro&a&le +ause 'or arrest e;iste. /N1<73

*208 The )ro+eures 'or 'iling a +riminal +ase in 1**7 uner the 1*=5 Coe remain almost the same asthe (ere in 1*00 uner "eneral Orer No. 5=. A'ter the o''ene )art ha 'ile a +om)laint8 the lo+al )oli+e+onu+te an in#estigation to etermine 4a (hether the +rime (as a+tuall +ommitte8 an 4& i' so (hether su''i+ient grouns e;ist >usti'ing the arrest o' a sus)e+t. /N1<=3 ' su''i+ient grouns e;iste 'ollo(ing the

)re?arrest in#estigation8 the )oli+e authorities too% the sus)e+t into +usto8 an the )rose+ution &egan its )reliminar in#estigation. As uner "eneral Orer No. 5=8 the 1*=5 Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure )ermits asus)e+t to &e release on &ail e;+e)t (hen +harge (ith a +a)ital o''ense. /N1<*3 The Coe re9uires the

)arties hol an arraignment an a )retrial +on'eren+e in ho)es o' settling the +ase through a )lea &argain. Most+ases are +urrentl settle in this manner. ' a +ase is not resol#e8 ho(e#er8 the )arties must )ro+ee to trial(ith at least t(o a noti+e )rior to the )ro+eeings. Ease u)on all the e#ien+e he or she has hear8 a >uge(ill enter a >ugement (ithin three months 'rom the ate o' su&mission o' the +ase. /N1703

As in "eneral Orer No. 5=8 in the 1*=5 Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure8 the rights o' the a++use are )aramount. Rule 115 is e#ote entirel to these &asi+ legal rights (hi+h in+lueF

4a to &e )resume inno+ent until the +ontrar is )ro#e &eon a reasona&le ou&t6 4& to &ein'orme o' the nature an +ause o' the a++usation . . .6 4+ to &e )resent an e'en in )erson an &+ounsel at e#er stage o' the )ro+eeings . . .6 4 to testi' as a (itness in his o(n &ehal' . . .64e to &ee;em)t 'rom &eing +om)elle to &e a (itness against himsel'6 4' to +on'ront an +ross e;amine the(itness against him . . . 4g to ha#e +om)ulsor )ro+ess issue to se+ure the attenan+e o' (itness an

)rou+tion o' other e#ien+e on his &ehal'6 4h to ha#e a s)ee8 im)artial an )u&li+ trial6 an 4i to ha#ethe right o' a))eal in all +ases allo(e an in the manner )res+ri&e & la(. /N1713 Moern Phili))inela(ma%ers ao)te (or 'or (or the Ameri+an +olonialsB greatest inno#ation??the 'unamental rights o' the a++use.

*209 Although the 1*=5 Coe o''ers man )ersonal 'reeoms8 it 'ails to )ro#ie the a++use (ith the rightto a >ur trial. t ma &e that the )resent?a /ili)ino legal sstem un%no(ingl retains a 'e( o' the Orientalistattitues o' the earl Ameri+an +olonials8 &ut more li%el it is that trial & >ur (oul &e ina))ro)riate in +urrent/ili)ino so+iet.

O'ten8 moern legal is)utes are resol#e outsie o' the +ourt sstems. nstea o' a))ealing to the +ourtsstem to settle their is+re)an+ies8 man /ili)inos re+on+ile their i''eren+e through ami+a&le settlement.B/N1723 n his arti+le 'o+using on the legal sstem o' the rural Phili))ine8 it Ma+hao8 a s+holar o' /ili)inolegal histor8 e;)laine that man o' the )ersonal is)utes that arise in the Phili))ines are settle throughalternati#e is)ute resolution outsie o' the state legal institutions. /N17@3 ,e (rote that most e;)lanationso' )re'eren+e 'or in'ormal means o' is)ute?)ro+essing in e;?+olonial thir (orl states stress +ultural an so+ial+hara+teristi+s in+om)ati&le (ith the norms unerling legal institutions introu+e & $estern im)erial

)o(ers. !u+h 'a+tors are +learl im)ortant in the )re#alen+e o' ami+a&le settlementB in the Phili))ines./N17D3 Thus8 )erha)s the $estern +on+e)t o' trial & >ur is in+om)ati&le (ith /ili)ino so+iet an is anonissue in the +ountrBs legal stru+ture.

. Con+lusion

An inigenous legal stru+ture an a !)anish aa)tation o' Roman la( )re+ee the arri#al o' Ameri+ans inthe Phili))ines. !ee%ing to is)el hostilit an )ossi&le arme resistan+e an )erha)s to gain the su))ort o' the/ili)inos8 Ameri+ans retaine +ertain 'eatures o' the inigenous an the !)anish legal traitions (hile grauall

introu+ing a +ommon la( legal sstem. The initiate +hanges in +i#il marriage8 a 'irst ste) in an e''ort to

































11 CLMJAL 175 Page 1=11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

se)arate +hur+h an state8 an then ena+te a ne( +riminal +oe o' )ro+eure lea#ing the su&stanti#e Roman+riminal la( #irtuall untou+he. As late as 1*108 the e;isting !)anish la( (as still )rominent in the Ameri+an+olonial >ui+ial sstem. /N1753 The >usti+es o' the Phili))ine *210 !u)reme Court (rote that8 it meanssim)l that that )ortion o' !)anish . . . la(3 still sur#i#es. /N17<3

et Ameri+an )oliti+al an e+onomi+ interests emane that a ne( legal sstem an go#ernmentalstru+ture &e e#elo)e in the Phili))ines. Although the Phili))ine Eill o' Rights resem&le the .!. #ersion8Ameri+an la(ma%ers eli&eratel e;+lue the right o' trial & >ur & asserting that the Constitution a))lieonl to territories in+or)orate into the nite !tates. Ameri+an +olonials 'eare that granting su+h+onstitutional rights as a trial & >ur might +hallenge .!. +ontrol o' the ar+hi)elago. !an+tioning trial & a >uro' oneBs )eers (oul o''er orinar /ili)inos the right to etermine the out+ome o' legal +ases ine)enent o' Ameri+an o#erseers. nstea8 Ameri+an o''i+ials an Phili))ine ilustraos ominate +riminal an +i#il la(s an

)ro+eures throughout the )erio o' .!. +olonial rule.

As historian Ru& Parees asserte in the )oli+ ma%ing )ro+ess8 the Ameri+ans ha the )o(er8 &ut theilustraos ha the %no(lege. /N1773 A s+holar o' +olonial la( ae that +olonial rule (as &ase . . . u)on

a eli+ate sstem o' une9ual &argainsB . . . &et(een re)resentati#es o' the +olonial )o(ers at the )eri)her anthe inigenous elites. /N17=3 This +olla&oration )ermitte Ameri+an +olonial o''i+ials the o))ortunit to+ontrol the go#ernment in the Phili))ines (ithout al(as 'irsthan )arti+i)ation. The Ameri+ans e?em)hasi:etheir )oliti+al an e+onomi+ moti#es an >usti'ie their o++u)ation o' the slans as a +i#ili:ing mission to rithe /ili)inos o' their &a+%(arness an hel) them ma%e )rogress. n their )resent state8 the Ameri+anim)erialists e;)laine8 the /ili)inos (ere not +a)a&le o' trial & >ur. ra(ing on the Ar+hi)elagoBs histor8 theAmeri+ans also asserte that the /ili)inos ha ne#er ha a legal sstem that o)erate (ith a >ur8 so that the+olonial o''i+ials ha not e)ri#e the /ili)inos o' an e;isting right.

n the earl t(entieth +entur8 most Ameri+ans a++e)te this rationale an i not )er+ei#e it to &e anim)erialist ta+ti+ or an a&rigement o' /ili)ino legal so#ereignt. n 'a+t8 as late as 1*<08 a ni#ersit o' $is+onsin grauate stuent (rote in his M.!. Thesis8 o++asionall8 our enial o' the right o' trial & >ur has

&een +riti+i:e &ut this measure seems (ell >usti'ie in #ie( o' the lo( eu+ational le#el o' the )eo)le an *211

their +enturies o' i''erent e;)erien+e in trial & >uge rather than >ur. /N17*3 Although the Phili))ines as anation has +hange ramati+all sin+e the earl Ameri+an +olonial ears8 some o' the la(s (hi+h the +olonialsintrou+e8 in+luing the +oe o' +riminal )ro+eure ao)te in 1*008 remain #irtuall inta+t in 1**7 (ithoutan re'eren+e to the right o' trial & >ur.

/Na13. Attorne8 a#is Pol% S $ar(ell6 E.A. 4!outheast Asian ,istor8 Cornell ni#ersit6 J..8 M.A.4!outheast Asian ,istor8 ni#ersit o' $is+onsin. The author (ishes to than% Pro'essors Al're $. M+Coan Morris Rossa&i 'or their enless )atien+e an assistan+e in eiting this arti+le.

/N13. "lenn Anthon Ma8 !o+ial -ngineering in the Phili))inesF The Aims8 -;e+ution an m)a+t o' Ameri+an Colonial Poli+8 1*00?1*1@8 *?10 41*=0.

/N23. Peter "oron "o(ing8 Manate in MorolanF The Ameri+an "o#ernment o' Muslim /ili)inos 1=**?1*208 D5 41*77.

/N@3. C. /asseur8 Colonial ilemmaF an ollenho#en an the !truggle Eet(een Aat an $estern La( innonesia8 in -uro)ean -;)ansion an La(F The -n+ounter o' -uro)ean an nigenous La( in the 1*th an20th Centur A'ri+a an Asia 2@7 4$.J. Mommsen S J.A. e Moor8 es.8 1**2 hereina'ter -uro)ean-;)ansion an La(3.

/ND3. !uargo "autama an Ro&ert N. ,orni+%8 An ntrou+tion to nonesian La(F nit in i#ersit 241*7D.

/N53. aniel !. Le#8 Colonial La( an the "enesis o' the nonesian !tate8 D0 nonesia <0 41*=5.











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11 CLMJAL 175 Page 1*11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

/N<3. John ". Eut+her8 The Eritish in Malaa 1=00?1*D1F The !o+ial ,istor o' a -uro)ean Communit inColonial !outh?-ast Asia *7?120 41*7*.

/N73. .. /ielhouse8 Colonialism 1=70?1*D5F An ntrou+tion D= 41*=1.

/N=3. .!. Eureau o' nsular A''airs8 Re)orts on the La( o' the Ci#il "o#ernment in Territor !u&>e+t toMilitar O++u)ation & the Militar /or+es o' the nite !tates 11 41*02 hereina'ter La( o' the Ci#il"o#ernment3.

/N*3. Mi+hael Cullinane8 lustrao Politi+sF The Res)onse o' the /ili)ino -u+ate -lite to Ameri+an ColonialRule8 1=**?1*07 75 41*=* 4Ph.. issertation8 ni#ersit o' Mi+higan.

/N103. /ielhouse8 su)ra note 78 at D=.

/N113. John Le Phelan8 The ,is)ani:ation o' the Phili))inesF !)anish Aims an /ili)ino Res)onses8 15<5?1700 <D 41*5*.

/N123. The !)anish o''i+ials introu+e a legal sstem &ase u)on their o(n aa)tation o' Roman la(. Asmoi'ie & the -m)eror Justinian in the si;th +entur8 this Roman Coe &e+ame ominant throughout $estern-uro)e8 e;+e)t in the Eritish sles (hi+h ha its o(n traitions o' Common La(. Moern la( an the

Na)oleoni+ Coe ha#e8 in essen+e8 re)la+e Roman la( in -uro)e &ut at the time o' the !)anish +on9uest o' thePhili))ines8 the Roman Coe (as still the ominant legal sstem.

/N1@3. D Li&ro !eguno8 TKtulo Primero e Las Lees8 Pro#isiones8 CHulas8 Orenan:as Reales8 12<?1@281=<?1=7 hereina'ter Lees8 Pro#isiones8 CHulas8 Orenan:as Reales3.

/N1D3. Note the la+% o' se)aration o' +hur+h an state.

/N153. Charles Eur%e -lliott8 The Phili))ines to the -n o' the Militar RegimeF Ameri+a O#erseas 2@@41*17.

/N1<3. Lees8 Pro#isiones8 CHulas8 Orenan:as Reales8 su)ra note 1@8 at 2=2.

/N173. . at 2*7.

/N1=3. -lliott8 su)ra note 158 at 2@@.

/N1*3. Phelan8 su)ra note 118 at <D.

/N203. -lliott8 su)ra note 158 at 2@@.

/N213. Phelan8 su)ra note 118 at 12*.

/N223. Mariano A. Al&ert8 La Le Pro+eimiento Criminal 1@ 41*27.

/N2@3. !)anish o''i+ials &rie'l a&olishe the Auien+ia in 15=* &ut then reinstate it in 15*<.

/N2D3. "eorge A. Mal+olm8 The "o#ernment o' the Phili))ine slansF ts e#elo)ment an /unamentals 7D41*1<.

/N253. a#i Ce+il Johnson8 Courts in the Phili))ines8 Ol??Ne(8 1D Mi+h. L. Re#. @008 @1= 41*1<.
































































/N2<3. Peter $. !tanle8 A Nation in the Ma%ingF The Phili))ines an the nite !tates8 1=**?1*21 20 41*7D.

/N273. .!. Phili))ine Commission8 Re)ort o' the Ta't Commission8 /irst Message to the Presient o' the

nite !tates 122 41*00 hereina'ter Re)ort o' the Phili))ine Commission3.

/N2=3. -liooro ". Ro&les8 The Phili))ines in the Nineteenth Centur 1*5 41*<*.

/N2*3. One o' the 'e( +ases to rea+h the Coun+il o' the nies in Mari in#ol#e a is)ute &et(een a mem&er o' the Chinese mesti:o elite an the !)anish Catholi+ Chur+h in Ce&u. This +ase tie u) the Phili))ine +ourtsstems 'or more than t(ent ears &e'ore it rea+he the Coun+il o' the nies. The a))eal ene in 1=50 (henthe !)anish >usti+es 'oun 'or the Ce&u +lergmen an &rought a +rushing legal e'eat u)on the mesti:o+ommunit. Mi+hael Cullinane8 The Changing Nature o' the Ce&u r&an -lite in the 1*th Centur8 inPhili))ine !o+ial ,istorF "lo&al Trae an Lo+al Trans'ormations 2<2 4Al're $. M+Co S - C. e Jesus8es.8 1*=2.

/N@03. !tanle8 su)ra note 2<8 at 20.

/N@13. Mal+olm8 su)ra note 2D8 at 5<.

/N@23. .!. i#ision o' Customs an nsular A''airs8 Translation o' The Penal Coe in /or+e in the Phili))ines*?22 41*00.

/N@@3. Re)ort o' the Phili))ine Commission8 su)ra note 278 at 2@7.

/N@D3. Le&&eus R. $il'le8 Trial & Jur an ou&le Jeo)ar in the Phili))ines8 1@ ale L.J. D218 D2@41*0D.

/N@53. ean C. $or+ester8 The Phili))inesF Past an Present @2< 41*@0.

/N@<3. James LeRo8 1 The Ameri+ans in the Phili))ines 10= 41*1D.

/N@73. .

/N@=3. /.C. /isher8 !ome Pe+uliarities o' Phili))ine Criminal La( an Pro+eure8 1* a. L. Re#. @@8 D141*@2.

/N@*3. $or+ester8 su)ra note @58 at @27.

/ND03. $./. Norris8 The Criminal Coe o' the Phili))ines8 in 15 The "reen Eag D@@ 41*0@.

/ND13. Ro&les8 su)ra note 2=8 at 1*5.

/ND23. Mar+elo ,. el Pilar8 Monasti+ !u)rema+ in the Phili))ines 1D 4-n+ana+ion Alo:ona trans. 1*5=.

/ND@3. John N. !+huma+her8 The Pro)agana Mo#ement8 1==0?1=*5 1 41*7@.

/NDD3. Anre Le&on8 A Con'li+t o' Ra+eF Ameri+ans an /ili)inos8 in /rom Re#olution to a !e+onColoni:ationF The Phili))ines ner !)ain an the nite !tates 22?25 4Marietta -nri9ue: "uerrero trans.81**0.

/ND53. Ro&les8 su)ra note 2=8 at 1*5.




















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/ND<3. Although some ilustraos stuie a&roa8 to &e +onsiere an ilustrao a )erson onl nee &e eu+atein $estern +ulture an intelle+t an &e 'luent in !)anish not ne+essaril s+hoole outsie the Phili))ines.Cullinane8 su)ra note *8 at @*?D2.

/ND73. Eoni'a+io !alaman+a8 The /ili)ino Rea+tion to Ameri+an Rule8 1*01?1*1@ 2@ 41*<=.

/ND=3. !+huma+her8 su)ra note D@8 at 15?1<.

/ND*3. Ma8 su)ra note 18 at 2=.

/N503. el Pilar8 su)ra note D28 at <6 see also !+huma+her8 su)ra note D@8 at 1<D.

/N513. Ma8 su)ra note 18 at 57.

/N523. "eorge R. ,ar#e8 The Aministration o' Justi+e in the Phili))ine slans8 * ll. L. Re#. 7@8 77 41*1D.

/N5@3. . at 7=.

/N5D3. $or+ester8 su)ra note @58 at @25.

/N553. Arthur /. Olin8 Ameri+an Courts in the Phili))ines8 Aress eli#ere &e'ore the /loria !tate Ear Asso+iation 41*128 in D7 Am. L. Re#. @218 @2= 41*1@.

/N5<3. LeRo8 su)ra note @<8 at @**?D0@.

/N573. Cullinane8 su)ra note *8 at 75.

/N5=3. /ielhouse8 su)ra note 78 at 7.

/N5*3. . at 27.

/N<03. a#i $ur'el8 /ili)ino Politi+sF e#elo)ment an e+a 7 41*==.

/N<13. La( o' the Ci#il "o#ernment8 su)ra note =8 at 11.

/N<23. !tanle8 su)ra note 2<8 at *0.

/N<@3. $or+ester8 su)ra note @58 at 275.

/N<D3. .!. Phili))ine Commission8 Aministrati#e Coe o' the Phili))ine slans 22D 41*1< hereina'ter Aministrati#e Coe3.

/N<53. Ma8 su)ra note 18 at 27.

/N<<3. O(en J. Ln+h8 nigenous !o+ial /ormations an the Phili))ine !tate8 in Criti+al e+aeF Pros)e+ts'or emo+ra+ in the Phili))ines in the 1**0Bs 2< 4olores /lamiano S onal "oert:en8 es.8 1**0.

/N<73. . at 27.

/N<=3. Ru& Ri#era Parees8 The Partio /eeral8 1*00?1*07F Politi+al Colla&oration in Colonial Manila8 =54Ph.. issertation8 ni#ersit o' Mi+higan8 1*=*.










































































/N<*3. Cullinane8 su)ra note *8 at 75.

/N703. "en. Orers No. 5=8 O''i+e o' the .!. Militar "o#ernor in the Phili))ine slans 41*00 hereina'ter

"en. Orers No. 5=3.

/N713. . 1.

/N723. Cameron $. /or&es8 The Phili))ine slans 1D0?1D1 41*D5.

/N7@3. James ,. Elount8 !ome Legal As)e+ts o' the Phili))ines8 1D Am. La(. D*58 D*< 41*0<.

/N7D3. .!. Const. art. 8 *8 +l. 2.

/N753. Ela+%Bs La( i+tionar 70* 4<th e. 1**0.

/N7<3. Al&ert8 su)ra note 228 at D0.

/N773. "uillermo E. "ue#ara8 The Coe o' Criminal Pro+eure o' the Phili))ine slans = 41*22.

/N7=3. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 <.

/N7*3. .

/N=03. . <4@.

/N=13. The +orre+t 'ormat 'or a +om)laint (asF The nite !tates against UUUUUU38

n the Court o' UUUUUU8 'or UUUUU8 Pro#in+e o' UUUUU8 the UUUUU a o' UUUUU8 1*UU. UUUUU3 is a++use & the unersigne o' the +rime o' 4gi#ing its legal a))ellation8 su+h as murer8arson8 ro&&er8 or the li%e8 or esignating it as a 'elon or misemeanor8 +ommitte as 'ollo(sF That sai UUUUU3 on the UUUUUa o' UUUUU8 1*UU8 at the UUUUU o' UUUUU Pro#in+e o' UUUUU8 4here set'orth the a+ts or ommissions si+3 +harge as an o''en+e8 +ontrar to the statute in su+h +ase mae an )ro#ie. 4!igneUUUSus+ore6UUUUSus+ore6UUUUUUUUSus+ore6UUUUSus+ore6"en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 =./N=23. "ue#ara8 su)ra note 778 at 1D.

/N=@3. Currentl8 in the nite !tates8 etermining >urisi+tion is a mu+h more +om)li+ate )ro+ess anen+om)asses other 'a+tors8 &ut uring the Ameri+an ears in the Phili))ines onl these t(o re9uirementse;iste. !ee John J. Coun et al.8 Ci#il Pro+eureF Cases an Materials <5?1*5 4<th e. 1**@.

/N=D3. /or e;am)le8 arme ro&&er (as one o''ense an neee onl one +om)laintF ro&&er (ith a gun rather than )ossession o' a (ea)on an stealing.

/N=53. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 1@?1D.

/N=<3. !u''i+ient e#ien+e to +on#i+t (as the stanar use 'or most Ameri+an +riminal trials at the time.

/N=73. /isher8 su)ra note @=8 at D1.

/N==3. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 1@.

/N=*3. Organi+ A+t o' the Phili))ines8 +h. 1@<*8 @2 !tat. <*1 41*02.














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11 CLMJAL 175 Page 2@11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

/N*03. Al&ert8 su)ra note 228 at D10.

/N*13. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 1547.

/N*23. .!. Const. amen. .

/N*@3. nite !tates #. Pelle>era8 17 Phil. 5=7 41*0*.

/N*D3. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 15.

/N*53. LeRo8 su)ra note @<8 at 10=.

/N*<3. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 1541.

/N*73. LeRo8 su)ra note @<8 at 27*?2=0 4#ol. 2.

/N*=3. "en. Orers No. 5=8 su)ra note 708 2D.

/N**3. Re)ort o' the Phili))ine Commission8 su)ra note 278 at 125.

/N1003. .!. Const. amen. .

/N1013. .

/N1023. . art. 8 @.

/N10@3. Mr. oole Remem&ersF The n'ormal Memoirs o' /inle Peter unne 2*D8 4Phili) unne8 e. 1*<@4em)hasis ae hereina'ter Mr. oole Remem&ers3.

/N10D3. Ma8 su)ra note 18 at 27.

/N1053. The !ulu Qone ha8 an still has8 the largest num&er o' Muslim /ili)inos in the ar+hi)elago.

/N10<3. "o(ing8 su)ra note 28 at D5.

/N1073. .

/N10=3. -(ar $. !ai8 Orientalism. 7 41*7*.

/N10*3. Eruno Las%er8 Peo)les o' !outheast Asia 2@ 41*DD.

/N1103. .!. Phili))ine Commission8 2 Re)ort o' the Phili))ine Commission to the Presient ==2 41*02.

/N1113. James A. LeRo8 the Phili))ines +ir+a 1*00F Phili))ine Li'e in To(n an Countr 2*0 41*05.

/N1123. ,. $. Erans8 Eoun to -m)ireF The nite !tates an the Phili))ines <= 41**2.

/N11@3. !tuart C. Miller8 Our Mlai o' 1*00F Ameri+ans in the Phili))ine nsurre+tion8 in Ameri+an-;)ansionism6 The Criti+al ssues 10< 4Mariln Elatt oung8 e. 1*7@.








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11 CLMJAL 175 Page 2D11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

/N11D3. /or anti?im)erialist attitues among soliers8 see Ora $illiams8 Oriental Ameri+aF O''i+ial anAuthenti+ Re+ors o' the ealings o' the nite !tates (ith the Nati#es an Their /ormer Rulers 41=**.

/N1153. Congressman John /ran%lin !ha'roth8 Can the /ili)inos "o#ern Themsel#es A Letter /rom Manila @?D 4e;a+t ate un%no(n.

/N11<3. PollarBs Lessee #. ,ogan8 @ ,o(. 2128 225 41=D5 4em)hasis ae.

/N1173. -lBs Aministrator #. nite !tates8 171 .!. 220 41=*=.

/N11=3. /isher8 su)ra note @=8 at 115.

/N11*3. 57 Cong. Re+. !1@*D 41*01.

/N1203. . !1@*5

/N1213. .

/N1223. . 4em)hasis ae

/N12@3. ,ar#e8 su)ra note 528 at 75.

/N12D3. Aministrati#e Coe8 su)ra note <D8 at 5*.

/N1253. 5< Cong. Re+. 7<@ 41*01.

/N12<3. Presient M+inle8 nstru+tions o' the Presient to the !e+on Phili))ine Commission8 in $or+ester8

su)ra note @58 at 7*5.

/N1273. . at 7*5.

/N12=3. Mr. oole Remem&ers8 su)ra note 10@8 at 2*D.

/N12*3. Re)ort o' the Phili))ine Commission8 su)ra note 278 at =@.

/N1@03. Mal+olm8 su)ra note 2D8 at 22=.

/N1@13. !alaman+a8 su)ra note D78 at 72.

/N1@23. . at 72.

/N1@@3. . at @1. On+e again these attitues re'le+te the Orientalist &elie's )re#alent among Ameri+ans at thistime.

/N1@D3. "eorge A. Mal+olm8 Phili))ine La(8 11 ll. L. Re#. @@18 @*1?@*< 41*1<.

/N1@53. "en. Orers No. =8 O''i+e o' the .!. Militar "o#ernor in the Phili))ine slans 41=*=.

/N1@<3. Organi+ A+t o' the Phili))ines8 +h. 1@<*8 @2 !tat. <*1 41*02.

/N1@73. . at 1.








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/N1@=3. .

/N1@*3. orr #. nite !tates8 1*5 .!. 1@= 41*0D.

/N1D03. "eorge Mal+olm8 The !tatus o' the Phili))ines8 1D Mi+h. L. Re#. 52*8 5@< 41*1<.

/N1D13. orr8 1*5 .!. at 1@*.

/N1D23. o(nes #. Ei(ell8 1=2 .!. 2DD 41*00

/N1D@3. orr8 1*5 .!. at 1DD.

/N1DD3. . at 1D5.

/N1D53. Rasmussen #. nite !tates8 1*7 .!. 51< 41*05.

/N1D<3. Olin8 su)ra note 558 at @@0?@@1.

/N1D73. .!. Phili))ine Commission8 ,earings Ee'ore the !e+retar o' $ar an the Congressional PartA++om)aning ,im to the Phili))ine slans 10@ 41*05.

/N1D=3. !tanle8 su)ra note 2<8 at =@.

/N1D*3. Ta't Pa)ers8 Phili))ine Commission8 Li&rar o' Congress 4Ma 2<8 1*01.

/N1503. orr #. nite !tates8 1*5 .!. 1@= 41*0D.

/N1513. Miller8 su)ra note 11@8 at 11@. is+ussion o' )unishments in the +olonial Phili))ines is +on'ine to thissmall se+tion sin+e neither "eneral Orer No. 5= nor the Organi+ A+t aress this as)e+t o' /ili)ino la(8 ma%ingit i''i+ult to o&tain an in'ormation regaring )unishments at this time.

/N1523. Mel9uiaes J. "am&oa8 An ntrou+tion to Phili))ine La( =< 4<th e. 1*55.

/N15@3. Teooro A. Agon+illo S Milagros C. "uerrero8 ,istor o' the /ili)ino Peo)le D@0 41*70.

/N15D3. . at @D@.

/N1553. Mal+olm8 su)ra note 2D8 at 2@1.

/N15<3. /eli+itas . Pailla8 The Phili))ine "o#ernment 4-#olutionF Pre?!)anish to the A9uino "o#ernmentan the 1*=7 Constitution 4(ith Annotations @7 41*=7.

/N1573. /ortunato "u)it8 Jr.8 nno#ations in Ne( Criminal Pro+eure @ 41*=5.

/N15=3. Ce'erino . illegas8 Criminal Pro+eure8 @* Phil. L.J. 22< 41*<D.

/N15*3. Peo)le #. !un)a8 ".R. No. L?1=7D7 41*<@.

/N1<03. Peo)le #. Pla:a8 ".R. No. L?1==1* 41*<@.
























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11 CLMJAL 175 Page 2<11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

/N1<13. 1*=5 Rules on Criminal Pro+eure R. Crim. Pro+.3 11@47 4No#. 228 1*=D 4Phil..

/N1<23. Lela "arner No&le8 Politi+s in the Mar+os -ra8 in Crisis in the Phili))inesF the Mar+os -ra an

Eeon 7< 4John Eresnan e. 1*=<.

/N1<@3. Ri+aro J. /ran+is+o8 Criminal Pro+eureF Rules o' Court in the Phili))ines8 Rule 110?127 2 41**D.

/N1<D3. /ran+is+o - Lim8 The Ol an Ne( Rules on Criminal Pro+eure8 = Phil. L. "a:ette 1D8 41*=5.

/N1<53. R. Crim. Pro+. 110414a4& 4Phil..

/N1<<3. . 11045.

/N1<73. Luna #. Pla:a8 L?27511 2< !CRA @10 41*<=.

/N1<=3. /ran+is+o8 su)ra note 1<@8 at 5.

/N1<*3. R. Crim. Pro+. 11D4@ 4Phil..

/N1703. /ran+is+o8 su)ra note 1<@8 at <.

/N1713. R. Crim. Pro+. 115 4Phil..

/N1723. it Ma+hao8 !tate Legal nstitutions an Ami+a&le !ettlementB in the Rural Phili))ines8 in The-ighth Con'eren+e8 nternational Asso+iation o' ,istorians o' AsiaF !ele+te Pa)ers 7D= 4Moh. Amin ,assan S

Ni% ,assan !huhaimi Ni% A&. Rahman es. 1*==.

/N17@3. . at 751.

/N17D3. .

/N1753. !ee nite !tates #. Laguna8 17 Phil. 5@2 41*10.

/N17<3. .8 at 5@=.

/N1773. Parees8 su)ra note <=8 at 177.

/N17=3. $.J. Mommsen8 ntrou+tion8 in -uro)ean -;)ansion an La(8 su)ra note @8 at @.

/N17*3. Jose)h James Corr8 A enture at Altruisti+ m)erialismF The nite !tates in the Phili))ine slans/rom 1*00 to 1*10 @7 41*<0 4M.!. thesis8 ni#ersit o' $is+onsin 4Maison. 11 Colum. J. Asian L. 175

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