Wetlands around Lake Tana: A landscape and avifaunistic … · · 2012-11-07Wetlands around Lake...

Wetlands around Lake Tana: A landscape and avifaunistic study

Diploma Thesis within the study programme Landscape Ecology & Nature Conservation

by

Fanny Mundt

Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology

Supervised by

Prof. em. Dr. Michael Succow and Dipl.-Biol. Nina Seifert

Greifswald, September 2012

II

Content

1 Introduction and aim of study ........................................................................... 7

2 Introduction to the study area ........................................................................... 9

2.1 Location ................................................................................................................ 9

2.2 Climate ................................................................................................................ 12

2.3 Relief & geology ................................................................................................... 13

2.4 Soil ....................................................................................................................... 14

2.5 Hydrology ............................................................................................................ 16

2.6 History and land use ............................................................................................. 18

2.7 Vegetation .......................................................................................................... 20

2.8 Fauna ................................................................................................................... 21

2.8.1 Avifauna ........................................................................................................ 21

2.8.2 Mammals, fish & reptiles ............................................................................... 27

3 Material and methods ..................................................................................... 30

3.1 Study sites & fieldwork ......................................................................................... 30

3.2 Data analyses ....................................................................................................... 34

4 Results .......................................................................................................... 35

4.1 Vegetation types .................................................................................................. 35

4.2 Transect characterisation .................................................................................... 49

5 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 67

5.1 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 67

5.2 Threats & evaluation of the wetlands .................................................................. 68

6 Summary ...................................................................................................... 80

6.1 English summary ................................................................................................. 80

6.2 Deutsche Zusammenfassung .............................................................................. 82

7 REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 85

Annex 1: Species list of vegetation types ....................................................................... 90

Annex 2: Final constancy table (on CD) .......................................................................... 90

Annex 3: Species list of assessed vascular plants ............................................................. 91

Annex 4: Species list of birds occurring in LTW ............................................................... 91

III

List of Figures Cover Pictures: Black Crowned Crane in flight, Island of Tana Kirkos, Eichhornia crassipes - layer, cattle with Cattle Egret, water lilies and Cyperus papyrus (Photos F. Mundt) Figure 1: Study area (design by Stephan Busse) .................................................................. 10

Figure 2: Administration zones of Lake Tana Watershed (design by Stephan Busse) .......... 11

Figure 3: Climate diagram of Gonder (source of data: climatediagrams.com, 2009) ............ 12

Figure 4: Soil map (design: Stephan Busse; source of data ANRS BoA in zur Heide, 2011) ... 15

Figure 5: Bathymetric Map of Lake Tana (design by Stephan Busse, source of data Kebede et al., 2006 & Wale, 2008 ); state of the lake in A: 1940 and in B: 2007 ................................ 16

Figure 6: Land cover in the Amhara Region (source of data: WBISPP, 2002 in IFAD, 2007) .. 21

Figure 7 : Fisherman and from fisherman purchased tilapia (Photos F. Mundt) ................... 27

Figure 8: Group of hippopotamus near the River mouth of the Gilgel Abay (Photo F. Mundt) ......................................................................................................................................... 28

Figure 9: Faunistically important sites, zonation propositions of the future biosphere reserve & features of LTW (design: Stephan Busse; source of data: zur Heide, 2012) ..................... 29

Figure 10: Location of the transects (design by Stephan Busse) .......................................... 32

Figure 11: Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed at the Gilgel Abay Delta (Photo F. Mundt) .......................................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 12: Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed close to Tana Kirkos (Photo F. Mundt) ............................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 13: Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow at Agid Kirigna (Photo F. Mundt) .............................................................................................................................. 42

Figure 14: Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow (Photo F. Mundt) ....................................45

Figure 15: Echiochloa - Meadow close to Debre Maryam (Photo F. Mundt) ..................... 46

Figure 16: Transect Agid Kirigna ......................................Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert.

Figure 17: Transect Dembia Megech River Mouth ............................................................... 52

Figure 18: Transect Gigel Abay River Mouth (Delta) ............................................................54

Figure 19: Ambo Bahar transect ........................................................................................ 56

Figure 20: Transect Yganda ................................................................................................58

Figure 21: Debre Maryam Island ........................................................................................ 60

Figure 22: Debre Maryam ................................................................................................... 61

Figure 23: Enfranz Springs .................................................................................................. 63

Figure 24: Infranz River Outlet .......................................................................................... 65

Figure 25: Selechen Mariam .............................................................................................. 66

Figure 26: Wetland areas around Lake Tana (by Stephan Busse in zur Heide, 2012) ........... 69

Figure 27: Features of Lake Tana (by Stephan Busse in zur Heide, 2012) ............................. 74

Figure 28: Total average annual sediment load of the four major tributaries (perennials) into the lake and lake outflow (1987-2000) (source of data: MoWR 1999 in Ligdi et al., 2010) .... 76

IV

Figure 29: Total average annual sediment load into the lake by the four major tributaries (perennials) and lake outflow (1987-2000), regression line and correlation coefficient (source of data: MoWR 1999 in Ligdi et al., 2010)............................................................................ 77

Figure 30: Eichhornia crassipes near Megech River outlet .................................................... 79

List of Tables Table 1: Land use/ land cover of Lake Tana Watershed (Source: WBISPP, 2002 in IFAD, 2007) .......................................................................................................................................... 19

Table 2: Bird species occuring in Lake Tana Area, that are threatend / near threatend according to the IUCN Red List 2012.1 ............................................................................... 22

Table 3: Characterisation of transects, GPS-accuracy varied between 3-7 m ....................... 31

Table 4: Abundance classification used - according to Braun-Blanquet in Glavac (1996) ..... 33

Table 5: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table, vegetation type No. 01 ........... 35

Table 6: exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reeds, assignment by Paul Vinke .................... 37

Table 7: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table for vegetation type No.2 ......... 38

Table 8: Exemplarily selection of birds occurring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reeds, assignment by Paul Vinke ..... 39

Table 9: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table for vegetation type No.3 ......... 41

Table 10: Exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows, assignment by Paul Vinke ......................................................................................................................................... 42

Table 11: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table, vegetation type No. 04 ........ 44

Table 12: exemplarily assignment of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadows, assignments by Paul Vinke ....45

Table 13: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table, vegetation type No. 05 ......... 47

Table 14: exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Echinochloa – Meadows, assignment by Paul Vinke ............................................ 48

List of Boxes Box 1: Wattled Crane species info, source of data BirdLife International, 2012b & Aynalem 2009, 2010, 2011 ................................................................................................................ 25

Box 2: Black Crowned Crane species info, source of data BirdLife International, 2012a & Aynalem 2009, 2010, 2011 ................................................................................................. 26

Box 3: Uses of Cyperus papyrus in the LTW ......................................................................... 36

V

List of Abbreviations

ANRS Amhara National Regional State BfN German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation BMU German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and

Nuclear Safety BMZ Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development BoA Bureau of Agriculture BoEPLAU Bureau of Environmental Protection, Land administration and Use BP Before Present (01. January of 1950) Cd cadmium CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Cu copper DSA Development Studies Associates EC Electrical conductivity EMAU Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University of Greifswald EPLAUA Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use Authority EPRDF Ethiopian People´s Revolutionary Democratic Front

EWNHS Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society

IBA Important Bird Area

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

KBA Key Biodiversity Area LTW Lake Tana Watershed MoWR Ministry of Water Resources MSF Michael Succow Foundation for the Protection of Nature NABU Germany’s Nature Conservation Alliance (NABU) Pb lead SCI Shawel Consult International UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Zn zinc

VI

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my big gratitude to: Nina Seifert & Prof. em. Dr. Michael Succow for taking over the supervision of the diploma thesis; Sebastian Schmidt for his invaluable support and his endless ideas; The Michael Succow Foundation for financial support and help in the field as well as during my study and the finalisation of the thesis; The DAAD for financial support and giving me the opportunity to get to know Ethiopia; Stephan Busse for excellent figures and maps; Paul Vinke for great help with the avifauna classification; Maxi Springsguth, Renée Moreaux, Christian Sefrin, Johannes Poetzsch, Mascha Thomas und Friedrich zur Heide for sharing good times and bad times, sometimes even fleas, and having a wonderful time together in Ethiopia; Dr. Ayalew Wondie, Tigistu Tilahun and “The Funraising Group” for invaluable assistance in the field and an unforgettable fieldtrip – Betam amesegenalehu! ; Biological Station Hiddensee, especially Irmgard Blindow and Gerlinde & Wolfgang Zenke for giving me a second home on the most wonderful island I know; Christian Dötschel, Marie Ulber, Sebastian Olschewski, Falk Ortlieb, Katja Vinzelberg & Friederike Badura-Wichtmann for their great support in the final phase; Antje & Hans Mundt for their great support during my study and being the best grandparents; And to my parents for their unquestioning confidence, love and encouragement throughout my life.

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1 INTRODUCTION AND AIM OF STUDY

Lake Tana is Ethiopia’s largest lake, the highest-lying of the great lakes of Africa and the

source of the Blue Nile River that tributes most of the water of the Nile River.

The Lake Tana Basin is rich in biodiversity and is harbourage for a number of endemic flora

and fauna and well known for its cultural heritage and the waterfalls of the Blue Nile.

Yet, this “Eldorado” is threatened by intensive farming, serious land degradation, irrigation

projects and hydropower stations. Excessive siltation due to inappropriate water and

vegetation management in the surrounding highlands is damaging the lake too.

This thesis is imbedded in a project of Michael Succow Foundation and Germany’s Nature

Conservation Alliance (NABU), financed by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation

and Development (BMZ). Their aim is to establish a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve within the

Lake Tana Region to protect the irreplaceable nature, the cultural heritage and within this

context to open an alternative income generation opportunity for hundred thousands of

people living in this region.

Setegn et al. (2009) stated that the Lake Tana Basin is of critical national significance as it

has great potential for irrigation, hydroelectric power, high value crops and livestock

production, ecotourism and more. Moreover it is one of the major basins that significantly

contribute to the livelihoods of tens of millions of people in the lower Nile river basin.

(Setegn et al., 2009)

The Lake Tana region comprises the largest wetlands of Ethiopia, surrounding the whole

Lake and flooded during the rainy season. The papyrus stands, one of the characteristic

features of Lake Tana, have declined in their extent dramatically due to over exploitation,

habitat fragmentation and loss (G/kidan & Teka, 2006). Nowadays the papyrus populations

are mainly found in pocket habitats along the shoreline (G/kidan & Teka, 2006).

Over the past years, the invaluable importance of wetlands has been widely recognized,

which has finally resulted in large expenditures for the better knowledge, protection and

restoration of wetland ecosystems around the world. Wetlands are unique biotic

communities and they are among the most complex ecosystems in the world, representing

a natural resource of global importance (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2011). They are

8

referred to as the cradles of biological diversity, providing the water and primary

productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for survival

(Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2011).

Only little scientific research on the wetlands surrounding the lake has been done so far and

only few studies have been conducted according to the wetland communities. Based on this

the aims of this thesis were:

• to investigate the vegetation communities of the wetlands adjacent to the lake

• assessment and evaluation of the vegetation types within the wetlands

investigated, with special focus on occurring bird species within these types,

embedded in an extensive literature research

• to give reliable statements in regard to biodiversity, disturbance & potential threats

The findings of my thesis should be implemented in the planning and designation of the

Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana and in so doing help to protect the wetlands with the

associated fauna and flora.

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2 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AREA

2.1 Location

Lake Tana is situated on a basaltic Plateau in the north-western range of the ethiopian

highlands in the Amhara National Regional State of the Federal Democratic Republic of

Ethiopia at 12° 10ʹ 0ʹʹ N, and 37° 20ʹ 0ʹʹ E (Figure 1).

The Amhara National Regional State is structured into 11 administrative zones and 113

districts/woredas (Figure 2). The region´s main natural resources consist of agriculture,

forestry, minerals and water. The Amhara National Regional State covers a total area of

about 160,000 km2 (~ 11 % of the land area of Ethiopia), populated by approximately 17, 3

million people (DSA/SCI, 2006).

Lake Tana, by far, is Ethiopia’s tallest freshwater body accounting for 50 percent of the total

lakes’ area with a surface area of 3200 km2 (G/kidan & Teka, 2006) and it is the source of the

Blue Nile with a catchment area of ca 16,500 km2 (Ligdi, El Kahloun, & Meire, 2010).

According to different sources 2-3 Million people (Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009)

(Goshu et al., 2010 & Ligdi, El Kahloun & Meire, 2010) are living adjacent to the lake and its

catchment. More than 500,000 people are directly and indirectly provided with a livelihood

by the lake and the flanking wetlands (Vijverberg, Sibbing & Dejen, 2009). Highest

population density is found in areas to the north and in some parts of Fogera Plain to the

east. Furthermore in the areas to the northeast and south of Lake Tana and in the more

fertile lowland areas to the east and south west the population density is likewise high

(Teshale, Lee & Zawdie, 2011)

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Figure 1: Study area (design by Stephan Busse)

11

Figure 2: Administration zones of Lake Tana Watershed (design by Stephan Busse)

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2.2 Climate

The study area is situated within the temperate, cool sub-humid highlands agroecozone.

This agroecozone covers areas lying between 1,500 and 2,500 m where annual rainfall

ranges from 800 - 1200 mm. (Ministry of Water Resources of Ethiopia, 2010).

The climate of the western and north-western parts of Ethiopia is dominated by one main

rainy season, running from June to September and one dry season. The seasonal

distribution of rainfall is controlled by the northward and southward movement of the inter-

tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) resulting in a single rainy season between June and

October (Ministry of Water Resources of Ethiopia, 2010). Moist air masses are driven from

the Atlantic and Indian Oceans during summer, whilst the rest of the year the ITCZ shifts

southwards and dry conditions prevail in the region between October and May. Generally,

the southern part of the Lake Tana basin is wetter than the western and the northern parts

(Kebede et al., 2006). Unlike areas further east, there is no short rainy season. The main

rainy season provides about 80% of the annual rainfall, with a peak during July/August,

when the precipitation can reach 250 - 330 mm per month (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Climate diagram of Gonder (source of data: climatediagrams.com, 2009)

13

Lake Tana´s climate is typical of semi-arid regions close to the Equator, including a high

diurnal temperature variation between day time extremes of 30°C to night lows of 6°C

(Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009).

2.3 Relief & geology

The Tana-rift, a shallow through not directly connected but related to the main Eastern Rift

Valley, is the area where Lake Tana is situated. The Tana basin occurs perched within a large

dome (ca. 1000 km) uplifted in the Ethiopian plateau (de Graaf, 2003).

The Lake is supposed to be formed by volcanic blocking of rivers, one of them being the

Blue Nile River, in early Pleistocene times, ca. 5 million years ago (Mohr, 1962 in Vijverberg,

Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009). It is assumed that the lava also created the 40m high waterfalls at

Tissisat, separating the Lake Tana and its headwaters from the lower Blue Nile (Abay River)

basin (Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009) The lake is considered to owe its present form to

damming by a 50km long Quaternary basalt flow, which filled the exit channel of the Abay

River to a possible depth of 100m. The age of this lava flow is estimated to be some 10,000

years BP (Chorowicz, et al., 1998). Subsequently the lake basin filled up and now covers an

area of approximately 3150 km2.

The Relief within the Tana basin can be described as subdued. Low mesas and intervening

gently incised valleys circumscribe a broad, saucer-shaped depocentre (Chorowicz, et al.,

1998). Low plains border the lake in the north, east and south-west, which due to frequent

flooding form extensive wetlands in the rainy season. Furthermore the west and north-west

of the Lake evince steep rocky shores (Nagelkerke, 1997).

Terraces suggest that the Lake was originally much larger than it is today (Rzóska, 1976a in

Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009).

Lamb et al. (2007) collected geophysical and core data, showing more than 50 m of

sediments accumulated in the lake´s bottom substrates. Within these sediments

desiccation layers were found, which give evidence of the lakes drying out at apparently

regular intervals within the later stages of the last Ice Age. Lamb et al. (2007) state that the

data indicate Lake Tana`s desiccation sometime after 18,700 calibrated age (cal) BP, when

stiff sediments at the base of the core were deposited.

14

The desiccation lasted until 15,100 cal BP, when deposition of soft lake sediments resumed

and lake sediments were deposited over peat (Lamb et al., 2007). During the dry interval,

between 16,700 and 15,100 cal BP, shallow-water environments and a papyrus swamp were

located at the centre of the basin, watered by intermittent flood events that cut channels in

the exposed lake mudflats (Lamb et al., 2007). This is indicated by the existence of

periphytic diatoms and peat overlying the compact sediments at the base of the core (Lamb

et al., 2007). Halophytic diatoms suggest that the lake has been slightly saline due to the

surface water evaporation from the closed lake during the rising of the lake level (Lamb et

al., 2007). At 14,750 cal BP the lake overflowed into the Blue Nile, indicated by an abrupt

return to freshwater conditions (more inorganic sediments dominated by freshwater

planktonic diatoms) (Lamb et al., 2007).

2.4 Soil

Setegn et al. (2009) state that Lake Tana Basin is one of the areas most affected by soil

erosion, sediment transport and land degradation. They note that the land and water

resources available are not used effectively to improve the livelihood and socioeconomic

conditions of the inhabitants.

DSA/SCI (2006) note that flat and undulating plateaus within the Amhara National Regional

State are major agricultural areas. Major soils in these areas include Vertisols, Acrisols,

Luvisols and Nitosols. In flat depression areas like the Tana plain, Vertisols and Luvisols are

dominate (DSA/SCI, 2006), whereas the soils of islands, peninsulas and surrounding

wetlands and dry uplands of Lake Tana are dominated by Chromic Luvisols, Eutric Luvisols,

Lithic Leptosols, Eutric Leptosols and Haplic Luvisols ( Figure 4).

Howel & Allen (1994) state that Lake Tanas bottom consists of volcanic basalt mostly

covered with a muddy substratum with only little organic matter.

15

Figure 4: Soil map (design: Stephan Busse; source of data ANRS BoA in zur Heide, 2011)

16

2.5 Hydrology

Containing half of Ethiopia´s freshwater resources, Lake Tana is Ethiopia´s largest and the

third largest lake in the Nile Basin. Lake Tana Basin includes the highland escarpments of

Gondar (Guna and Armacheho) and Gojjam (Sekela).

The total area of the catchment is 15,319 km2, of which 3150 km2 cover the lake area

(Conway, 2000 in Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009).

Being approximately 84 km long and 66 km wide, it has got a volume of 28 000 million cubic

meters (Ligdi, El Kahloun, & Meire, 2010).

Lake Tana is situated at about 1800 m above sea level, which makes it a high altitude lake.

With an average depth of about 9m and maximum 14 m (Figure 5), it is comparatively

shallow with a shoreline length of about 385 km.

Figure 5: Bathymetric Map of Lake Tana (design by Stephan Busse, source of data Kebede et al., 2006 & Wale, 2008 ); state of the lake in A: 1940 and in B: 2007

Lake Tana is fed by 4 perennial tributaries, altogether 61 streams tribute to the lake. Ligdi et

al. (2010) state that more than 95% of the inflow are contributed by Gilgel Abbay, Gumara,

Ribb and Megech and that the Blue Nile is the only natural outflow. According to them the

lake plays a vital role in maintaining of the hydraulics of downstream channels by acting as

17

an emergency reservoir maintaining flows. They state that the lake receives an estimated

inflow of 10.3 109 m3 yr-1 from 61 water courses. Outflow from the lake is 3.7 109 m3 yr-1. The

remainder or 64% of the inflow, which is 6.6 109 m3 annually, is mainly lost through

evaporation (MoWR 1999 in Ligdi, El Kahloun, & Meire, 2010).

Comparatively the lake is described in the available literature as oligo-mesotrophic to

mesotrophic freshwater lake with low nutrient concentrations and fairly high silt

concentrations with loading rate of 8.96-14.84 million tons of soil per year (Yitaferu 2007;

Wondie et al. 2007; Teshale et al. 2001; Wudneh 1998 & Nagelkerke 1997 in Goshu,

Byamukama et al., 2010).

In the main rainy season the inflowing rivers carry heavy loads of suspended silt into the

lake, thereby increasing the turbidity of the lake water (Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009).

The drainage network of Lake Tana is a dendrite type (Minale & Rao, 2011). In 1995 a water

level regulation weir was constructed at the mouth of the Blue Nile.

Moreover, 30 km downstream of the Blue Nile outflow the Tissisat hydropower plant was

built increasing the water supply for the hydropower plant, to provide a large part of the

country with electricity during the dry season.

Vijverberg et al. (2009) note that the water use for the hydroelectric power plant is

especially high during the dry season (February - May) when it is one of the last operating

hydropower plants in the country. It is argued that the limited cases of absolute minimum

and maximum water levels of 1784 and 1788.37m (minimum water level lowered from

1785.15 to 1784 m) were taken into account in constructing the weir. But after the

construction of the Chara Chara weir, water level in 2002 and 2003 dropped that much that

the public transportation service through the lake had to be stopped for four months.

Generally water levels are highest at the end of the main rainy season and during the post-

rainy period, slowly decreasing to a minimum around the end of the dry season. The

difference between the minimum water level in May - June and the maximum in September

- October is generally 2.0 - 2.5 m (Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009; Ligdi, El Kahloun, &

Meire, 2010; Alemayehu, McCartney, & Kebede, 2010) note that the regulation for power

production has modified the natural lake´s water-level regime, resulting in reduced seasonal

but greater inter-annual variability.

In 2010 Ligdi et al. confirmed that the lake´s annual maximum water level elevations (1985-

2006) had increased and exceeded the approximate levels by more than 1m. As a result

18

floods are becoming amplified and frequent, with tremendous effects. In 2006 the lake area

was threatened by an unpredicted extreme flooding event in the main rainy season. At least

980.000 people are living with the risk to be affected by serious flooding events. In years

with lower water level, many of them move closer to the lakeshore not being aware that

their houses might be destroyed in case of unexpected flood events. And the rising water

level caused by the weir supports this development. Before the electric power plant was in

operation, the average retention time of the water in the lake was 6.1 years (Wudneh 1998).

Referring to Teshale’ s investigations from 2003, Vijverberg et al (2009) state that the water

residence time is ca 3 years nowadays.

2.6 History and land use

The Lake Tana area consists of 37 islands and 16 peninsulas, giving home to 21 churches and

monasteries with strong cultural and religious heritage. The foundation of the churches and

monasteries in the LTW dates back to the 12th century (Marye, et al., 2011), which is the first

reference for settlement in the LTW.

Today about 55 % of the total land surface area of the Lake Tana Watershed (~ 15.000 km2)

is under cultivation, 21.06 % is water area, 10.38 % is grassland, 1.6 % is wetland/swampy

area and 0.39 % is natural forest (Table 1) (IFAD, 2007).

The cultivated area is used for the growing of teff, sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, maize,

fingermillet, oats and rice among cereals, faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, grasspea,

haricot bean and lupin among pulses, noug, linseed, rapeseed, caster bean and safflower

among oil crops, potato, pepper, tomato, carrot, beet root, head cabbage, Swiss chard,

lettuce, onion, shallot, garlic, black cumin and ginger among annual horticultural crops and

coffee, chat, sugarcane, hops, lemon, orange, papaya, mango, avocado and banana among

perennial crops (IFAD/EPLAUA, 2007).

In the Lake Tana Watershed, the livestock includes round about 1.520.000 cattle, 340.000

sheep, 316.000 goats, 211.000 equines, 7.124.000 poultry and 117. 000 beehives

(IFAD/EPLAUA , 2007 b).

The growing human population goes hand in hand with growing livestock, whereas grazing

area is limited and even shrinking due to extended agriculture (IFAD/EPLAUA , 2007 b).

19

Excessive deforestation is contributing to the land degradation in the Amhara region as

well as in the rest of the country. The forests and woodlands are almost completely

converted into arable land and only few areas are preserved as patches of remnant natural

forests, or sometimes only single trees in the midst of agricultural land are left over. Most of

the remnant forest patches are preserved due to their belonging to religious institutions

whilst others, not affiliated to religious institutions, are removed due to pressure exerted by

local people.

Table 1: Land use/ land cover of Lake Tana Watershed (Source: WBISPP, 2002 in IFAD, 2007)

Type of land use/ land

cover

Area (ha) %

Cultivated 824,285 54.95

Water 315,960 21.06

Grassland 155,735 10.38

Shrub land 134,250 8.95

Wetlands/Swampy/ 24,000 1.6

Plantation Forest 16,410 1.09

Rock 7,925 0.53

Natural Forest 5,910 0.39

Others/Settlement 5,330 0.36

Woodland 4,710 0.31

Bare Soil 3,310 0.22

Afro-alpine 2,235 0.15

Total 1,500,060 100

The Ministry of Water Resources concedes a lack of reliable data on current rates of

deforestation in Ethiopia, the ANRS or the LTW, but several reports at national level reckon

with a loss of 150,000 - 200,000 ha/yr of closed/natural forest (Ministry of Water Resources

of Ethiopia, 2010). In 2000 Lakew et al. stated that about 20 thousand hectares of forest

were harvested annually within the Amhara Region, which would represent one tenth of the

deforestation rate of Ethiopia. Little is known about deforestation in the Amhara Region. In

Wassie (2002) some basic informations can be found. He states that in the 16th century

20

deforestation took place in connection with a Moslem expedition against Christianity,during

which many churches and monansteries and adjacent forests were burnt. The next record is

dated to the period from 1974 to 1976, the year´s of Ethiopia´s transition from an imperial

to a communist regime, when land was redistributed to individuals and „forests came under

merciless destruction“ (Wassie, 2002). From 1985-1991 the „Derge regime“ forced

deforestation due to redistribution of considerable forest land of the churches and the

requirement of house construction whithin a given time and place. In 1991 EPRDF

redistributed the forest land of churches again, which once again resulted in the

immediately conversion to farmland.

2.7 Vegetation

According to Friis et al. (2010) the potential natural vegetation of the Lake Tana Area

consists of Dry Evergreen Afromontane forest and Grassland Complexes, Lake Tana as

freshwater lake, freshwater marshes and swamps, floodplains and lake shore vegetation

and Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland.

Due to the deforestation only little of the pristine vegetation is left (Figure 6).

There are only few reports about the wetland vegetation within the Lake Tana Watershed,

which can be considered as serious shortcoming. So far there is not classification of the

different vegetation types and very limited information is given regarding occurring species

and in the LTW.

Hughes & Hughes (1992) note that emergent macrophytes fringe the flat swampy parts of

the shoreline, with dominant species being Cyperus papyrus, Echinochloa pyramidalis,

Echinochloa stagnina, Polygonum barbatum, Polygonum senegalense and Typha domingensis.

As floating leaved species they recorded Nymphaea caerulea, Nymphaea lotus and Pistia

stratiotes. Ceratophyllum demersum and Vallisneria spiralis are noted as the most important

submergent plants occuring in the lake area.

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Figure 6: Land cover in the Amhara Region (source of data: WBISPP, 2002 in IFAD, 2007)

2.8 Fauna

2.8.1 Avifauna Internationally recognized as IBA (International Bird Area) (BirdLife International, 2012)

Lake Tana and its wetlands are well known for their bird diversity and their importance as

roosting site for migratory bird species such as the Common Crane (Grus grus), Northern

Shoveller (Anas clypeata), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa

limosa) and Ruff (Philomachus pugnax). And they provide breeding, feeding and roosting

habitats for several endangered/endemic species, for example the Wattled Crane (Grus

carunculatus), Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor), Rouget´s Rail (Rougetius rougetii),

Cultivated 55%

Water 21%

Grassland 10%

Shrub land 9%

Wetlands/Swampy/

2%

Plantation Forest 1%

Rock 1%

Natural Forest

1%

Others/Settlement < 1%

Woodland < 1%

Bare Soil < 1%

Afro-alpine < 1%

Land use / land cover in the Amhara Region

22

White-collared Pigeon (Columba albitorques) , Black-winged Lovebird (Agapornis taranta),

(Table 2) (Aynalem, 2009; BirdLife International, 2012 d & IUCN, 2012). Francis and

Aynalem (2007) consider due to their counts and available data that the lake area can hold

much more than 100.000 wetland birds during the migratory season. During their count 213

bird species occurred around the lake, of which 83 have been wetland species.

Due to its location at the horn of Africa, Ethiopia is an important stopover and wintering site

for migratory birds on their flyway between Europe, Asia and vast parts of Africa (Nowald et

al., 2010). Especially for Common Cranes (Grus grus) Lake Tana is one of the main wintering

areas in Africa.

In the Lake Tana area 3 crane species can be observed, the Black Crowned Crane (Balearica

pavonina) (see Box 2) and Wattled Crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) (see Box 1) as African

resident species and the Common Crane (Grus Grus) as palaearctic migrant.

Almost half of the Common Cranes migrating to Ethiopia roost at Lake Tana (Aynalem,

2009 b). It is assumed that the Common Cranes migrating to Ethiopia have their breeding

range in north-eastern Europe, western Russia and other parts of Asia (Nowald et al., 2010).

Their stay in Ethiopia lasts from October to March and they usually inhabit the ecosystems

of the larger freshwater lakes and rivers, highland streams and marshes, and feed in

surrounding grasslands (Nowald et al., 2010).

Table 2: Bird species occuring in Lake Tana Area, that are threatend / near threatend according to the IUCN Red List 2012.1

Common Name Scientific Name Season Endemic IUCN

Category

Egyptian Vulture

Neophron percnopterus resident & wintering

Endangered

Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus resident Endangered Rüppell's Vulture

Gyps rueppellii resident Endangered

Saker Falcon Falco cherrug wintering Endangered White-backed Vulture

Gyps africanus resident Endangered

Black Crowned Crane

Balearica pavonina resident Vulnerable

23

Common Name Scientific Name Season Endemic IUCN

Category

Blue-winged Goose

Cyanochen cyanoptera resident Endemic to Ethiopia

Vulnerable

Greater Spotted Eagle

Aquila clanga wintering Vulnerable

Lappet-faced Vulture

Torgos tracheliotos resident Vulnerable

Wattled Crane Bugeranus carunculatus resident Vulnerable White-headed Vulture

Trigonoceps occipitalis resident Vulnerable

Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus resident Near Threatened

Black-tailed Godwit

Limosa limosa wintering Near Threatened

Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor wintering Near Threatened

Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus winter Near Threatened

Rouget's Rail Rougetius rougetii resident Near Threatened

In 2009 a huge roosting site has been found in Shesher, where 21.000 Common cranes have

been counted (Aynalem, 2009; Nowald et al., 2010). This count highlights the importance of

Lake Tana as roosting site. Based on this data, the lake can be compared with Laguna de

Gallocanta, one of the main wintering areas of Common Cranes in Spain, where up to

60.000 Common cranes occur during migration and about 12.000 do have their wintering

site (grus-grus.eu, 2012).

Wattled Cranes and Black Crowned Cranes are specialised on the wetlands surrounding the

lake. Vast, more or less undisturbed reeds with grass areas serve as breeding, feeding and

roosting sites for those resident crane species and are essential for their breeding success

within LTW (Aynalem, 2009, 2010, 2011). Aynalem (2009, 2010, 2011) reports of breeding

sites of Wattled Cranes within Chimba wetland, situated at the Gilgel Abay, and assumed

breeding sites in Yganda wetland. Black Crowned Cranes have their breeding sites in

24

Yganda wetland, Chimba, Debre Maryam, Dembia (near Gorgora) and a wetland close to

Bahir Dar (Aynalem, 2009, 2010, 2011).

During the counts in January/February of 2009 the ornithologists counted more than 800

Great White Pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus), more than 3.000 Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis),

more than 500 Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), more than 10.000 Northern

Shovellers (Anas clypeata), more than 5.000 Common Teals (Anas crecca), more than 300

Yellow-billed Kites (Milvus migrans aegyptius), more than 2.000 Common Cranes (Grus

grus), more than 300 Black Crowned Cranes (Balearica pavonina), more than 8.000 Black-

tailed Godwits (Limosa limosa), more than 200 Black-winged Stilts (Himantopus

himantopus), more than 1.000 Pied Avocets (Recurvirostra avosetta), more than 8.000 Little

Stints (Calidris minuta), more than 150 Wattled Ibises (Bostrychia carunculata), more than

300 Northern Carmine Bee-Eaters (Merops nubicus), more than 1.000 Sand Martins (Riparia

riparia), more than 1.000 Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica), more than 5.000 Yellow Wagtails

(Motacilla f. flava), more than 300 Village (Black-headed) Weavers (Ploceus cucullatus),

more than 100 White-collared Pigeons (Columba albinucha), more than 30 Black-winged

Lovebirds (Agapornis taranta), more than 6 Pallid Harriers (Circus macrourus) and more than

100 Greater Blue-eared Starlings (Lamprotornis chalybaeus) (Beisenherz, Schröder, &

Walter, 2009). These figures clearly illustrate the importance of Lake Tana and surrounding

wetlands as habitats for numerous bird species. If those wetlands would be lost many

species would lose habitats essential to survive.

25

Wattled Crane (Bugeranus carunculatus)

IUCN Red List Category: Vulnerable

Population trend: declining

Habitat:

• During non-breeding season continuous relying on wetland habitats congregation at

large wetlands possible

• highly depending on pristine and semi-pristine wetlands

• Nests in shallow sedge-dominated wetlands, in grass areas with Papyrus stands or

seasonal wetlands where disturbance is minimal

Ecology:

• Local migration in Ethiopian population due to wetland dry up

• Breeds in May-October

• Fidelity to previous nesting sites is suspected

• monogamous, pairing for life

Diet:

• Feeds on rhizomes, roots and bulbs of sedges

• Cyperus and Eleocharis species are preferred (Bento, 2002 in BirdLife International,

2012)

• Animals are taken (small aquatic snails, fish and frogs)

Threats:

• Loss and degradation of wetlands as a result of upstream river regulation, intensified

agriculture, drainage, invasive species and rice cultivation

• Nest disturbance

• Increasing live stock

• Grass/wetland-burning regimes

• Illegal removal of eggs and chicks, and even trade

Box 1: Wattled Crane species info, source of data BirdLife International, 2012b & Aynalem 2009, 2010, 2011

26

Black Crowned Crane (Balearica pavonina)

IUCN Red List Category: Vulnerable

Population trend: recently rapid population decline

Habitat:

• breeding-season: in wet open habitats, in freshwater marshes, wet grasslands and

at the peripheries of open water bodies

• non-breeding-season: in congregations in larger wetlands and foraging near herds

of domestic livestock

• prefers to roost in trees, uses shallow water where necessary

• depending on pristine and semi-pristine wetlands

Ecology & Diet:

• breeds in July – January

• monogamous

• generalist, omnivore

• small grain crops with small plants, small invertebrates and vertebrates

Threats:

• Habitat loss and degradation due to drought, wetland drainage, conversion for

agriculture, overgrazing, fire, pollution

• Hunting pressure

• Nest disturbance

• Increasing livestock

Box 2: Black Crowned Crane species info, source of data BirdLife International, 2012a & Aynalem 2009, 2010, 2011

27

2.8.2 Mammals, fish & reptiles In 2012 CEPF released an Ecosystem Profile about the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity

Hotspot. Ethiopia is harbouring 39,4 % of this Hotspot (CEPF, 2012).The Lake Tana

Catchment is one out of four priority corridors , including three nearby KBAs (Key

Biodiversity Areas) with high biodiversity values under the name of the Amharic

Escarpment (CEPF, 2012).

The Lake Tana catchment gives home to numerous birds, mammals, fish, amphibians and

reptiles - several of them endemic.

Lake Tana is well known for its endemic fish species. About a quarter of the 65 fish species

found in the lake are endemic (Alemayehu, McCartney, & Kebede, 2010). Vijverberg et al.

(2009) declare that this speciation was possible because the incipient lake offered new

habitats for adaptive radiation and had maintained its isolation for ca. 5 million years from

the lower Blue Nile basin by the Tis Issat falls.

The 15 large labeobarb species (Labeobarbus) within Lake Tana create a world unique

concentration of endemic cyprinid fish (Nagelkerke & Sibbing, 2000, in Vijverberg, Sibbing,

& Dejen, 2009). In 2003 de Graaf notes, that the Barbus species of Lake Tana form the only

remaining intact species flock of large cyprinid fishes Other fish species occurring in Lake

Tana include tilapia (Oreochronmis niloticus (Figure 7) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

(Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen, 2009; Alemayehu, McCartney, & Kebede, 2010).

Figure 7 : Fisherman and from fisherman purchased tilapia (Photos F. Mundt)

The catches of the fishermen around the lake consist mainly out of tilapia, catfish and

Barbus species. De Graaf (2003) notes that nowadays the catches consist of one third of

each of them, whereas in former times, when there were no motorised fishermen, their

28

catches consisted mainly out of tilapia. Furthermore he states that the catches increased

distinctly since the fishermen are motorized. Whereas in former times restricted to the

shore areas due to the utilization of their tankwas (local reed boats, made out of Papyrus,

(Figure 7) nowadays the fishermen can easily cope to catch in deeper offshore waters and,

more importantly, to distant river mouths (de Graaf, 2003). This development induced

overfishing of the fish populations in Lake Tana, due to the fact that they fished during the

spawning season of the fish. De Graaf stated in 2003 that the continuous fish monitoring

made in past years pointed out the rapid declines of the endemic large Labeobarbus up to

75 % in number and biomass.

The Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus) and the African rock python (Python sebae) are the

largest reptiles occurring in Lake Tana according to Vijverberg et al. (2009). The Nile

Monitors, as well as the pythons, are observed in the swampy habitats along the shoreline

and islands of the lake. They feed, inter alia, on eggs and fledglings of ground nesting birds

and are hence an additional natural threat for some endangered species (G/kidan & Teka,

2006). G/kidan & Teka (2006) declare that the reptiles and especially the python are

critically threatened due to habitat loss and persecution by humans.

Figure 8: Group of hippopotamus near the River mouth of the Gilgel Abay (Photo F. Mundt)

Lake Tana is inhabited by Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) (Figure 8), which are

mainly restricted to pocket habitats, whereas in former times they have been widespread in

the lake (G/kidan & Teka, 2006). Their decline could be explained mainly due to habitat loss,

because unlike to other areas in Africa, they are hardly ever poached for meat. The only

ethnic group at Lake Tana, hunting hippos for a special wedding ceremony, are the Negede

Weito (local community, pers. comm.).

29

Vijverberg et al. (2009) report about Otters that are sometimes caught in the nets of local

fishermen. G/kidan & Teka (2006) report of the presence of the critically endangered

Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis).

The threatened Black and White Colobus Monkeys (Colobus guereza) are also reported to

live in a relict patchy forest stand north western of the Lake (G/kidan & Teka, 2006).

In Figure 9 faunistically important sites around the lake are recorded.

Figure 9: Faunistically important sites, zonation propositions of the future biosphere reserve & features of LTW (design: Stephan Busse; source of data: zur Heide, 2012)

30

3 MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 Study sites & fieldwork

Vegetation surveys were carried out in the wetland areas of Lake Tana between September

10th and November 28th, 2011.

Because of the large area to be covered, data sampling was concentrated along

representative wetlands around the lake. The study sites were selected in different parts of

the lake to investigate the most important wetlands around the lake shore and to represent

a broad variety of the different wetland and vegetation types. This procedure was based on

the recommendations of Dr. Ayalew Wondie and other experts, who have been participants

of the field excursion between September 30th and November 09th, 2011.

Location of the transect sites was chosen randomly and transect direction was positioned at

a right angle to the vegetation zonation in order to record the main ecological gradient

which was supposed to be the water level. Along the transects relevé sites were selected

randomly (Traxler, 1998). Depending on the transect size the relevé sites were chosen every

2 (1x1m) or 10 (2x2m) meters. All study sites were recorded by GPS measurements

(settings: hddd°mm’ss.s’’; WGS84; metric; GRID; 000°; degrees). For the thesis 10

representative transects were chosen, and data from 64 recorded relevés was used (Table 3

and Figure 10).

Due to extraordinarily high water levels fieldwork was done by using motorboats or tankwas

(local reed boats, made from papyrus). In few cases it was possible to leave the boat and

walk along the transect.

On the relevé sites vegetation assessment was done by assessing the plant species,

measurement of vegetation height and estimation of the abundance according to Braun-

Blanquet as described in Glavac (1996) (Table 4). Photographs were taken from every

observed plant species for further identification in Germany.

The extent of the open water was estimated in percent by eye. Depth of the water level was

measured with the aid of a 4m long wooden stick and a metal centimetre measuring tape.

Maximum height of the vegetation was measured by the centimetre measuring tape as

well.

31

Table 3: Characterisation of transects, GPS-accuracy varied between 3-7 m

Transect Characterisation of transect locations

Transect structure and length

GPS coordinates of the starting point of the transect

Agid Kirigna (No.4) Eastern shore of Lake Tana Linear, 100m N 12°05.659’ E 037°37.469’ altitude: 1793

Dembia Megech River Mouth (No.5)

Northern shore of Lake Tana Linear, 100 m

N 12°16.490’ E 037°24.527’ altitude: 1792m

Gilgel Abay River Mouth (Delta) (No.7)

South-western shore of Lake Tana at the Gilgel Abbay Delta

Non linear, 400 m

N 11°48.124’ E 037°06.861’ altitude: 1794m

Near Ambo Bahar (8)

South-western shore of Lake Tana

Linear, 300m N 11°43.763’ E 037°19.029’ altitude: 1793m

Yganda (No.9) Southern shore of Lake Tana, close to Zege peninsula

Linear; 300m

N 11°42.511’ E 037°19.593’ altitude: 1803m

Debre Maryam Island (No.10)

Southern shore of Lake Tana, east of Bahir Dar

Linear; 100 m N 11°37.882’ E 037°24.895’ altitude: 1788m

Debre Maryam (No.11)

Southern shore of Lake Tana, east of Bahir Dar, close to the outlet of the Gilgel Abay

Non Linear; 100m

N 11°36.936’ E 037°24.535’ altitude: 1791m

Enfranz Springs (No.12)

Southwest of Bahir Dar; wetland fed by 44 springs

Non linear; 500m

N 11°35.830’ E 037°16.929’ altitude: 1831m

Infranz River Outlet (No.13)

Southern shore, west of Bahir Dar

Non linear; 200m

N 11°38.676’ E 037°19.303’ altitude: 1796m

Selechen Mariam (No.14)

Southern shore, west of Bahir Dar

Non linear; 300m

N 11°37.336’ E 037°20.542’ altitude: 1796m

32

Figure 10: Location of the transects (design by Stephan Busse)

The measurement of pH-value, water temperature & electro conductivity was done on the

surface of the water body (ca. 3 cm under the surface) by the use of a combined tester for

pH and EC (model Hanna Combo HI 98129). Visibility depth was measured by the use of a

Secchi-disk.Neighbouring villages, agriculture, grazing animals, human influence and other

distinctive features noticed in or close to the transect area were recorded. GPS coordinates

33

and a rough altitude value were measured using a GPS unit (Global Positioning System, in

metres asl, in 1.3 m height, accuracy of GPS varying between 2 - 9 m).

Table 4: Abundance classification used - according to Braun-Blanquet in Glavac (1996)

class cover

r 0 - 1 %

+ ≥ 1 - 2, 5 %

1 2, 5 - 5 %

2 5 - 25 %

3 25 - 50 %

4 50 - 75 %

5 75 - 100 %

Plant determination was done in the field and in Germany based on photographs taken in

the field due to the prohibition to export plants, soil, etc..

The identification of the plant species and the nomenclature follows the Flora of Ethiopia &

Eritrea Vol.1-8 (Edwards & Hedberg , 1995; Edwards, Demissew, & Hedberg, 1997; Edwards

et al., 2000; Hedberg, 2003; Hedberg & Edwards, 1989; Hedberg & Friis, 2009; Hedberg,

Friis & Persson, 2009; Hedberg et al., 2006; Phillips, 1995; Tadesse, 2004)

Shimelis Aynalem facilitated relevant ornithological data on the crane species occurring

around the lake. Within the last years he has been doing research on the birds around Lake

Tana for his dissertation and a project of EWNHS, NABU and Crane Conservation Germany,

interested in the biology and ecology of cranes at Lake Tana. Within this project a list of bird

species occurring around the lake has been assessed.

Rough bird observation with binoculars (8x40) was conducted in addition to the vegetation

assessment based on Redman, Stevenson & Fanshawe, (2009). We noted the birds

observed along the transects. Bird observation and identification along the transects were

supervised by Amera Moges.

34

3.2 Data analyses

The management of the vegetation assessment has been done via Turboveg Version 2.94

and Microsoft Excel 2007.

The compilation of the ecological species groups has been done by hand-sorting of the raw-

table. The obtained arranged, characterised and differentiated table is the foundation for

the interpretation of vegetation ecological facts (Glavac, 1996).

First of all a raw table was used to organise the data obtained in the field in columns (for

relevé numbers) and rows (for species). Afterwards the species were reordered according to

their consistency within the relevés. Then the relevés were arranged according to

preconceived groupings along a gradient from dry to wet (height of the measured water

level). This gradient seemed to have the highest impact on the occurrence of the species. By

constant sorting and refining as described in Glavac (1996) ecological species groups were

achieved. In the next step those species groups have to be described as vegetation types. I

named the vegetation types after the plant species dominating the types.

The data on the avifauna exists in form of lists from counts and assessments in the years

2007-2011 (Beisenherz, Schröder & Walter, 2009; Francis & Aynalem, 2007; Aynalem, 2009,

2010 & 2011; BirdLife International, 2012 d & e). Those lists were sampled and the bird

species were assigned to the vegetation types by Paul Vinke, due to his knowledge about

the ethiopian avifauna. The assignment has been done according to the feeding, breeding

and roosting demands of the species selected by him.

35

4 RESULTS

4.1 Vegetation types

The table-work resulted in 5 vegetation types, which will be described in the following

section.

1. Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed

2. Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed

3. Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow

4. Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow

5. Echinochloa - Meadow

1. Cyperus papyrus –Typha latifolia Reed

The Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed (Figure 11) is a reed community dominated by

Cyperus papyrus and / or Typha latifolia. Phragmites australis et karka and Ceratophyllum

demersum are typical companion species within this vegetation type. Phragmites australis et

karka tends to be found at the fringes of the Cyperus papyrus and / or Typha latifolia stands.

Table 5: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table, vegetation type No. 01

Relevé - Number/

Species :

10.5

9.12

13.1

8.2 8.1 11.5

7.1 1.3

10.2

8.4 15.1

overall consistenc

y (out of 64 relevés)

Typha latifolia 1 2 2 1 3 2 3

+ 10 Cyperus papyrus 4 4 2

3 5 5 5 3 11

Phragmites species 3 2 2 4

4

3 20 Ceratophyllum

demersum 2 2 1 2 2

2

29

Out of the 64 relevés, 11 relevés were covered by this vegetation type. The vegetation

cover is high due to the dense structure within the reed, varying between 70 and 90 %. The

measured maximum height of vegetation had a mean of 228, 0 cm up to a maximum height

36

of 250 cm and to a minimum of 200 cm. This vegetation type is found in deep water areas

(up to a maximum water depth of 4m), with a mean water level of 247 cm (min. 120 cm,

max. 400 cm). The open water surface ranged between 10 and 30 %. The measured visibility

depth was 38 cm and 23 cm.

electrical conductivity (EC)

in µS

T in °C pH

mean 127 25,1 7,73

minimum 114 23,2 7,2

maximum 134 26,4 8,08

Areas harbouring this vegetation type are neither converted into agricultural land nor used

as grazing area for livestock due to the high water level. But the papyrus stands can be

achieved by the use of tankwas and are harvested to different degrees (Box 3).

This vegetation type never falls dry as a result of the high water level. Cyperus papyrus -

Typha latifolia - Reeds are mainly found in the southern part of Lake Tana near river in- and

outlets, for example at the Gilgel Abay Delta, in Yganda Wetland, close to Tana Kirkos and

around Debre Maryam.

This vegetation type is used by a lot of wetland dependent bird species, among those the by

the IUCN as vulnerable listed Black Crowned Crane, Wattled Crane and Greater Spotted

Eagle (Table 6).

Uses of Cyperus papyrus

• matting • construction of tankwas, local reed boats • roofing of houses • essential for the coffee ceremony • handicraft, for example agelgils (food baskets) • fencing

Box 3: Uses of Cyperus papyrus in the LTW

37

Wattled Cranes (Grus carunculatus) and Black Crowned Cranes (Balearica pavonina) favour

this vegetation type as breeding habitat (Aynalem,2009, 2010 & 2011). Due to the high

water level accompanying the Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed those areas are to a

great extent undisturbed which is an essential prerequisite for nesting and breeding

habitats. Within the tall vegetation undisturbed grass areas where the nests are built can be

found. The nests are built in areas protected by reeds or high grasses and are made of grass

and reed material found within or adjacent the reeds.

Figure 11: Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed at the Gilgel Abay Delta (Photo F. Mundt)

Table 6: exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reeds, assignment by Paul Vinke

Acrocephalus gracilirostris Lesser Swamp

Warbler

Acrocephalus scirpaceus Eurasian Reed Warbler

Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill Anhinga rufa African Darter

Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle

Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea goliath Goliath Heron Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron

Balearica pavonina Black Crowned Crane

Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane Butorides striata Green-backed Heron Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Centropus monachus Blue-headed Coucal

Ceryle rudis African Pied Kingfisher

Ciconia nigra Black Stork

Circus aeruginosus Eurasian Marsh-Harrier

Egretta garzetta Little Egret

38

Euplectes afer Yellow-crowened Bishop

Euplectes axillaris Fan-tailed Widowbird

Euplectes orix Red Bishop Gallinula angulata Lesser Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern Megaceryle maxima Giant Kingfisher Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed Egret

Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night Heron

Pelecanus onocrotalus Great White Pelican

Pelecanus rufescens Pink-backed Pelican

Phalacrocorax africanus Long-tailed Cormorant

Phalacrocorax carbo Great Cormorant Platalea alba African Spoonbill Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis

Ploceus cucullatus Village (Black-headed) Weaver

Ploceus melanocephalus Black-headed Weaver

Riparia paludicola Brown-throated Martin

Riparia riparia Sand Martin Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred Ibis


This vegetation type is dominated by the character species Phragmites australis et karka and

Polygonum species and comprises additionally of Ceratophyllum demersum and Vossia

cuspidata (Figure 12). Phragmites australis et karka is the stand-forming species within this

vegetation type.

Table 7: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table for vegetation type No.2

Relevé - Number /

Species :

8.3 7.2 10.1 1.2 9.11 11.1 1.1 2 10.4 10.3

overall consistency

(out of 64 relevés)

Phragmites species

5 5 4 4 5 4

20

Ceratophyllum demersum

3 3 2,0 2 2 2,0

29

Polygonum species

r 3 + 1 2

19

Vossia cuspidata

1

2

2 7

Out of the 64 relevés, 10 relevés were covered by this vegetation type. The vegetation cover

within the Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed, with one exception, is high due

to the dense structure, varying between 70 and 90 %. The measured maximum height of

vegetation had a mean of 130 cm up to a maximum height of 180 cm and to a minimum of

30 cm.

39

This vegetation type is found in deep water areas (up to a maximum water depth of 4 m),

with a mean water level of 302 cm (min. 180 cm, max. 400 cm). The open water surface

ranged between 20 and 80 %. The measured visibility depths were 24 cm and 23 cm.


in µS

T in °C pH

mean 121,2 23,94 7,38

minimum 119 23,2 7,04

maximum 123 25,2 7,52

This vegetation type was found near Tana Kirkos, Yganda, Debre Maryam and at the Gilgel

Abay Delta. No human utilisation of this vegetation type has been observed while being in

the field but it can be assumed that especially Vossia cuspidata is harvested as forage for

cattle. Like the former described Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed, the areas where

this vegetation type occurs never fall dry. The Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum -

Reed is exploited by a lot of bird species, 3 of them listed as vulnerable by the IUCN (Black

Crowned Crane, Wattled Crane, Greater Spotted Eagle) (Table 8).

Figure 12: Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed close to Tana Kirkos (Photo F. Mundt)

Table 8: Exemplarily selection of birds occurring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reeds, assignment by Paul Vinke

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

Sedge Warbler


Amandava subflava Orange-breasted (Zebra) Waxbill

Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Teal

40

Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill Anhinga rufa African Darter Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea melanocephala Black-headed Heron Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron Balearica pavonina Black Crowned Crane Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane Butorides striata Green-backed Heron Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Centropus monachus Blue-headed Coucal

Ceryle rudis African Pied Kingfisher

Ciconia nigra Black Stork


Egretta garzetta Little Egret


Euplectes axillaris Fan-tailed Widowbird Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop Euplectes orix Red Bishop Gallinula angulata Lesser Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle

Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern Lanius excubitoroides Grey-backed Fiscal Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed Egret


Pelecanus rufescens Pink-backes Pelican


Platalea alba African Spoonbill Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis Ploceus melanocephalus Black-headed Weaver Porphyrio alleni Allen´s gallinule Rallus caerulescens African Rail Riparia cincta Banded Martin


Riparia riparia Sand Martin Scopus umbretta Hamerkop Serinus citrinelloides African Citril Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Thalassornis leuconotus White-backed Duck Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred Ibis Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper Vidua macroura Pin Tailed Whydah


In contrast to the previous vegetation type, this one is dominated and characterised by

Poaceae species, often so called hippo-grasses, and Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea.

Nymphoides species, Ludwigia species, Cyperus species, Vossia cuspidata, Polygonum

species, Ceratophyllum demersum and Phragmites australis et karka are common within this

type (Figure 13).

Out of the 64 relevés, 18 relevés were covered by this vegetation type. The vegetation cover

within the Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow, with two exceptions, is

high due to the dense structure, varying between 70 and 85 %. The measured maximum

height of vegetation had a mean of 51, 2 cm up to a maximum height of 150 cm and to a

minimum of 10 cm. This vegetation type is found in areas with a mean water level of 167 cm

(min. 30 cm, max. 220 cm). The open water surface ranged, with two exceptions, between

15 and 30 %. The measured visibility depths were 20 cm and 37 cm.

41

Table 9: Extract of the characterised & differentiated table for vegetation type No.3

Relevé - Number

Species:

4 9.10

9.1

11.2

9.7

7.4

7.3

9.9

9.6

9.3

9.8

9.4

9.2

11.4

4.4

11.3

14

9.5

overall consist

ency (out of

64 relevés

) Phragmi

tes species

2 2 2

r

r

20

Ceratophyllum

demersum

1 1

3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

29

POACEAE 3 2

r 4 2 2 r 3 3 4 + 4 1 +

4 21

Nymphaea

nouchali var.

caerulea

1

3 2 4 2 4 2 2

1 2 11

Potamogeton

species 1 3 r

1 r 2 r r 2 + r 3

18

Polygonum

species 3 r

2 3

+

r

r

19

Cyperus species

1 r

r

2

5

Vossia cuspidat

a 2

3

7

Nymphoides

species 3

r

r r 10


in µS

T in °C pH

mean 120,6 25.98 7,44

minimum 77 23,6 7,12

maximum 145 28,6 8,09

I found these Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows in Yganda, Debre

Maryam, Agid Kirigna and close to the Gilgel Abay Delta.

42

Those areas serve as important grazing areas for the large cattle herds within the lake area.

Especially around Agid Kirigna those meadows are converted due to sand mining.

Furthermore these wetlands are converted into farming land in the dry season due to the

fact that those meadows, with 3 relevés exception, fall completely dry in the dry season and

remain dry till the beginning of the rainy season.

Figure 13: Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow at Agid Kirigna (Photo F. Mundt)

This vegetation type, generating colourful meadows, is used by more than 100 bird species,

including Greater Spotted Eagle, Black Crowned Crane, Wattled Crane and the as near-

threatened listed Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) as migrant in the post-rainy and dry

season (Table 10). Recently Eichhornia crassipes can be found in those meadows, whereas in

former years this plant was unknown to occur in the Lake Area.

Table 10: Exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows, assignment by Paul Vinke


Sedge Warbler


Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Actophilornis africanus African Jacana Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptien Goose

Amandava subflava

Orange-breasted (Zebra) Waxbill

Anas acuta Northern Pintail Anas clypeata Northern Shoveller Anas crecca Common Teal Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Teal Anas penelope Eurasian Widgeon Anas querquedula Garganey Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill Anhinga rufa African Darter Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit Anthus leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit

43

Anthus richardi Richard´sPipit Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea goliath Goliath Heron Ardea melanocephala Black-headed Heron Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron Balearica pavonina Black Crowned Crane Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane Burhinus senegalensis Senegal Thick-Knee Butorides striata Green-backed Heron Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper Calidris minuta Little Stint Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Ceryle rudis

African Pied Kingfisher

Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover

Charadrius hiaticula Common Ringed Plover

Charadrius pecuarius Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded Plover Chlidonia hybrida Whiskered Tern Chlidonia leucopterus White-winged Tern Ciconia nigra Black Stork


Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Cisticola lugubris Ethiopian Cisticola Corvus capensis Cape Crow Coturnix coturnix Common Quail

Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Whistling Duck

Dendrocygna viduata White-faced Whistling Duck

Egretta garzetta Little Egret Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis

Saddle-billed Stork

Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill


Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel Fulica cristata Red-knobbed Coot Gallinago nigripennis African Snipe Gallinula angulata Lesser Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen

Glareola pratincola Collared Pratincole Grus grus Common Crane Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern Lanius isabellinus Red-tailed Shrike Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed Egret Microparra capensis Lesser Jacana Motacilla aguimp African Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba White Wagtail Motacilla flava / Motacilla f. feldegg

Yellow Wagtail

Mycteria ibis Yellow-billed Stork Netta erythrophthalma Southern Pochard Nettapus auritus African Pygmy Goose


Ortygospiza atricollis African Quailfinch Pelecanus rufescens Pink-backed Pelican Philomachus pugnax Ruff Platalea alba African Spoonbill Plectropterus gambensis Spur winged Goose Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis Porphyrio alleni Allen´s gallinule Porzana parva Little Crake Rallus caerulescens African Rail Recurvirostra avosetta Pied Avocet Riparia cincta Banded Martin


Riparia riparia Sand Martin Sarkidiornis melanotos Knob-billed Duck Scopus umbretta Hamerkop Sterna nilotica Gull-billed Tern Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Thalassornis leuconotus White-backed Duck Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred Ibis Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper

Vanellus senegallus African Wattled Lapwing / Senegal Wattled Plover

Vanellus spinosus Spur Winged Lapwing

44


The Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow is characterised by Ipomoea aquatica and the

occurrence of several Poaceae species, often so called hippo-grasses. Those are

accompanied by Nymphaea lotus, Nymphoides species, Cyperus macrostachyos, Trifolium

species, Echinochloa pyramidalis and Eichhornia crassipes (Figure 14). From the 64 relevés, 5

were covered by this vegetation type. This vegetation has got a coverage ranging between

75 and 95 %. The maximum height of the Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow has got a

mean of 26 cm, with a maximum of 30 cm and a minimum of 20 cm. Those meadows are

restricted to water depths with a minimum of 20 cm up to a maximum of 180 cm and a

mean of 56, 6 cm. The open water surface ranged between 5 and 25 %.


in µS

T in °C pH

mean 103 25.4 7,51

minimum 91 24,7 7,29

maximum 125 25,8 7,65

In the rainy season these wetlands are used as grazing areas (own observations). During the

dry season those meadows fall completely dry and are immediately converted into farming

land (local community, pers.comm.). It was not possible to measure the visibility depth due

to the low water level. Estimated visibility depth was not more than 20 cm.


Relevé - Number / Species:

11.6 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.5

overall consistency

(out of 64 relevés)

Ceratophyllum demersum

3 3 r 29 POACEAE 3 2 4

2 21

Nymphoides species r + 1 r

10 Nymphaea lotus 2 5 +

5

Ipomoea aquatica

3 2 2

6 Trifolium species

2 2 2

4

Cyperus macrostachyos

1 r r 1 16

45

This vegetation type has been found at Agid Kirigna, Debre Maryam and at Megech River

Mouth. This vegetation type is used by a plenty of bird species, including Greater Spotted

Eagle, Black Crowned Crane, Wattled Crane and the as near-threatened listed Black-tailed

Godwit (Limosa limosa) as migrant in the post-rainy and dry season (Table 12).

Figure 14: Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow (Photo F. Mundt)

Table 12: exemplarily assignment of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadows, assignments by Paul Vinke


Sedge Warbler

Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Actophilornis africanus African Jacana Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptien Goose Anas acuta Northern Pintail Anas clypeata Northern Shoveller Anas crecca Common Teal Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Teal Anas penelope Eurasian Widgeon Anas querquedula Garganey Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit Anthus leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit Anthus richardi Richard´sPipit Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea goliath Goliath Heron Ardea melanocephala Black-headed Heron Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron

Balearica pavonina Black Crowned Crane Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis Bradypterus baboecala Little Rush Warbler Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane Burhinus senegalensis Senegal Thick-Knee Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper Calidris minuta Little Stint Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula Common Ringed Plover Charadrius pecuarius Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded Plover Chlidonia hybrida Whiskered Tern Chlidonia leucopterus White-winged Tern Ciconia ciconia White Stork Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia nigra Black Stork Circus aeruginosus Eurasian Marsh-Harrier Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier Cisticola eximius Black-backed Cisticola

46

Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Cisticola lugubris Ethiopian Cisticola Corvus capensis Cape Crow Coturnix coturnix Common Quail Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Whistling Duck

Dendrocygna viduata White-faced Whistling Duck

Egretta garzetta Little Egret Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis

Saddle-billed Stork

Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill Euplectes afer Yellow-crowened Bishop Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel Gallinago nigripennis African Snipe Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen Glareola pratincola Collared Pratincole Grus grus Common Crane Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Lanius isabellinus Red-tailed Shrike Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed Egret Microparra capensis Lesser Jacana Motacilla aguimp African Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba White Wagtail Motacilla flava / Motacilla f. feldegg

Yellow Wagtail

Mycteria ibis Yellow-billed Stork Netta erythrophthalma Southern Pochard Nettapus auritus African Pygmy Goose


Ortygospiza atricollis African Quailfinch Philomachus pugnax Ruff Platalea alba African Spoonbill Plectropterus gambensis Spur winged Goose Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis Recurvirostra avosetta Pied Avocet Riparia cincta Banded Martin Riparia paludicola Brown-throated Martin Riparia riparia Sand Martin Sarkidiornis melanotos Knob-billed Duck Scopus umbretta Hamerkop Sterna nilotica Gull-billed Tern Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Thalassornis leuconotus White-backed Duck Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred Ibis Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper



5. Echinochloa - Meadow

The Echinochloa - Meadow is characterised by the

dominating Echinochloa pyramidalis and Echinochloa crus-

galli (Figure 15). Cyperus macrostachyos, Eichhornia crassipes

and Lemna species are companion species within this type.

Those species are adapted to the changing utilisation and the

conversion into arable land.

This vegetation type covered 16 out of 64 relevés. The

vegetation cover is, with three exceptions, by about 85 %. Figure 15: Echiochloa - Meadow

close to Debre Maryam (Photo F. Mundt)

47

The height of this vegetation type varies between a minimum of 30 and a maximum of 130

cm, with a mean of 49, 4 cm. The water level ranged between a minimum of 10 cm and a

maximum of 150 cm, with a mean of 44, 4 cm. The open water surface varied round about

by 15 %. It was not possible to measure the visibility depth due to the low water level and a

shortage of the Secchi-disk. But we estimated that the visibility depth was not more than 20

cm.

In the dry season those areas fall completely dry and with the end of the rainy season and

residing water levels local farmers, often young and landless, immediately start draining

and farming of these wetlands. In absence of own land and the fast growing population

almost all of those meadows are converted into farmland. Furthermore those Echinochloa -

Meadows are used as grazing areas throughout the whole year. Cyperus macrostachyos is

often used as a replacement for Cyperus papyrus as material for handcraft and building

purposes (local farmers, pers. comm.).

The Echinochloa - Meadows are used by more than 70 bird species, among them Greater

Spotted Eagle, Black Crowned Crane, Wattled Crane, Black-tailed Godwit and Rouget´s Rail

(near threatend) (Table 14).



in µS

T in °C pH

mean 277,1 25,3 7,61

minimum 132 20 7,03

maximum 350 28,5 8,39

Relevé – Number / Species:

5.14

5.2

5.1

5.8

5.9

5.11

5.10

5.7

5.6

5.5

5.13

5.12

5.3

3 3.1

5.4

overall consist

ency (out of

64 relevés)

Cyperus macrosta

chyos 1

1 2 r r 1 1 r 1 r r

+

16

Echinochloa pyramidalis

3 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

18

48

Table 14: exemplarily selection of birds occuring during breeding, migration and wintering season in Echinochloa – Meadows, assignment by Paul Vinke

Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit Anthus leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit Anthus richardi Richard´sPipit Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea melanocephala Black-headed Heron Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron Balearica pavonina Black Crowned Crane Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis Bradypterus baboecala Little Rush Warbler Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane Burhinus senegalensis Senegal Thick-Knee Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper Calidris minuta Little Stint Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover

Charadrius hiaticula Common Ringed Plover

Charadrius pecuarius Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded Plover Ciconia ciconia White Stork Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia nigra Black Stork


Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier

Cisticola eximius Black-backed Cisticola

Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Cisticola lugubris Ethiopian Cisticola Corvus capensis Cape Crow Coturnix coturnix Common Quail Egretta garzetta Little Egret Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis

Saddle-billed Stork

Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel Gallinago nigripennis African Snipe Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen Glareola pratincola Collared Pratincole Grus grus Common Crane Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Lanius isabellinus Red-tailed Shrike Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed Egret Motacilla aguimp African Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba White Wagtail Motacilla flava/Motacilla f. feldegg

Yellow Wagtail

Mycteria ibis Yellow-billed Stork


Ortygospiza atricollis African Quailfinch Philomachus pugnax Ruff Platalea alba African Spoonbill

Relevé – Number / Species:

5.14

5.2

5.1

5.8

5.9

5.11

5.10

5.7

5.6

5.5

5.13

5.12

5.3

3 3.1

5.4

overall consist

ency (out of

64 relevés)

Eichhornia

crassipes 2

2 1 2 5 4 r r 2

5 11

Lemna species

1

2 2

r 4

Echinochloa crus-

galli 1

1 1 2 2 2

1 2

8

49

Plectropterus gambensis Spur winged Goose Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis Rallus caerulescens African Rail Riparia cincta Banded Martin


Riparia riparia Sand Martin Rougetius rougetii Rouget's Rail Scopus umbretta Hamerkop Sterna nilotica Gull-billed Tern

Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred Ibis Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper



4.2 Transect characterisation

Agid Kirigna (No. 4)

This transect is located at the eastern shore of Lake Tana (Figure 16). The transect is

following the main ecological gradient (water depth) running from the open water crossing

different vegetation types and ending at the beginning of a rice field. The length of the

wetland is estimated to be 700 m, with a maximal width of 100 m. The water level within the

wetland does not exceed 0,4 m. In 1 and 2 km distance 2-4 villages are situated, surrounded

by huge rice fields, that are extended into the wetland during the dry season. Due to sand

mining in this area an earth wall is established dividing the actual wetland and the lake.

According to the soil map (Figure 4) the soil in the area belongs to the zone of Eutric

Vertisols.

Seawards located, in front of the wall, a vast Echinochloa - Meadow is found that is reported

to be converted into farming land during the dry season (local farmers, pers. comm.).

Behind the wall colourful Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows and

Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadows characterise the wetland (Figure 14). The Ipomoea

aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow ends abruptly due to the creation of vast rice fields. During the

rainy and post-rainy season with high water levels this area is used as grazing area. Within

the meadows Cyperus macrostachyos, a noxious weed in fields, can be found occasionally,

which points out to the neighbourhood of farming land. During the dry season those

meadows fall completely dry and are partly converted into farming land.

Along the shoreline and within the meadows floating layers of the invader species

Eichhornia crassipes are present but not yet as prominent as in other areas of the lake.

50

Farmers living adjacent to the shore report that two years earlier Eichhornia crassipes didn´t

exist at all.

As Lake Tana experiences extensive sand mining, Agid Kirigna is an example of degradation

of shores and wetlands due to the mining practices. G/kidan & Teka (2006) identified point

and non-point sources of sand mining during their survey. Non-point source sands are

deposited at the shoreline of the lake, fetched by wave actions and currents, whereas point

source sands are fetched by a particular ephemeral and perennial river and stream during

summer and are deposited along its banks or at its delta or siltation zone. Non-point source

sands are mined commercially in Delgi, Agid Kirigna, Kunzula and Mitraha Abawarka,

nearby Arno-Garno River entry. River-driven commercial sand mining sites can be found at

the ephemeral rivers of War, Sege and Kimo (around Delgi) and upstream tributaries of

Arno-Garno and Rib River. The sand mining is done by the Tana Transport Enterprise

(governmental institution) that sell the extracted sand to Gondar, Bahir Dar etc. (G/kidan &

Teka, 2006).

Dembia Megech River Mouth (No. 5)

This wetland is dominated by only one vegetation type (Figure 17). Along the shoreline a

vast Echinochloa - Meadow is creating a belt of ca. 4-5 km length and 100-500 m width. The

measured visibility depth is relatively high with 55 cm, this underlines the low input of

sediments (Figure 28). According to the soil map (Figure 4) the soil in this area belongs to

the zone of Eutric Fluvisols. This meadow is species poor, consisting of Echinochloa

pyramidalis and Echinochloa crus-galli, Vossia cuspidata, Cyperus macrostachyos, Lemna

species and Eichhornia crassipes, species that are adapted to the changing utilisation and the

conversion into arable land. Large Eichhornia crassipes layers are floating in front of this belt

in the open water. This wetland and adjacent meadows (probably Echinochloa species as

well) serve as pastures for farmers living in villages close to the wetland. Large cattle herds

were observed grazing in and adjacent to the wetland. The observed Cyperus macrostachyos

points out to the radical change into farming land as soon as the water is receding.

The Megech River runs through the wetland, on both sides diked (length of the dike ca. 5

km), to protect villages and farming land against floods.

51

Figure 16: Transect Agid Kirigna

52

Figure 17: Transect Dembia Megech River Mouth

53

Gilgel Abay River Mouth (Delta) (No. 07)

This transect is non-linear due to the inaccessibility of the wetland itself (Figure 18). The

wetland covers the fringes of the delta of the Gilgel Abay River Mouth into Lake Tana. The

transect covered the existing vegetation types in regard to give a representative overview of

this wetland. The soil in the area is counted among the zones of Eutric Vertisols and Eutric

Fluvisols (Figure 4).

In the deepwater areas with water levels ranging between 2 and 4 m impressive Typha

latifolia - Cyperus papyrus - Reeds are found consisting of patches of Typha latifolia and

Cyperus papyrus and mixed stands. This wetland is host to the largest papyrus population in

Lake Tana. The vegetation has got a partly patchy character that leads to the greatly

varying of the cover of the vegetation.

The Delta is known to be one of the most favoured sites in the lake by hippos

(Hippopotamus amphibious) (Figure 9) in regard to the fact that huge areas of the delta

fringes are almost undisturbed due to the inaccessibility through the high water level and

the dense vegetation. The depositional delta extends far into the lake with an elongated

and dynamic form, which has changed position and shape within the last years (as seen on

available maps and satellite images). The sediment deposit by the inflowing Gilgel Abay

leads to the continuous growth of the delta. The tip of the delta consists of the above

described Typha latifolia - Cyperus papyrus - Reeds and Phragmites australis et karka –

Polygonum - Reeds with patches of Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows

and Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadows at the fringes of the reeds. This diversity results

of the inaccessibility of the freshly accumulated areas, where the vegetation can develop

undisturbed and the vegetation zonation patterns are natural. There is also the fact, that

the delta is changing its shape continuously, which leads to the variability of the vegetation.

The centre and south of the delta have large deposits of sediment which, though often wet,

are cultivated and grazed - even almost to the tip of the delta (Francis & Aynalem, 2007).

Farmers in the area reported that open grazing is a common practice within the Poaceae -

Meadows throughout the year, and that they don´t use the meadows existing in the centre

of the delta. From January till May those meadows are grazed by cattle from local farmers

and give hostage to cattle from farmers in the highlands, whilst during the rainy season,

54

Figure 18: Transect Gigel Abay River Mouth (Delta)

55

when those areas are completely under water, the cattle of the local farmers are grazing in

the highlands.

It was reported to us, that those wetland areas accommodate 10.000 cattle during the dry

season. Wondie (pers. comm.) appraised this form of grazing as not systematic. In his

opinion the farmers could breed much more cattle if the management, including cutting

and harvesting, would be better.

Theoretically the wetland on and around the delta could grow as well as the delta, but as

soon as it is possible to plough and use those areas, the wetlands are converted into farming

land. Additionally the vegetation is, where possible, harvested for several purposes which

leads to the continuous decline of the wetlands and especially of the papyrus stands.

At the borders of the wetland or in areas, where it is easy to navigate with a tankwa, local

fishermen are hunting and they do harvest the dense papyrus. Close to the shoreline of the

lake, Poaceae species are harvested to a great extent as forage for cattle and sheep.

Transect near Ambo Bahar (No. 8)

This transect is lying at the south-western shore of Lake Tana near Ambo Bahar Hill (

Figure 19). It is linear with a length of 300 m. The wetland itself seems to be undisturbed.

The soils of the wetland belong to the zone of Eutric Vertisols (Figure 4).

It consists out of two vegetation types. Coming from the lake a Cyperus papyrus - Typha

latifolia - Reed with Polygonum species is followed by Phragmites australis et karka -

Polygonum - Reeds and at the shoreline thick Cyperus papyrus - Reeds are found. This

wetland has got an extent of 3 km along the shoreline with a maximal width of 150 m.

It is assumed that the papyrus stands might be slightly harvested, but no damage could be

seen. The minimal impact of harvest or even no harvesting of the Cyperus papyrus stands

might be explained through the fact that the next village is some kilometres away. The

forest at Ambo Bahar Hill that is lying behind the wetland is likewise unused and it is

reported by fishermen we met on the lake that wild boars and hippos are often seen in the

area. The fishermen reported likewise of leopard and deer living in the forest.

56

Figure 19: Ambo Bahar transect

57

Yganda (No. 09)

By riding the tankwa we assessed the vegetation within this huge wetland along the

representative transect (Figure 20).

The linear transect had a length of 300m, following the main ecological gradient. The soil of

the area belongs to the zone of Eutric Leptosols.

Yganda wetland is situated close to Zege peninsula and it is one of the wetlands with

highest biodiversity. Different vegetation types take turns within the wetland. In the fringes

of the wetland large Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows can be found

that merge into Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reeds, whereas in the middle of

this wetland Cyperus papyrus has got relatively vast stocks. Yganda hasn´t got only a high

relevance for Black Crowned Cranes and Wattled Cranes, due to its partly pristine and semi-

pristine vegetation, which provides excellent breeding spots and important feeding sites,

but even for other wetland species it serves as important wetland habitat (Aynalem &

Bekele, 2008).

Yganda wetland is one of the few breeding sites of Black Crowned Cranes and Wattled

Cranes (Figure 9). As reported by Aynalem (2009, 2010 & 2011) and seen during the fieldtrip

this wetland faces serious land degradation. Due to the unnatural fluctuating water level in

the last 4 years, famers converted almost 1/3 of the whole wetland area, thereby destroying

nesting sites of Black Crowned Cranes from former years (Aynalem, 2010). Aynalem reports

that the wetland is put under heavy pressure at the middle/end of the dry season due to

overgrazing and cultivation. In this time only few papyrus stands are reported to exist in the

middle of the wetland whilst the rest is degraded and converted (Aynalem 2009 & 2010).

Black Crowned Cranes and Wattled Cranes, before using the wetland as feeding, roosting

and breeding site (for Wattled Cranes assumed), tend to migrate to suitable areas in the

surrounding when the dry season associated with conversion and disturbance approaches.

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Figure 20: Transect Yganda

59

Debre Maryam Island (No. 10)

This transect is crossing the reed-belt running along the shoreline of Debre Maryam Island

at the southern tip of Lake Tana, close to the outlet of the Blue Nile and Bahir Dar.

The belt has got a length of 1 km and a maximum width of 100 m. The soil of the wetland

belongs to the zone of Chromic Luvisols and Eutric Leptosols (Figure 4).

The wetland consisted at the time of the vegetation assessment out of a Cyperus papyrus -

Typha latifolia - Reed and a Poaceae - Meadow in front of the reed belt (Figure 21).

The wetland is partly disturbed due to the harvest of Cyperus papyrus and the cultivation of

parts of the island with khat (Catha edulis), avocado (Persea americana) and mango

(Mangifera species) by local farmers.

Debre Maryam (No. 11)

This transect covered the wetland opposite of Debre Maryam Island, at the shoreline of

Lake Tana. The wetland had a width ranging between 200 and 300 m, and an estimated

length of 1,5 km. Due to the partly dense vegetation and the rocks on the lake bottom it was

not possible to investigate the wetland completely and the transect had a non-linear

structure. The wetland is lying in the soil zone of Chromic Luvisols (Figure 4).

The wetland had a more or less diverse structure, with a mixture of meadows and reeds

(Figure 22). Coming from the lake side a belt consisting of Phragmites australis et karka and

Typha latifolia lines the border of the wetland. Afterwards, probably till the shore, a huge

Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow with an associated Ipomoea aquatica -

Poaceae - Meadow constitutes the core of the wetland. The following vegetation type is

presumably an Echinochloa - Meadow. This wetland is converted into farming land as soon

as the water is receding. In the northern part of this wetland Black Crowned Cranes are

reported to breed within the wetland (Aynalem, pers. comm.) and the area around Debre

Maryam (Figure 9) is often visited by hippos, due to the vast existence of Echinochloa

species, also known as “hippo-grass”, that are eaten by the hippos.

60

Figure 21: Debre Maryam Island

61

Figure 22: Debre Maryam

62

Enfranz Springs (No. 12)

The wetland “Enfranz Springs” is located in a distance of 15 km northwest of Bahir Dar. The

wetland is fed by 44 springs, partly the main source of underground drinking water for Bahir

Dar. The wetland has got a width of 1 km and a length of 2 km. The soil of the wetland

belongs to the zone of Lithic Leptosols and Chromic Luvisols.

The transect had a length of 100 m, running from the fringes to the beginning of the vast

impenetrable Reed, creating the centre of the wetland (Figure 23).

The vegetation within the wetland consists of an Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow,

followed by a Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow and a Phragmites

australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed fringing the centre of the wetland that consists of a

huge mainly undisturbed Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed. The vegetation has got a

patchy character, presumably of pristine nature, providing feeding, breeding and roosting

sites for birds. The centre might provide good breeding sites for example for Black Crowned

Cranes due to non-disturbance.

This wetland was the only one where Ottelia ulvifolia has been found.

The centre of the wetland is to a large extent undisturbed, but the fringes are grazed by

cattle and at some places khat-farming is done. Wondie (pers. comm.) reported that three

years earlier no village could be found in the area of the wetland, but in 2010 settlement

around the spring area started. This led to an intensification of the use of the wetland.

63

Figure 23: Enfranz Springs

64

Infranz River Outlet (No. 13)

This transect covered the wetland at the outlet of Infranz River at the southern shore of

Lake Tana, west of Bahir Dar.

The wetland is located left and right of the Infranz River that enters Lake Tana at this point.

The soil in this area belongs to the zone of Chromic Luvisols (Figure 4).

In western direction a village is situated close to the shore, whereas in eastern direction the

reed is followed by a huge impenetrable Cyperus - Poaceae - Meadow (Figure 24).

The transect had a non-linear character due to the inaccessibility of the reed. The wetland

has got an estimated width of 200 - 500 m and a length of 1-2 km. The meadow and the

river are lined by the huge and partly undisturbed Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reeds.

Young fishermen reported that during the dry season the meadow is used as grazing area

and farming land.

Selechen Mariam (No. 14)

This transect covered the wetland of Selechen Mariam, at the southern shore of Lake Tana,

west of Bahir Dar.

The linear transect had a length of 300 m, crossing the whole wetland. The soil of the area is

in the zone of Chromic Luvisols (Figure 24).

The wetland is in comparison with others small, but due to the different vegetation types

and the patchy character attractive for animals. It has got a length of 1000 m and a width of

maximum 500 m. The vegetation consisted out of a Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed

of up to 200 m width, followed by an Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed and

finally at the shore an Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow.

Close to the wetland leads the road to Zege peninsula. At the fringe of the shoreline

residents had installed an electrical water pump in order to provide nearby houses and

farming land with water.

In western direction a church is situated. Famers reported that the wetland is under the

protection of the church since 2 years, and that since then it is forbidden to convert the

wetland.

65

Figure 24: Infranz River Outlet

66

Figure 25: Selechen Mariam

67

5 DISCUSSION

5.1 Methodology

Unquestioningly, vegetation assessment should have been done in the dry season too, to

obtain a comprehensive overview of the existing wetlands, their conditions and the extent

during the different seasons. Furthermore, it would have been possible to assess more

wetlands within the pre-rainy / dry season, resulting of the fact that during my stay in Bahir

Dar some wetlands were inaccessible due to too high water levels. Several diseases during

my stay in Ethiopia prevented me from doing more assessments.

The prohibition to export soil & water samples and plant material contributed to missing

data of biotic and abiotic nature on the wetlands. Resulting of the fact that the plants partly

could not be determined in the field due to missing literature at the University of Bahir Dar,

the determination of undetermined plants was later done via photographs taken in the

field, possibly leading to mistakes in species determination.

Nonetheless soil and water analyses were planned and samples were taken in the field, to

give a more detailed analysis of the wetlands and existing vegetation types. The samples

should have been analysed in the laboratory of the Bahir Dar University but due to

incomprehensible obstacles the samples were not investigated, which led to missing data.

Resulting of missing and defective data on the avifauna, promised by several experts, the

assignment of the birds to the different vegetation types is reduced in volume and should

be seen as an approach that should be extended in the future.

Nevertheless, the assessed data and the created vegetation types form a good basis for

further recording and evaluation of the wetlands adjacent to the lake and recommendations

regarding the zonation of the future Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana.

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5.2 Threats & evaluation of the wetlands

The wetlands in the Lake Tana Area are of major significance for the whole region. They

provide a myriad of goods and services for humans and animals (see zur Heide, 2012).

The wetlands serve among others as important breeding, feeding and roosting sites for

birds, residents as well as migrants, furthermore they are important spawning grounds for

the various fish species in the lake. Reptiles, amphibians and macroinvertebrates specialised

in wetlands, hippos and other mammals rely on the wetlands surrounding the lake, as well

as humans, benefiting in innumerable ways from the wetlands.

The seasonal floodplains are dominated by Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea -

Meadows, Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadows and Echinochloa - Meadows, resulting of

the fact that bulrush (Typha latifolia), reed (Phragmites australis) and papyrus (Cyperus

papyrus) are not able to cope the dry season of a floodplain changing into a semi-arid

environment (Zwarts et al., 2009). According to G/kidan & Teka (2006) papyrus populations

are seriously threatened and are mainly found in pocket habitats along the shorelines

(Woldegabriel & Solomon 2006). Resulting of this the reeds should generally be placed

under protection, most probably as core zones, in the future biosphere reserve.

Due to the strong, mostly unsustainable human use meadows are often degraded,

consisting mainly of Echinochloa species, used as grazing area or converted into agricultural

land. Those areas do not have the same ecological importance as the reeds as pristine

meadows do have, but they are still important feeding (roosting) sites for birds, especially

migrating birds feed on the grain and rice fields within the flood plains.

The wetlands in the Lake Tana area (Figure 26) are highly threatened by fragmentation,

habitat loss, soil erosion and sedimentation, intensive agriculture, overgrazing, drainage

activities, industrial pollution, sand mining, overharvesting of wetland resources, power

generation, eutrophication, unsustainability and the immigration of invasive species.

The main ecological gradient, on which the vegetation of the wetlands at Lake Tana

depends primarily, is the water depth and associated seasonal fluctuations of the water

69

level. The second important factor influencing the vegetation is the impact of human

utilization, which is gaining more and more importance within recent years.

The formation of the vegetation types follows clearly the water level. The reeds are

restricted to areas with high water level that are inundated throughout the year, whereas

the meadows are found in areas with receding water level. The vegetation is adapted to the

cycle of receding water level, but within the last years the human utilization is threatening

the wetlands more and more and leads to changes of the natural vegetation patterns.

Figure 26: Wetland areas around Lake Tana (by Stephan Busse in zur Heide, 2012)

The wetland at Agid Kirigna, in the east-north-east of Lake Tana, characterised by colourful

Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadows and Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae -

Meadows is one of the last wetlands containing those vegetation types as vast meadows.

This wetland is serious threatened by sand mining and conversion into farming land. During

the rainy season farmers use to graze their cattle on the meadows. During the post-rainy

season and the dry season a rice field, adjacent to the lake, will be extended degrading the

70

wetland completely (Wondie, pers.comm.). Additionally Eichhornia crassipes is invading

those meadows, and might replace the typical vegetation type. Nonetheless this wetland

serving as feeding site for more than 50 bird species (Table 10, Table 12) has got a high

importance for the avifauna and hence should be protected as buffer zone in the future

Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana.

The Echinochloa - Meadow constituting the wetland at Dembia plain near Megech River

outlet, in the north of Lake Tana, is from a nature conservationist’s point of view not worthy

of protection as core or buffer zone at the present state. The wetland is totally degraded by

overgrazing and agriculture and the resulting Echinochloa - Meadow is species poor.

Converted into grazing area the significance of protection is not given due to complete

conversion of the wetland and additional invasion of Eichhornia crassipes. The dike, built to

channel the river supports the desiccation of the wetland and hence leads to earlier

implemented agriculture, resulting in totally degraded meadows and soil erosion in the

area. The meadows and fields are used as feeding site by birds (Table 14), but due to total

degradation and constant disturbance the value of these areas as breeding site seems to be

very low. Within the context of the biosphere reserve this wetland should be proposed as

transition area.

The wetland at Gilgel Abay River Mouth (Delta), in the south-west of Lake Tana, is a good

habitat for wetland birds and mammals due to its mixture of habitats that are partly

undisturbed offering feeding, breeding and roosting sites for many birds as a result of the

different vegetation types occurring within the wetland (Table 6, Table 8, Table 10 & Table

12). The structure of the vegetation results of the continuous change of the delta itself and

the changing water levels. The wetland is seriously threatened by conversion into farming

land and exploitation of the reeds. Especially the papyrus is harvested. It has got a high level

of worthiness of protection and should be protected as soon as possible as core area of the

biosphere reserve. Difficulties could be experienced due to the fact that the growing human

population in the area is depending on those areas as farming land, but the further

degradation of those wetlands should be inhibited in order to prevent further decline of the

highly threatened Cyperus papyrus stands in the Lake Tana Area.

71

The wetland lying in front of Ambo Bahar, in the south of Lake Tana, accommodates nearly

undisturbed Cyperus papyrus stands forming thick reeds in combination with Typha latifolia.

These facts highlight the worthiness for protection of this wetland as representative reed

community with papyrus stands that should be preserved. Within the concept of a

biosphere reserve this wetland should be proposed as core zone that contributes to

preserve the Cyperus papyrus stands and related typical reeds at Lake Tana.

The forest at Ambo Bahar might be suitable as core zone as well, but further investigation is

required to give reliable statements.

The wetland of Yganda, in the south of Lake Tana, is one of the wetlands with highest

biodiversity and it is relatively big in size. The wetland is rich in species and structure,

harbouring many plant and animal species. The meadows and reeds form habitats with

structural diversity that offer breeding, feeding and roosting sites for birds as well as for

other animals.

Within Yganda wetland vast Cyperus papyrus - Reeds, worth of protection can be found.

The reed areas are important for cranes. Black Crowned Cranes are known to breed in

Yganda wetland, whereas Wattled Cranes are suspected to breed within the wetlands but

not yet observed (Aynalem, 2009, 2010 & 2011). Both crane species prefer this wetland as

feeding site during the rainy and post-rainy season.

During the dry season this wetland is almost completely converted into farming land, and

the cranes tend to migrate to other suitable areas (Aynalem, 2009, 2010 & 2011).

The conversion into farming land (by burning, ploughing etc.) is the main threat for this

wetland. Hence it should be put under protection as soon as possible to preserve this

important wetland. Within the context of the Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana it should be

proposed as core and buffer zone, regarding to the degree of degradation.

The wetlands at and close to Debre Maryam Island, in the south-south-east of Lake Tana,

are worth of protection due to their structure and give home to several threatened plants

and animals. The reeds, containing Cyperus papyrus, are important sites for the vulnerable

Black Crowned Cranes, having one of their known breeding sites within these huge

wetlands. Due to the size and the partly undisturbed areas birds can find breeding, feeding

and roosting sites. Hippos can be seen within this area quite frequently (Figure 9).

72

This wetland is threatened by the conversion into farming land and overgrazing. The local

farmers enlarge their fields as far as possible. Besides that the reeds are threatened as a

result of over-harvesting for hand craft and building purpose. Within the context of the

future Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana this area should be proposed as core and/or buffer

zone. The wetland of Enfranz Springs, south of Lake Tana, has got a high worthiness of

protection due to its in vast parts undisturbed nature. The vegetation with its patchy and

diverse character offers a high potential as feeding, breeding and roosting site for birds and

other fauna. The wetland is fed by 44 springs. In the meadows and reeds many bird species

can find breeding, feeding and roosting habitats due to the mix of vegetation types. The

springs are partly developed as main source of underground drinking water for Bahir Dar.

This wetland is serious threatened by land degradation, conversion into farming land,

population pressure and irrigation. Hence it should be put under protection as soon as

possible. The area should be proposed as core and buffer zone of the biosphere reserve.

The vast wetland at the outlet of Infranz River, in the south of Lake Tana, is worth of

protection too. The area is important for birds that can find breeding, feeding and roosting

sites within the huge area. Use of the reeds has not been observed but it is assumed that the

reed, especially the Cyperus papyrus is harvested. The large Cyperaceae - Poaceae - Meadow

adjacent to the river outlet is used as intensive grazing area and farming land in the dry

season. Resulting of this use, the wetland should be put under protection, as buffer zone,

while the reeds might be proposed as core zone.

The wetland of Selechen Mariam, in the south of Lake Tana, is worth of protection due to its

almost natural character and the classical sequence of the different vegetation types,

including Cyperus - Papyrus - Reeds. The wetland could serve as feeding, breeding and

roosting site for a limited number of birds, due to its size. The wetland was threatened by

conversion, but since the church of Selechen Mariam put the wetland already under

protection it is forbidden to convert the wetland. In addition to the protection by the church

it should be included into the biosphere reserve as core area.

73

The Fogera floodplain, lying to the east of Lake Tana, was identified as IBA in 2001. As a

result of inaccessibility during the rainy season it was impossible to assess this area within

my study.

This area has got a size of 84,000 ha (BirdLife International, 2012 e). Within the Fogera

floodplain two wetlands are situated, namely Shesher and Welala. The Fogera plains are

important for a number of globally threatened species like Falco naumanni, Circus

macrourus, Grus carunculatus, Phoenicopterus minor, Poicephalus flavifrons, Balearica

pavonina and Grus grus (BirdLife International, 2012 e). Fogera plain is flooded during and

after the rainy season by Rib and Gumara River, which overflow their banks and Lake Tana

itself. The plain is comparatively described (BirdLife International, 2012 e; Aynalem, 2009,

2010 & 2011; Wondie, pers.comm.) as area that serves during the dry season as important

area for grazing. It gives home to the indigenous breed of cattle “Fogera”, named after the

area. Furthermore recession farming has been increasingly gaining importance in recent

years (BirdLife International, 2012 e).

Local farmers around Lake Tana tend to consider water birds as pests, as a result of their

links with crop damage, and try to scare them away and sometimes even kill them, to

protect their crops (BirdLife International, 2012 e; Francis & Aynalem, 2007). Common

Cranes (Grus grus) are known to feed within the plain, on rice, teff and sorghum fields. At

Shesher wetland, the main roosting site for Common Cranes (with a maximum of 21.000

Common Cranes in 2009) (Beisenherz, Schröder & Walter, 2009), can be found.

Besides that Shesher has got great importance for the populations of Wattled Cranes and

Black Crowned Cranes, and at a single count in 2009 91.000 birds, resident and migratory

species, were recorded within the wetland (Aynalem, 2009 b). Welala seems to have a high

relevance for Black Crowned Cranes during the dry season, according to Aynalem (2012 b),

who counted 719 individuals in May 2009.

Moreover Shesher and Welala harbour a high number of female fish and their offspring,

resulting of the fact, that the fishes are locked in the wetlands after spawning by the

disconnection from the river during the lowered water level as a result of the dry season.

This richness of fish makes these wetlands attractive for birds, too.

But these wetlands are serious threatened by irrigation (Figure 27) and conversion into

farming land and the introduction of new farming practices. Aynalem (2009 b) reports of

the invention of a Broad Bed Maker tool by Agricultural Mechanization Technology in the

74

country and the introduction of a new agronomy practice, which lead to two crop harvests

per year. This resulted in a lower food availability for the birds, that forage on the seeds

fallen on the ground, and a higher degradation of the wetlands.

Figure 27: Features of Lake Tana (by Stephan Busse in zur Heide, 2012)

75

Wondie (2010) states that the intensification of farming and the shift of farming practices

are among the main problems. He reports that farming shifted towards wetlands including

river banks and the shoreline of the lake within the last 2 decades, due to an increase of

population pressure and the limitation of resources. In the Tana Area rice cultivation has

become the major crop in Fogera and Dembia floodplains. Wondie (2010) states, that the

use of fertilizers and pesticides (especially in Shesher & Welala) does affect the fragile

wetlands to a large extent. Furthermore the recessional farming, especially done by young

landless farmers, which follow the residing water of the lake in lack of farmland, is

problematical. The unsustainable conversion of wetlands by draining, deforesting and

burning of the existing wetlands to obtain arable land results in the tremendous loss of

those valuable ecotones with enormous effects on flora and fauna, climate and humans.

Eutrophication is a problem which has to be kept in mind. So far the lake is comparatively

characterised as oligotrophic / oligo-mesotrophic (chapter 2.5), but this has to be doubted. I

suppose that the lake is meso- to eutrophic due to siltation, sedimentation and the

unsustainable land use around the lake. Ongoing eutrophication, for example as a result of

the input of untreated waste water and the increase of fertilizers by agricultural run-off, can

be seen due to the intensive growth of weeds on the shores and in the lake waters and the

observed growth of phytoplankton (Wondie, pers. comm.).

The various statements on the lake, mostly relying on conjectures or results lying in the

distant past, elucidate that it is urgently necessary to deliver a limnological characterisation.

In the main rainy season the inflowing rivers carry heavy loads of suspended silt into the

lake, thereby increasing the turbidity of the lake water (Vijverberg, Sibbing & Dejen, 2009).

Annual soil loss in the Lake Tana catchment ranges from 31-65 tons per hectare (Wondie et

al., 2007; Setegn, 2008 in Ligdi, El Kahloun & Meire, 2010). The suspended sediments

reduce the underwater light intensity and as such the primary production, the basis of the

food web (Vijverberg, Sibbing & Dejen, 2009).

Each of the rivers entering the lake does a have a long delta, which indicates the settling of

most settleable solid materials occurring close to the delta. It has been measured that the

deposition near the mouths of rivers makes up half of the entire quantity at most, which

76

leads to the conclusion, that the lake will lose 6% of its effective storage within 100 years

(Ligdi, El Kahloun & Meire, 2010).

Vijverberg, Sibbing, & Dejen (2009) state according to the MoWR, that the commercial sand

mining and shipping for construction purposes by lake (marine) transportation to Bahir Dar

contributes to the removal of sedimentation. Their study reveals that non-point source load

entering the lake, mainly in the form of agricultural sediment (soil erosion) is increasing

recently, damaging the health and existence of the lake ecosystem. The wastewater from

agriculture seems to have insignificant effects by now, which can be related to the fact that

the use of fertilizers, although increased, still is inconsequential and hence does not have

noticeable effects (Ministry of Water Resources of Ethiopia, 2010).

Figure 28: Total average annual sediment load of the four major tributaries (perennials) into the lake and lake outflow (1987-2000) (source of data: MoWR 1999 in Ligdi et al., 2010)

Ligdi et al.´s (2010) study additionally demonstrates the indifference of sediment loads of

the major tributary rivers feeding Lake Tana in relation to their catchment areas. In Figure

28 it is shown that the Gumara River, with a smaller catchment area, has recently been

producing an increasing sediment load, presumably due to degradation of riverine

wetlands, ecotones and buffer strips and stony nature of the river banks as well as

inappropriate intensive agricultural land use, whereas Megech and Ribb river cause a lower

77

sediment inflow due to plantations and forests on the upper steep ridges and mountain

catchments of both (Ligdi, El Kahloun & Meire, 2010). Due to the fact that the outgoing

sediment load from Bahir Dar is rather insignificant, the lake acts as continuous sediment

sink (Figure 29) (Ligdi, El Kahloun & Meire, 2010). The development of the deltas and the

lake depth is shown in Figure 5. A clear difference of the extension of the deltas and the

depth of the lake can be seen. This points out to the sedimentation of the lake.

The deforestation along the rivers and involved intensive or inadequate agricultural

practices lead to further soil erosion in the LTW and boosts sedimentation and siltation. The

freshly accumulated soil could lead to an effective expansion of the wetlands adjacent to

river deltas etc., but in fact these areas are converted into farming land as soon as

practicable, including former and adjacent wetlands, which leads to the further decline of

wetlands instead of growth.

Figure 29: Total average annual sediment load into the lake by the four major tributaries (perennials) and lake outflow (1987-2000), regression line and correlation coefficient (source of data: MoWR 1999 in Ligdi

et al., 2010)

78

The weir, dams and hydropower plants, already existing and being in construction/

planning, lead to a modification of the water level of Lake Tana. The weir led on one hand to

a decrease of the water level, with strong effects on nature and humans (chapter 2.5). As a

result of the drop of the water level, the wetlands dry up earlier and/or to a greater extent

than usual, and are hence converted by famers. On the other side the lake´s annual

maximum water level increased, resulting in extreme flooding events. These modifications

of the lake water level lead to a proceeding decline of the wetlands.

Sand mining as described for Agid Kirigna is a serious threat for the wetlands along the

shoreline. At the shoreline black sand is found and excavated on a grand scale for building

purpose (especially road construction) which is resulting in the total degradation of the

shore and wetland areas and which can cause erosion. Wetlands and shoreline habitats,

before used as spawning and breeding grounds of the endemic and vulnerable fish stock in

Lake Tana and important to the avifauna, are irreversible destroyed and ecological

degraded as a consequence of the sand mining.

The spread of the invasive Eichhornia crassipes (Figure 30) could constitute a serious threat

in the future. Two years ago this plant has been recognized in the lake area for the first time

(Wondie, pers. comm.). Since that time Eichhornia crassipes spreads in the Lake and forms

floating mats covering the shoreline for example at Dembia (Megech River Outlet) and Agid

Kirigna and is suppressing the natural vegetation within some wetlands.

If the weed will develop as seen in Lake Victoria it can have tremendous effects on flora and

fauna and humans. The dense floating mats can impede water flow, resulting in an increase

of siltation and the mats inhibit the diffusion of air into water, which leads to a lower

concentration of dissolved oxygen, which in turn, together with the increased amounts of

organic detritus collected beneath the mats, can increase sediment accumulation rates and

accelerate eutrophication processes (Chamier et al., 2012). And the mats create a prime

habitat for mosquitoes, known to disperse malaria, and even for a special snail that is host

to a parasitic flatworm (Schistosoma species) which causes bilharzia (Mailu, 2001).

This is especially known from Lake Victoria, where increased incidents of malaria and

bilharzia are observed (Mailu, 2001). The weed can affect fishery too, by blocking access to

the beaches and starving the water of oxygen, which can lead to the death of fishes (Othina

79

et al., 2003). Furthermore, the weed impacts lakeside communities due to the fact that

accessibility to land and water are hindered, which affects cargo and human transportation

and water quality of pumped water is

lowered by blocking of the pump (Mailu,

2001).

If the plant is managed properly, it can be

used in a positive way generating positive

effects, for example by being used as

fodder for cattle or in biogas production.

Farmers (pers. comm.) at Lake Tana

gained different experiences with the

water hyacinth as fodder. Some of them

reported that the cattle were highly interested in the plant as fodder, whereas others

reported that cattle and sheep refused the plant completely. Additionally the mats may

provide habitats for fish species that were vulnerable due to overfishing and that are kind of

protected by the mats that are inaccessible for fishermen, and for fish species that can cope

with low oxygen conditions under the floating mats. Moreover the mats might provide

suitable breeding grounds for the fishes (Mailu, 2001).

Besides that Eichhornia crassipes has the ability to efficiently reduce the concentrations of

metals (Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd) in water after their entry into an unpolluted fresh water body

(Smolyakov, 2012), which could be of use for the biocleaning of industrial wastewater.

The future spreading of Eichhornia crassipes needs to be controlled and, if needed

suppressed. If necessary the plant needs to be removed, either mechanical or by biological

control via insects that feed exclusively on Eichhornia crassipes.

Figure 30: Eichhornia crassipes near Megech River outlet

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6 SUMMARY

6.1 English summary Lake Tana, Ethiopia´s largest lake, is surrounded by wetlands and floodplains being of great

importance for the region.

This thesis is embedded into a project of Michael Succow Foundation and Germany’s

Nature Conservation Alliance (NABU) aiming to establish a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

within the Lake Tana Region to protect the irreplaceable nature, the cultural heritage and to

open alternative income generation opportunities for the people living in this region.

The land cover in the Lake Tana Area is dominated by cultivated land and only little pristine

nature is left. The wetlands adjacent to the lake are supposed to constitute an important

foundation for the identification of core and buffer zones within the concept of a Biosphere

Reserve Lake Tana.

On the basis of this consumption the ambitions of this thesis were:

• Investigation of the vegetation communities of the wetlands adjacent to the lake

• Assessment and evaluation of the vegetation types within the wetlands

investigated, focussing on occurring bird species within these types, embedded in

an extensive literature research

• Giving reliable statements in regard to biodiversity, disturbance & potential threats

The study area lies in the north-western range of the ethiopian highlands. Lake Tana is fed

by 4 main tributaries (perennial), altogether 61 streams contribute water to the lake, and it

is the source of the Blue Nile. The climate is dominated by one main rainy season running

from June to September and one dry season running from October to May. During the rainy

season 80 % of the annual rainfall (1089 mm) is provided. This results in the flooding of

floodplains and wetlands during the rainy and post-rainy season. The wetlands and

floodplains are of great importance to the birds in the Lake Tana Area. Lake Tana is one of

the main wintering areas in Ethiopia especially Common Cranes (Grus grus) have one of

their main wintering areas at Lake Tana. The lake area harbours more than 200 bird species,

among them threatened species, such as Black Crowned Crane (Balearica pavonina),

81

Wattled Crane (Grus carunculatus), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Lesser Flamingo

(Phoenicopterus minor), Rouget´s Rail (Rougetius rougetii), White-collared Pigeon (Columba

albitorques) and Black-winged Lovebird (Agapornis taranta).

To give a representative analyses of the wetlands 10 transects along the lakeshore were

under examination. To classify the vegetation altogether 64 relevés were sampled between

September and November 2011.

Vegetation types were classified by hand-sorting of the raw-table to achieve the arranged,

characterised and differentiated table for further interpretation of the ecological species

groups (Glavac, 1996). Bird species were assigned to the obtained vegetation types, to

highlight the importance of the wetlands.

As a result 5 vegetation types were obtained, the Cyperus papyrus - Typha latifolia - Reed,

the Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed, the Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var.

caerulea - Meadow, the Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Meadow and the Echinochloa -

Meadow.

The main ecological gradients, influencing the composition of the vegetation of the

wetlands are water depth and the impact of human utilization. The latter is increasingly

threatening the natural wetlands.

The different vegetation types serve as important feeding, breeding and roosting sites for

the bird species occurring in the Lake Tana Area. Black Crowned Crane and Wattled Crane

are highly dependent on those wetlands. Especially the reeds are important as breeding

sites, whilst the other types are used for feeding and roosting. The wintering Common

Cranes have their main feeding and roosting sites in the floodplains that are converted into

agricultural land. The reeds are restricted to areas that have deep water levels and do not

fall dry during the seasons. Due to the deep water levels those areas are more or less

inaccessible and hence are to a lesser degree degraded and disturbed. The meadows fall

completely dry in vast areas during the dry season and are converted into agricultural land

as soon as possible and are additionally used as intensive grazing areas during and after the

rainy season. Nevertheless the reeds are threatened too due to habitat loss and degradation

and over-harvesting. The wetlands adjacent to the lake are seriously threatened by habitat

degradation and loss, over-grazing, over-harvesting, inadequate agricultural practices, sand

mining, man-made modifications of the lake level, irrigation, sedimentation, soil erosion,

siltation and the spread of the invasive species Eichhornia crassipes.

82

In the context of the future Biosphere Reserve Lake Tana the existing wetlands considered

worthy of protection should be zoned as core and buffer zones. They offer important

services for the whole region and are of great importance for the existence of the

ecosystem Lake Tana.

6.2 Deutsche Zusammenfassung

Lake Tana, Äthiopiens größter See, ist umgeben von Feuchtgebieten und

Überschwemmungsebenen die von großer Bedeutung für die gesamte Region sind.

Diese Diplomarbeit ist Teil eines Projektes der Michael Succow Stiftung und des NABU, mit

dem Ziel ein UNESCO Biosphären Reservat in der Lake Tana Region einzurichten, um die

unersetzbare Natur und das Kulturerbe zu erhalten und neue Einkommensmöglichkeiten für

die Menschen in der Region zu generieren.

Das Gebiet um den See ist dominiert von Acker- und Weideland und nur ein kleiner Teil der

ursprünglichen, natürlichen Vegetation ist erhalten geblieben.

Aus diesem Grund werden die Feuchtgebiete um den See als wichtige Grundsteine für das

Ausweisen von Kern und Pufferzonen innerhalb eines potentiellen Biosphärenreservats

angesehen.

Auf Basis dieser Annahme war das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit:

• Eine Untersuchung der Vegetationsgesellschaften der Feuchtgebiete

• Eine Klassifizierung und Bewertung von Vegetationstypen, mit Fokus auf

existierende Vogelarten, im Zusammenhang mit einer intensiven Literaturrecherche

• Verlässliche Aussagen zu Artenvielfalt, Störung und Bedrohungen zu geben

Das Untersuchungsgebiet liegt im nord-westlichen Bereich des äthiopischen Hochlandes.

Der See wird gespeist von 4 Hauptflüssen, insgesamt speisen 61 Zuflüsse ihr Wasser in den

See, und den einzigen Abfluss des Sees bildet der Blaue Nil.

Das Klima ist bestimmt von einer Hauptregenzeit von Juni bis Oktober und der Trockenzeit

von November bis Mai. Während der Regenzeit fallen 80 % des jährlichen Niederschlags,

der 1089 mm beträgt. Das resultiert in einem Anstieg des Seewasserstandes, was zu einer

83

Flutung der Feuchtgebiete und Überschwemmungsebenen während und nach der

Regenzeit führt.

Die Feuchtgebiete und Überschwemmungsebenen sind von großer Bedeutung für die am

See vorkommenden Vögel. Lake Tana ist eins der Hauptüberwinterungsgebiete in

Äthiopien, und stellt besonders für den Eurasischen Kranich (Grus grus) eines der beiden

Hauptüberwinterungsgebiete in Äthiopien dar. Im Lake Tana Gebiet wurden über 200

Vogelarten beobachtet, darunter auch bedrohte Arten wie Kronenkranich (Balearica

pavonina), Klunkerkranich (Grus carunculatus), Uferschnepfe (Limosa limosa),

Zwergflamingo (Phoenicopterus minor), Rougetralle (Rougetius rougetii), Amharentaube

(Columba albitorques) und Tarantapapagei (Agapornis taranta).

Um eine repräsentative Analyse der Feuchtgebiete zu geben, wurden 10 Transekte entlang

des Seeufers gelegt und untersucht. Um die Vegetation zu klassifizieren wurden zwischen

September und November 2012 64 Relevés kartiert.

Die Vegetationstypen wurden klassifiziert durch Handsortierung der Rohtabelle, klassischer

vegetationsökologischer Arbeit, um eine geordnete, charakterisierte und differenzierte

Vegetationstabelle zu erhalten, deren ökologische Artengruppen der weiteren

Interpretation bedürfen (Glavac, 1996). Ausgewählte, in den Feuchtgebieten vorkommende

Vogelarten wurden den erhaltenen Vegetationstypen zugeordnet, um die Bedeutung der

Feuchtgebiete für die Avifauna hervorzuheben.

Insgesamt wurden 5 verschiedene Vegetationstypen klassifiziert, das Cyperus papyrus -

Typha latifolia - Röhricht, das Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Röhricht, die

Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Wiese, die Ipomoea aquatica - Poaceae - Flur

und die Echinochloa - Flur.

Die wesentlichen ökologischen Gradienten die die Zusammensetzung der Vegetation in den

Feuchtgebieten beeinflussen sind Wasserstand und der Einfluss menschlicher Nutzung.

Letztere stellt eine zunehmende Bedrohung für die mehr oder weniger ursprünglichen

Feuchtgebiete dar.

Diese Vegetationstypen stellen wichtige Brut-, Futter- und Schlafplätze für die am Tana

vorkommenden Vogelarten dar. Kronenkranich und Klunkerkranich und weitere

Vogelarten, die spezialisiert sind auf das Leben in Feuchtgebieten, sind extreme abhängig

vom Fortbestand dieser Feuchtgebiete. Gerade die Röhrichte stellen wichtige Nist-

/Brutplätze für die Kraniche dar, während die anderen Typen vorwiegend als Futter- und

84

Schlafplätze genutzt werden. Die überwinternden Eurasischen Kraniche haben ihre

Hauptfutter- und Schlafplätze in den zu Acker- und Weideland konvertierten

Überschwemmungsebenen.

Die Röhrichte sind beschränkt auf Gebiete deren Wasserstand hoch ist und die auch in der

Trockenzeit nicht trocken fallen. Durch die hohen Wasserstände sind diese Gebiete mehr

oder weniger unzugänglich und daher weniger degradiert und gestört. Während die Wiesen

und Fluren in großen Gebieten während der Trockenzeit trocken fallen und umgehend in

landwirtliche Flächen konvertiert werden und auch schon während und nach der Regenzeit

als intensive Weideflächen genutzt werden. Nichtsdestotrotz sind auch die Röhrichte in

Ausbreitung und Bestand bedroht, resultierend aus Habitatverlust und -degradierung sowie

Übernutzung. Die Feuchtgebiete am Lake Tana sind bedenklich bedroht durch

Habitatverlust und -degradierung, Überweidung, Übererntung, mangelhaften

Bewirtschaftungspraktiken, Sandgewinnung, vom Menschen induzierte Veränderungen des

Seewasserspiegels, Bewässerungsvorhaben, Sedimentierung, Bodenerosion, Versandung

und die Ausbreitung der invasiven Art Eichhornia crassipes.

Im Kontext des künftigen Biosphären Reservats Lake Tana sollten die existierenden, als

schützenswert eingestuften Feuchtgebiete als Kern- und Pufferzonen ausgewiesen werden.

Sie erbringen wichtige Dienste für die gesamte Region und sind von großer Bedeutung für

das Bestehen des Ökosystems Lake Tana.

85

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Annex 1: Species list of vegetation types

1. Typha latifolia - Cyperus papyrus - Reed

Typha latifolia Cyperus papyrus Phragmites australis et karka Ceratophyllum demersum Polygonum species Vossia cuspidata


Phragmites australis et karka Polygonum species Ceratophyllum demersum Potamogeton species Vossia cuspidata


Poaceae species Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea Phragmites australis et karka Ceratophyllum demersum Polygonum species Potamogeton species Vossia cuspidata Cyperus species Ludwigia species Nymphoides species


Ipomoea aquatica Poaceae species Nymphoides species Eleocharis species Eleusine africana Nymphaea lotus Trifolium species Cyperus macrostachyos Echinochloa pyramidalis Eichhornia crassipes

5. Echinochloa – Meadow

Echinochloa pyramidalis Echinochloa crus-galli Cyperus macrostachyos Eichhornia crassipes Lemna species

Annex 2: Final constancy table (on CD)

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Annex 3: Species list of assessed vascular plants

Bidens macroptera Ceratophyllum demersum Commelina species Cyperus dives Cyperus macrostachyos Cyperus papyrus Cyperus species Echinochloa crus-galli Echinochloa pyramidalis Eichhornia crassipes Eleocharis species Eleusine africana Hydrocotyle ranunculoides Ipomoea aquatica Juncus species Lemna species Ludwigia species

Nymphaea lotus Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea Nymphoides species Oryza species Ottelia ulvifolia Phragmites australis et karka Pistia stratiotes Poaceae species Polygonum species Potamogeton species Pychnostachys coerulea Schoenoplectus species Sonchus asper Trifolium species Typha latifolia Vossia cuspidata Xanthium strumarium

Annex 4: Species list of birds occurring in LTW

Source of data: Francis & Aynalem, 2007 & Beisenherz, Schröder, & Walter, 2009, IUCN, 2012, Paul Vinke (pers.comm.) 1 - Typha latifolia - Cyperus papyrus - Reed 2 - Phragmites australis et karka - Polygonum - Reed 3 - Poaceae - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea - Meadow 4 - Ipomoea aquatica – Poaceae - Meadow 5 - Echinochloa – Meadow (DS) – Dry Season

92

Scientific Name: Common Name: Season: Affinity to vegetation

type:

IUCN Category:

Acrocephalus gracilirostris Lesser Swamp

Warbler resident

1

Least Concern


Sedge Warbler wintering 2,3,4 Least Concern

Acrocephalus scirpaceus Eurasian Reed

Warbler wintering 1,2,3

Least Concern

Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper

wintering 3,4,5 Least Concern

Actophilornis africanus African Jacana resident 3,4 Least Concern

Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher

resident 3,4 Least Concern

Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptien Goose resident 3,4 Least Concern

Amandava subflava Orange-breasted (Zebra) Waxbill


Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake resident 1,2 Least Concern Anas acuta Northern Pintail wintering 3,4 Least Concern

Anas clypeata Northern Shoveller

wintering 3,4 Least Concern

Anas crecca Common Teal wintering 3,4 Least Concern Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Teal resident 2,3,4 Least Concern

Anas penelope Eurasian Widgeon wintering 3,4 Least Concern Anas querquedula Garganey wintering 3,4 Least Concern

Anastomus lamelligerus African Openbill resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern Anhinga rufa African Darter resident 1,2,3 Least Concern

Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Anthus cervinus Red-throated

Pipit wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Anthus leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Anthus richardi Richard´sPipit resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Aquila clanga Greater Spotted

Eagle wintering (1,2,3,4,5) Vulnerable

Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Wintering & resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern Ardea goliath Goliath Heron resident 1,3,4 Least Concern

Ardea melanocephala Black-headed

Heron resident 2,3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Wintering & resident 1,2,3 Least Concern

Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron Resident & wintering

1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Balearica pavonina Black Crowned

Crane resident 1,2,3,4,5 Vulnerable

Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Bradypterus baboecala Little Rush

Warbler resident 4,5 Least Concern

Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Resident & wintering


Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane resident 1,2,3,4,5 Vulnerable

Burhinus senegalensis Senegal Thick-

Knee resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Butorides striata Green-backed

Heron resident 1,2,3 Least Concern

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Calidris minuta Little Stint wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

93

Casmerodius albus Great White Egret Resident & wintering


Centropus monachus Blue-headed

Coucal resident 1,2 Least Concern

Ceryle rudis African Pied

Kingfisher resident 1,2,3 Least Concern

Charadrius dubius Little Ringed

Plover wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Charadrius hiaticula Common Ringed

Plover wintering 3,4,5 (DS)

Least Concern

Charadrius pecuarius Kittlitz's Plover resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded

Plover resident

3,4,5 (DS)

Least Concern

Chlidonia hybrida Whiskered Tern wintering 3,4 Least Concern

Chlidonia leucopterus White-winged

Tern wintering

3,4 Least Concern

Ciconia ciconia White Stork wintering 4,5 Least Concern

Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked

Stork resident 4,5

Least Concern

Ciconia nigra Black Stork wintering 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Circus aeruginosus Eurasian Marsh-

Harrier wintering 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Montagu's

Harrier

Cisticola eximius Black-backed

Cisticola resident 4,5

Least Concern

Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola resident (3,4 DS) 5 Least Concern

Cisticola lugubris Ethiopian Cisticola

resident 3+4 (DS) 5 Least Concern

Corvus capensis Cape Crow resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Coturnix coturnix Common Quail Wintering & resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Whistling

Duck resident 3,4 Least Concern

Dendrocygna viduata White-faced

Whistling Duck resident 3,4

Least Concern

Egretta garzetta Little Egret wintering 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern Ephippiorhynchus

senegalensis Saddle-billed

Stork resident 3,4,5 Least Concern

Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill resident 3,4

Least Concern

Euplectes afer Yellow-crowened

Bishop resident 1,2,3,4

Least Concern

Euplectes axillaris Fan-tailed Widowbird


Euplectes capensis Yellow Bishop resident 2,3,5 Least Concern Euplectes orix Red Bishop resident 1,2 Least concern

Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel Wintering & resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Francolinus erckelii Erckel's Spurfowl resident Least Concern

Fulica cristata Red-knobbed

Coot resident 3 Least Concern

Galerida theklae Thekla Lark resident Least Concern Gallinago nigripennis African Snipe resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Gallinula angulata Lesser Moorhen resident 1,2,3 Least Concern

Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen

Resident & wintering


94

Glareola pratincola Collared

Pratincole Resident & wintering

3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Grus grus Common Crane wintering 3,4,5, Least Concern Gypaetus barbatus Bearded Vulture resident Least Concern

Gyps africanus White-backed

Vulture resident Endangered

Gyps rueppellii Rüppell's Vulture resident Endangered Halcyon chelicuti Striped Kingfisher resident Least Concern

Halcyon leucocephala Grey-headed

Kingfisher resident Least Concern

Halcyon senegalensis Woodland Kingfisher

resident

Least Concern

Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged

Stilt wintering 3,4 (5) Least Concern

Hirundo aethiopica Ethiopian Swallow

resident Least Concern

Hirundo daurica Red-rumped

Swallow resident Least Concern

Hirundo fuligula Rock Martin resident Least Concern Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Hirundo senegalensis Mosque Swallow resident Least Concern

Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed


Indicator minor Lesser

Honeyguide resident Least Concern

Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern wintering & resident 1,2,3 Least Concern Kaupifalco

monogrammicus Lizard Buzzard resident Least Concern

Lagonosticta senegala Red-billed Firefinch


Lamprotornis chalybaeus Greater Blue-eared Starling


Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical Boubou resident Least Concern

Lanius collaris Common Fiscal resident Least Concern

Lanius excubitoroides Grey-backed

Fiscal resident 2 (DS) Least Concern

Lanius isabellinus Red-tailed Shrike wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Lanius nubicus Masked Shrike resident Least Concern

Lanius senator Woodchat Shrike wintering Least Concern

Larus fuscus Lesser Black-backed Gull

wintering Least Concern

Larus ichthyaetus Greater Black-

headed Gull wintering Least Concern

Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork resident 3,4,5 Least Concern

Limosa limosa Black-tailed

Godwit wintering 3,4,(5)

Near threatened

Lonchura cucullata Bronze Mannikin resident Least Concern

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested

Eagle resident Least Concern

Lybius bidentatus Double-toothed

Barbet resident

Least Concern

Lybius guifsobalito Black-billed

Barbet resident Least Concern

95

Lybius undatus Banded Barbet resident Least Concern Megaceryle maxima Giant Kingfisher resident 1 Least Concern

Melaenornis edolioides Northern Black

Flycatcher resident Least Concern

Melierax metabates Dark Chanting

Goshawk resident Least Concern

Merops nubicus Northern

Carmine Bee-Eater


Merops pusillus Little Bee-Eater resident Least Concern

Merops variegatus Blue-breasted

Bee-Eater resident Least Concern

Mesophoyx intermedia Yellow-billed

Egret resident 1,3,4,5 Least Concern

Mesopicos goertae Grey-headed Woodpecker


Microparra capensis Lesser Jacana vagrant 3,4 Least Concern Milvus migrans Black kite resident Least Concern

Mirafra rufocinnamomea Flappet Lark resident Least Concern

Monticola rufocinereus Little Rock-

Thrush resident Least Concern

Monticola semirufa White-winged

Cliff-Chat


Motacilla aguimp African Pied

Wagtail resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Motacilla alba White Wagtail wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Motacilla clara Mountain Wagtail resident Least Concern Motacilla flava

Motacilla f. feldegg Yellow Wagtail wintering 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Muscicapa adusta African Dusty


Muscicapa striata Spotted

Flycatcher wintering Least Concern

Mycteria ibis Yellow-billed

Stork resident 3,4,5 Least Concern

Myrmecocichla melaena Rueppell's Chat resident Least Concern Necrosyrtes monachus Hooded Vulture resident Endangered

Nectarinia senegalensis Scarlet-chested

Sunbird resident Least Concern

Nectarinia tacazze Tacazze Sunbird resident Least Concern Neophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture resident & wintering Endangered Netta erythrophthalma Southern Pochard resident 3,4 Least Concern

Nettapus auritus African Pygmy

Goose resident 3,4

Least Concern

Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned

Night Heron resident 1,2,3,4,5

Least Concern

Oena capensis Namaqua Dove resident Least Concern Oenanthe bottae Botta's Wheatear resident Least Concern

Oenanthe cypriaca Cyprus Wheatear resident Least Concern

Oenanthe hispanica Black-eared

Wheatear resident Least Concern

Oenanthe isabellina Isabelline Wheatear


Oenanthe lugens Mourning Wheatear


Oenanthe oenanthe Northern wintering Least Concern

96

Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka Pied Wheatear wintering Least Concern

Onychognathus albirostris

White-billed Starling


Onychognathus tenuirostris

Slender-billed Starling


Oriolus monacha Dark-headed

Oriole resident Least Concern

Oriolus monacha Ethopian Oriole Resident, Endemic to Eitrea & Ethiopia

Least Concern

Ortygospiza atricollis African Quailfinch resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern Pandion haliaetus Osprey resident Least Concern Parus leuconotus White-backed Tit resident Least Concern

Passer swainsonii Swainson's

Sparrow resident Least Concern

Pelecanus onocrotalus Great White

Pelican Resident & wintering

1 Least Concern

Pelecanus rufescens Pink-backed

Pelican resident 1,2,3

Least Concern

Petronia dentata Bush Petronia resident Least Concern



Phalacrocorax carbo Great Cormorant Wintering & resident 1 Least Concern Philomachus pugnax Ruff wintering 3,4,5 Least Concern

Phoeniconaias minor Lesser Flamingo wintering Near

Threatened Phoenicopterus roseus Greater Flamingo Wintering & resident Least Concern

Phoeniculus purpureus Green Wood-

Hoopoe resident Least Concern

Phoeniculus somaliensis Black-billed

Wood-Hoopoe resident Least Concern

Phoenicurus phoenicurus Common Redstart


Phylloscopus collybita Common Chiffchaff


Platalea alba African Spoonbill resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Platysteira cyanea Brown-throated

Wattle-eye resident Least Concern

Plectropterus gambensis Spur winged

Goose resident 3,4,5 Least Concern

Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis Resident & wintering


Ploceus baglafecht Baglafecht

Weaver resident Least Concern

Ploceus cucullatus Village (Black-

headed) Weaver resident 1

Least Concern

Ploceus melanocephalus Black-headed

Weaver resident 1,2 Least Concern

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled

Weaver resident Least Concern

Pogoniulus chrysoconus Yellow-fronted

Tinkerbird resident Least Concern

Poicephalus flavifrons Yellow-fronted

Parrot resident

Least Concern

Polyboroides typus African Harrier-

Hawk resident Least Concern

97

Porphyrio alleni Allen’s gallinule


Porzana parva Little Crake

resident 3 Least Concern

Prinia subflava Tawny-flanked

Prinia resident

Least Concern

Pseudhirundo griseopyga Grey-rumped


Psophocichla litsitsirupa Groundscraper

Thrush resident Least Concern

Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul resident Least Concern Rallus caerulescens African Rail resident 2,3,5 Least Concern

Recurvirostra avosetta Pied Avocet wintering & resident 3,4 Least Concern Rhinopomastus

cyanomelas Common

Scimitarbill resident Least Concern

Rhinopomastus minor Abyssinian scimitarbill


Riparia cincta Banded Martin resident 2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Riparia paludicola Brown-throated

Martin resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Riparia riparia Sand Martin wintering 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Rougetius rougetii Rouget's Rail resident 5 Near

Threatened Sarkidiornis melanotos Knob-billed Duck resident 3,4 Least Concern

Saxicola torquatus Common

Stonechat resident Least Concern

Scopus umbretta Hamerkop resident 2,3,4,5 Least Concern Serinus citrinelloides African Citril resident 2 Least Concern

Serinus nigriceps Ethiopian (Black-

headed) Siskin resident,endemic

Least Concern

Serinus striolatus Streaky Seed-

Eater resident Least Concern

Serinus tristriatus Brown-rumped

Seed-Eater resident

Least Concern

Serinus xanthopygius (Abyssinian)

Yellow-rumped Seed-Eater

resident, Endemic to N- Ethiopia and

Eritrea Least Concern

Sterna caspia Caspian Tern Resident & wintering

Least Concern

Sterna hirundo Common Tern Wintering & resident Least Concern Sterna nilotica Gull-billed Tern Wintering & resident 3,4,5 Least Concern

Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich Tern wintering Least Concern Stigmatopelia senegalensis

Laughing Dove resident Least Concern

Streptopelia decipiens African Morning

Dove resident Least Concern

Streptopelia lugens Dusky Turtle-

Dove resident Least Concern

Streptopelia semitorquata Red Eyed Dove resident Least concern Streptopelia semitorquata Red-eyed Dove resident Least Concern

Streptopelia vinacea Vinaceous Dove resident Least Concern Sylvia atricapilla Eurasian Blackcap wintering Least Concern

Sylvia curruca Lesser

Whitethroat wintering Least Concern

Sylvia lugens Brown Parisoma resident Least Concern Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Wintering & resident (1,2,3,4) Least Concern

98

Tauraco leucotis White-cheeked

Turaco resident Least Concern

Tchagra senegalus Black-crowned

Tchagra resident Least Concern

Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur resident Near

Threatened

Terpsiphone viridis African Paradise


Thalassornis leuconotus White-backed

Duck resident

2,3,4

Least Concern

Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris

Mocking Cliff-Chat


Threskiornis aethiopicus African Sacred

Ibis resident 1,2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Threskiornis aethiopicus Sacred Ibis resident Least Concern

Tockus hemprichii Hemprich's

Hornbill resident Least Concern

Tockus nasutus African Grey

Hornbill resident Least Concern

Torgos tracheliotos Lappet-faced

Vulture resident Vulnerable

Treron waalia Bruce's Green

Pigeon resident Least Concern

Trigonoceps occipitalis White-headed

Vulture resident

Vulnerable

Tringa erythropus Spotted

Redshank wintering 3,4 Least Concern

Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper wintering 2,3,4,5 Least Concern

Tringa nebularia Common

Greenshank wintering 3,4,5 Least Concern

Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper wintering 3,4,5 Least Concern Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper wintering 2,3,4,5 Least Concern Turdus olivaceus Olive Thrush resident Least Concern

Turtur afer Blue-sptotted Wood-Dove

resident Least

Cooncern

Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove resident

Least Concern

Tyto alba Barn Owl resident Least Concern Upupa epops Eurasian Hoopoe wintering Least Concern

Uraeginthus bengalus Red-cheeked Cordonbleu


Vanellus melanopterus Black-winged

Lapwing resident Least Concern

Vanellus senegallus

African Wattled Lapwing /

Senegal Wattled Plover

resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Vanellus spinosus Spur Winged

Lapwing resident 3,4,5 (DS) Least Concern

Vidua chalybeata Village Indigobird resident Least Concern

Vidua macroura Pin Tailed Whydah

resident 2 Least Concern

Zosterops abyssinicus Abyssinian White-

eye resident Least Concern

Zosterops poliogastrus Montane White-

eye resident Least Concern

99

Erklärung zur Diplomarbeit

Ich versichere an Eides statt, dass ich die Diplomarbeit mit dem Thema:

Wetlands around Lake Tana: A landscape and avifaunistic study

selbstständig verfasst und keine anderen Hilfsmittel als die angegebenen verwendet habe.

Die Stellen, die anderen Werken dem Wortlaut oder dem Sinne nach entnommen sind,

habe ich in jedem Falle durch Angaben der Quelle, auch der Sekundärliteratur, als

Entlehnung kenntlich gemacht.

Greifswald, den 17.09.2012

Unterschrift

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