Engliskfor Specific Purposrs. Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 31-43, 1987 0889-4906/87 $3.00 + .OO Pergamon Journals Ltd. F’rinted in the USA. Copyright 0 1987 The Amencan Uwersity

What Rules Govern Tense Usage in Scientific Articles? l

Lois Malcolm

Absstract-This paper addresses the question of whether tense usage in EST discourse is governed by (a) rhetorical functions unique to a particular genre, for example, the genre of journal articles, or (b) the some temporal meanings govern- ing tense choice in general English. It analyzes 20 articles from the Journal of Pediatrics and postulates that a comprehensive analysis of tense choice in EST discourse is needed that specifies a hierarchical relationship between context- dependent rhetorical functions, context-independent temporal meanings, and, tinally, actual tense choices.

Because this analysis outlines the optional rhetorical choices and obligatory temporal constraints affecting tense usage, it allows us to predict when authors can choose the temporal identity of a referent and when they cannot. Such an analysis highlights an important feature of EST discourse, which is that, under certain conditions, authors can choose the temporal identity of a referent depend- ing on their rhetorical purposes.

Introduction

A number of studies have provided functional accounts for tense usage in EST discourse (e.g., Lackstrom, Selinker, & Trimble, 1973; Oster, 1981; Selinker, Todd, & Trimble, 1976; Selinker, Trimble, L., & Trimble, M. T., 1978; Swales, 1981). Lackstrom, Selinker, and Trimble (1970) have asserted that tense choice in EST might not be dependent on “time lines as most textbook presentations presuppose, but on rhetorical and subject matter considerations,” such as the level of generality given to a statement (p. 104). Most recently, Trimble (1985) has presented three “non-temporal” uses of tense: (a) describing apparatus, (b) making text references to a visual aid, and (c) referring to previously published research (pp. 123- 124).

Conversely, Comrie (1985) asserts that the basic temporal meaning of a tense remains constant regardless of its use in particular contexts. According to this perspective, the interpretations a tense may receive in a specific context are best accounted for linguistically, not solely in terms of its contextual uses, but rather in terms of the interaction between context-independent meaning and context- dependent use.

This study analyzes 20 experimental reports from the behavioral pediatrics section of the Journal of Pediatrics (see Appendix). It asserts that while tenses can be correlated with rhetorical uses unique to the genre of a journal article, these correlations can be accounted for by the same temporal meanings and uses

1 An earlier draft of this paper was submitted to fulfdl the master’s degree requirements at the University of

Minnesota. Another draft was presented at the TESOL Convention in 1986. The comments of the author’s oral

examination committee, George Yule, Gerald Sanders, and especially those of her adviser, Elaine Tarone, have been

helpful in writing drafts of this paper. Addresscorrespondence to: L. Malcolm, Department of Anthropology, Bethel College. 3900 Bethel Drive, St. Paul.

MN 55112, USA.

31

32 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC F?JRPOSES

attributed to tense categories in general English. Thus, a comprehensive frame- work is needed for understanding tense usage in such writing, one that specifies a hierarchical relationship between context-dependent functions, context-inde- pendent temporal meanings, and the realization of these in tense.

Such a framework also provides us with tools for examining an inherent feature of EST discourse: Under certain conditions, EST writers are able to manipulate the temporal identity of a referent, that is, they can present temporal references to aspects of the research process in a way that advances their own perspective. How does this occur? A defining characteristic of science is that ideas are only made valid though experience, that is, empirical investigation. The experimental report is a forum for discussing the implications specific studies may have for developing theory; it is a forum for hammering out the distinction between ideas and experiences. Consequently, the decision of whether to refer to aspects of the research process as “timeless” or at least “omnitemporal” generalizations, on the one hand, or as timebound results and procedures, on the other, is often left to the individual writers themselves. This paper, therefore, also proposes that an adequate theory of tense usage in EST discourse needs to account not only for obligatory constraints on tense usage, but also for the strategic choices that provide authors with the capability of manipulating tem- poral references for their own rhetorical purposes.

Framework for Analysis

As a framework for interpreting our findings, let us suggest that writers have at their disposal a hierarchy of sociolinguistic categories that both constrain and provide options for expressing meaning. This hierarchy is organized in such a way that the set of categories at a higher level affects the possible range of categories at a lower level (cf. “rhetorical process development” in Selinker et al., 1978; “meaning potential” in Halliday, 1978).

Components of the Situation

At the highest level are the components of the situation within which an experimental report occurs. Lists of components that make up the context or situation of communicative events have been provided in the sociolinguistic literature. These have included such features as medium, setting, purpose, par- ticipants, and so on (Halliday, 1978; Hymes, 1964). For our purposes we will utilize the components of jeld, the primary content or social activity expressed in the communicative event, and medium, the observable physical forms, both behaviors and written discourse, which express that content.

Rhetorical Functions

The components of the situation affect the next level of categories, the rhetor- ical functions; that is, the components of the situation circumscribe or provide a context or rationale for the rhetorical functions. We will use the term rhetorical function to refer to the predominating illocutionary force expressed by each

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 33

clause. The criteria established for isolating specific rhetorical functions will be based on a distinction between two axes of orientation: the referential axis and the deictic axis.

The referential axis deals explicitly with the field of an experiment. Reference is made to the primary task an experimental report engages its participants in: presenting the procedures and results of specific experiments, placing them within the context of ongoing research, and discussing their relationship to the development of theory within, in this case, behavioral pediatrics. We can use the notion of a generality continuum to differentiate functions along this axis (Lack- Strom, Selinker, & Trimble, 1970). At one end of the continuum are ideas- statements on scientific theory and generalizations about data, as well as the author’s own hypotheses, interpretations, questions, and conclusions. At the other end are experiences-references to the results and procedures of specific experiments. Between these two ends is an intermediary stage wherein hypothe- ses are tossed around in the discipline-tested, replicated, discussed, debated.

The deictic axis, on the other hand, deals with the medium for realizing the field. This medium entails both (a) the physical acts of reading and writing, the observable activity that transpires between the reader and the writer, and(b) the physical paper itself, including both the printed discourse and charts, graphs, and other visual displays. Some examples of deictic functions would be performa- tives, like “This paper asserts that . . . ,” “Table 1 displays . . . ,” or “Rele- vant to our discussion is . . . ,” which make reference to the actual report itself.

Temporal Meanings

Having described the relationship between the two highest levels in our hierarchy, let us move to the next level down, to the temporal meanings affecting tense usage. These we will propose are governed by the same algorithm as that used in general English. Tense has been defined as the grammatical category that establishes a relationship between two time locations: the time of utterance and the time of the situation referred to (Comrie, 1985, p. 1; Lyons, 1968, pp. 304 - 306, 1977, p. 678). In order to use this definition we will need to identify these two time locations as they are expressed within an experimental report.

Time of utterance. Because an experimental report is written, the partici- pants are usually dislocated, that is, separated by time and place. Thus, an experimental report occurs within at least two “moments”: (a) the moment the writer freezes an utterance by performing a writing act and (b) the moment the reader interprets that frozen utterance.

Time of the situation referred to. The axes of orientation that we have used to categorize rhetorical functions can be used to categorize types of temporal reference as well. The deictic axis, on the one hand, deals with performatives, directives that guide the reader through reading the report. Because reference is made to situations that take place at the time of reading or writing the report, the time of the event referred to includes or coincides with the moment of utterance. The temporal references of the referential functions, on the other hand, can be placed on “the generality continuum.” One reality consists of timeless or at least

34 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

omnitemporal generalizations, ideas, or abstractions that stand either outside of time or exist for a long period of time. The other reality consists of timebound experiences, events and activities that exist within time. At an intermediary stage are the hypotheses known within a particular discipline that are still being tested in the research process.

Analysis

The first task was to correlate the tense of the finite verb in each clause with the rhetorical function expressed by that clause. Rhetorical functions were iden- tified by means of a uniform set of criteria (see Results section), and the tense of each verb was identified as being either past, present perfect, or present. (The past perfect and past progressive and the present progressive were counted as past and present tense verbs, respectively. Modals were classified as either present or present perfect.)

The second task was to test whether these tense choices can also be accounted for by the temporal meanings attributed to tense categories in general English. We therefore correlated each tense category with (a) a basic meaning for that tense category (one that is defined in terms of the relationship between the time of utterance and the time of the situation referred to) and (b) specific uses attributed to that tense category in general English.

The basic meaning of the present tense is that it refers to a situation that includes or coincides with the moment of utterance. It may refer to situations that occupy a period of time much longer than the present moment; nonetheless, the situations include the present moment within them (Bull, 1963; Comrie, 1985). In contrast, the basic meaning of the past tense is that it refers to a situation that occurred prior to the moment of utterance (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983; Comrie, 1985).

The intermediary tense, the present perfect, deals with the continuing rele- vance of a previous situation to the present moment. The perfect expresses a relation between two time points: the time of the state resulting from a prior situation and the time of that prior situation. With the present perfect, the time of the resulting state includes or coincides with the moment of utterance (Comrie, 1976; Reichenbach, 1947).

The specific uses of each tense category will be discussed in the next section.

Results

Deictic axis

Four deictic functions were identified in the experimental reports analyzed. The first function -statements of rhetorical intent-was identified by means of (a) a per-formative verb, that is, a verb whose utterance states the purpose of their report; (b) reference to the report itself; and (c) location in the introduction section of the report:

1. The purpose of this retrospective study is to describe this open approach and to

discuss the implications of such an approach, the choices made by parents and

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 35

children, and the emotional reactions observed in parents and children who were

asked to make this diicult decision. (13)a

A second deictic function - “references to nonlinguistic information in the re- port,” for example, charts, figures, and illustrations-was identified by means of (a) a performative verb whose utterance told the reader that the illustration was displaying something, (b) implicit or explicit reference to the graphic displays, and (c) location in the results section:

2. Table 1 lists several of these misunderstood terms with definitions and clinical

examples. (7)

A third deictic function was not found as often. It served the function of relating information to the current discussion in the discourse. Although a specific type of verb is not used, implied reference is made to the report itself:

3. Also of interest (to our discussion) is the fmding that the fathers of the cliical

enuretic subjects were more likely to be engaged in blue collar professions. (9)

These three deictic functions were found in the present. Using our basic defini- tion of the present tense, we could say that these functions occur in the present because the moment of utterance (the reading or writing of the report) co-occurs with the time of the situation referred to (the performative or speech act per- formed by the utterance of the clause regarding some aspect of the report itself). Two common uses of the present in general English that tie in with this function are (a) speech acts or (b) references to a present event or action that is going on at the time of speech (Comrie, 1985, pp. 36-41; Celce-Murcia & Larsen- Freeman, 1983, p. 62).

A final deictic function was found in the present perfect, namely, summaries of what has been presented in the report, identified by means of the same criteria used to identify statements of rhetorical intent but found in the discussion section of the report:

4. We hauepostutated that the biofeedback program we have outlineddoes give

the patient a sense of mastery which is essential to a favorable treatment outcome.

(4)

This function describes a state resulting from an action that started at the point of writing or reading the article and stops at the point of utterance. It therefore not only ties in with the basic meaning of the present perfect, but also ties in with a common use of the present perfect in general English: reference to an action that went over a time in the past and is completed with the moment of speech (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983, p. 64).

* The holdtace number here and elsewhere indicates the number of the example, and the number in parentheses at the end of the example indicates the article in the Appendix from where the example is taken.

36 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURFQSES

Referential Axis

The referential functions were differentiated by means of the generality con- tinuum. The criterion established for distinguishing experiences from ideas was a researcher agent expressed in one of the following forms:

a. The author’s name in subject position: “Apleyz8 found that . . .” b. Implied researcher agents of passive sentences: “ . . . neither of these

lines of analysis has been shown to be particularly fruitfu1’2-14 ” c. Nouns referring to researchers: “Previous investigators have used global

ratings by a single parent4. . .” d. Nouns referring to the products of researchers: “ . . . a finding which is

supported by one other major survey.12 ”

If a clause did have a researcher agent, then it could be further classified on the basis of whether it dealt with (a) the results and procedures of specific experi- ments (identified by a reference to one study) or (b) areas of inquiry in the field testing commonly known hypotheses (identified by a reference to more than one study).

Although the criteria we have established are merely heuristic devices for the identification of salient illocutionary force, they provide us with verifiable tools for making predictions about tense-function correlations:

Hyflothesis 1: Generalizations (indicated by verbs without “researcher” agents) will be in the #resent tense Hygothesis 2: References to specific experiments (indicated by a researcher agent and a footnote to only one study) will be in the past tense Hypothesis 3: References to areas of inquiry (indicated by a researcher agent and a footnote to more than one study) would be in the present perfect tense

Table 1 shows our results based on a count of citations of previously published research. Our predictions held true for a majority of cases. The majority of generalizations (indicated by verbs without researcher agents) were made in the present tense:

5. The cause of asthma is uncertain, but precipitants of attack may include

psychologic reactions to environmental stress.’ (5)

TABLE 1 Tense-Function Correlations Along the Referential Axis

Tense

Citations Without

Researcher Agent

(N= 52)

Citations With Researcher Agents

More Than One One Study Study (N= 79) (N= 119)

Present 74% 20% 12% Past 24% 8% 61% Present perfect 2% 72% 27%

Total 100% 100% 100%

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 37

This tense-function correlation can be accounted for by using the basic meaning of the present tense. The function refers to a situation that, even though it holds true for a long period of time, still does include the moment of utterance within it. This use also coheres with two common uses of the present tense: (a) references to habitual events or actions that hold true for a long period of time or (b) generic, omnitemporal assertions, for example, physical laws or customs (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983; Comrie, 1985; Lyons, 1977).

The majority of references to areas of inquiry (indicated by a researcher agent and a footnote to more than one study) were made in the present perfect tense:

6. A high incidence of negative psychosocial sequelae has been documented in

such patients,’ their siblings,2 and their parents.’ (8)

And here it is worth noting that Lackstrom, Selinker, and Trimble (1970) also suggest an association between the use of this tense and statements of some generality.

This function also fits in with the basic temporal meaning of the present perfect. We have said that the perfect expresses a relation between two time points. On the one hand, there is the time of the state resulting from a prior situation, which for this function would be the area of investigation being ex- plored (coinciding with the present). On the other hand, there is the time of that prior situation, that is, the actual experiments (occurring in the past). This tense-function correlation also ties in with several common uses of the present perfect in general English: as a past experience with current relevance, as a situation that started in the past and persists into the present, and as referring to a situation that has held at least before the present moment (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983; Comrie, 1976).

The majority of references to specific experiments (indicated by a researcher agent and a footnote to only one study) were made in the past tense:

7. Apleyz8 found that a large percentage of children with functional abdominal

pain were “highly strung, fussy, and excitable.” (7)

Common uses of the past tense include references to a single event/action that occurred in the past, a habitual or repeated action, or an event that occurred over a period of time prior to the moment of utterance. (Celce-Murcia & Larsen- Freeman, 1983; Comrie, 1985).

We have provided a temporal explanation for the tense-function correlations we predicted. Even so, there were a number of exceptions that did not fit our predictions. An examination of these, along with references the authors make to their own studies, shows that

a. Clauses containing a researcher agent and a “communicative” verb could be found in either the present, the past, or the present perfect

b. References to ongoing research activity could be found in either the present or the present perfect

c. An author could choose either the past or the present when referring to the results of particular experiments

38 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

In order to account for these results, we will posit a distinction between obliga- tory constraints and strategic choices in tense usage.

Constraints and Choices

Obligatory constraints are operative whenever an author refers to a situation whose temporal location is fixed. By way of contrast, strategic choices are operative when the situation referred to has several viable time locations.

One example of an obligatory constraint would be that the time location of a per-formative is restricted by the fact that the action described by the sentence takes place at the present moment:

8. Here we summarize our procedures and findings . . . (2) 9. We present the results of 6 years of observation . . . (7)

Another obligatory constraint would be a temporal adverbial occurring as a sentence element:

10a. In 1970, Carey’ introduced a technique for assessing the temperamental characteristics of young infants. (4) lob. In 1970, Carey’ has introduced . . . 10~. In 1970, Carey’ introduces . .

Still another obligatory constraint would be that theoretical statements refer to generic situations that are timeless or at least omnitemporal:

1 la. Autoerythocyte sensitization is a disease that mostly affects women, al- though the syndrome has been reported in men5 and in a few children.’ (18)

If this were stated in the past, the implication would be either that the assertion was not accepted or that the author was questioning it:

Autoerythocyte sensitization was a disease .

Conversely, references to a specific event, action, or process that occurred during an experiment can only be made in the past tense. The following example refers to a specific result in both the author experiment and another author’s research:

12a. Four of our five patients hod positive reactions: RatnofP sew positive reactions in 32 of 51 patients. (18)

If this were found in the present tense, it either would be a reference to ongoing activity, which would not necessarily be true, or would appear as though the author were using the historical present, which would be too informal for EST discourse:

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 39

12b. Four of our five patients have positive reactions; RatnoV sees positive reactions in 32 of 51 patients. (18)

Nonetheless, a corresponding strategic choice would be that the primary result of an experience can be expressed in either the present, as a theoretical state- ment, or the past, as a specific activity. The following example was found in the introduction section:

13a. In at least one study, parental tolerance of hedwetting wasassociated with premature withdrawal treatment. (9) 13b. . . parental tolerance . . is . . .

The next sentence about the author’s own study introduces the discussion section:

14a. This study found that the onset of conversion symptoms wnsusually (97%) related to some stress in the family. (7) 14b. This study found that the onset of conversion symptoms is usually (97%) related to some stress in the family.

The (a) sentences in examples (13) and (14) are treated as references to specific experiences, while the (b) sentences are treated as generalizations.

Another strategic choice would be that references to ongoing research activity in the field can be either in the present, as habitual, omnitemporal activity, or in the present perfect, as a situation that persisted in the past and continues to the moment of utterance. The first example is a description of current practice:

15a. Prematurely horn babies are sometimes given special stimulation in the hope of preventing some of the developmental disabiities frequently associated with prematurity. 15b. Prematurely horn babies have sometimes been given special stimulation in the hope of preventing some of the developmental disabilities frequently asso- ciated with prematurity. (4)

The second example deals with an area of inquiry explored by many researchers.

16. Biofeedback experiments involving children have included those giving blood pressure: skin tamperature,’ and muscle feedback.5 (1) 17. Hysterical motor symptoms described in the literature include paralysis3 posturing, lo unilateral ptosis,” . . . (7)

A final strategic choice was operative in references to previous research contain- ing a researcher agent in subject position and some kind of communicative verb. Communicative verbs deal with interactive functions of scientists; they express the interchange between scientists as they present, discuss, reformulate, evalu- ate, argue against, and comment on each other’s or their own research. Exam- ples include address, conclude, describe, challenge, firopose, report, document,

40 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

outline, cite, and point out (cf. “reporting verb,” Swales, 1981). These refer- ences could be found in the present, present perfect, or the past:

18. Brown points out that biofeedback techniques enable individuals to learn

voluntary control over autonomically regulated body functions, although such

control can also develop without the use of machines. (1)

19. Olson et al” haueproposeda conceptual system for examining family function-

ing called the “circumplex model” which is based on family systems theory. (12)

20. Gardner and Diamond’ posklatedthat a skin-sensitizing antibody develops in

response to extravasated blood, but this has not been confirmed by immunofluo-

rescent studies of biopsy specimens. (18)

A possible explanation for this choice is that reference is made to the act of presenting information to the scientific community through a published report. As a communicative event, a report has two literal time locations: the moment of reading and the moment of writing. Metaphorically, however, this event can be interpreted in a variety of time locations-as a specific event (in the past) or as an ongoing contribution (in the present).

To summarize, the obligatory constraints allow only one temporal meaning, whereas the strategic choices allow more than one temporal meaning. In the letter case, the choice of tense is ultimately a rhetorical one; the authors are free to choose the time location that best suits their purposes.

In his classic analysis of tense usage, Bull (1963) matches grammatical choices with the time of events in the physical world. Our task, however, is not as clear-cut. When strategic choices are operative, the use of tense does not merely reflect the time (or timelessness) of a situation. Rather, it defines that time: It defines a research finding’s level of generality by placing it at some point on the generality continuum.

Conclusions and Implications

This analysis has proposed a hierarchy of sociolinguistic categories in order to account for tense usage in scientific articles. At the top of the hierarchy are the components of the situation in which an experimental report occurs. These restrict the kinds of meanings, or rhetorical functions, an author can express. For our purpose of analyzing tense, we have categorized these functions in terms of two axes of reference, the deictic and the referential. The situations referred to along either of these axes are given a temporal meaning, that is, a time location in relation to the present moment. This is done because every finite verb in a general English sentence must be conjugated for tense.

So far, our description of tense has been rather straightforward. Complica- tions in interpreting tense usage, however, are inherent to the nature of scien- tific discourse. First, the two axes of reference have two completely different time locations in the real world. Second, under certain conditions, the author can choose among several time locations for situations along the referential axis.

This analysis has a number of important implications for the teaching of EST. As teachers, we need to provide students with an account of tense choice that

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 41

incorporates both context-independent temporal meanings and context-depen- dent uses. On the one hand, the same formula used for general English accounts for tense choices in EST. It is incorrect, therefore, to assert, as has been asserted in previous research on EST discourse, that these choices are nontemporal. Furthermore, our teaching loses elegance and simplicity when we do not incor- porate our explanations into a broader understanding of how English works. A list of “uses” to memorize, for example, is much easier to forget than a general understanding of how temporal references affect tense choices.

On the other hand, we have seen that the tense formula is constrained by features unique to the genre of journal articles. For example, the shift from the present to the past in the next two examples is directly related to a shift from a reference to the report itself (the deictic axis) to activities that went on during the authors’ experiment (the referential axis):

21. We present the results of 6 years of observation of mother and children

observed in a residential and outpatient program for child abuse at the New York

Foundling Hospital. The purposes of the study were to develop an observational

technique for locating high-risk mothers, and once abusers werefound to pinpoint

patterns of behavior in order to reduce the probability of recurrence of abuse. (17)

22. Table II showsthe results of the interview at discharge. There weresignificant

differences between the experimental and control mothers in all areas tapped by

the questionnaire. (4)

Another important feature that needs to be presented to students is that the temporal location of many references to the research process is one that exists only in the minds, and the verbal and written discussions, of the scientists themselves. An author, therefore, can choose, in a number of situations, a tense for his or her own rhetorical purposes. An explicit awareness of this fact is helpful both to the reader and the writer of EST discourse.

Aside from describing tense usage, this study also provides teachers with a schema for analyzing the rhetorical structure of an experimental report, The distinction between the two axes of orientation, as well as the listing of individual functions, can help students with the processes of comprehending and of com- posing experimental reports.

This study presents a somewhat different approach than has been presented in most previous research on tense in scientific discourse. Instead of solely corre- lating tense choices with rhetorical uses, an attempt has been made to incorpo- rate these correlations into a broader time-related understanding of tense. Con- sequently, the analysis of tense in EST can be incorporated into the larger investigation on the function of tense in discourse (Comrie, 1985). Implications from research on experimental reports, for instance, can be drawn not only for other scientific fields but also for other written genres, for example, narrative.

Nonetheless, the framework presented in this paper needs to be tested and redefined with more data. Moreover, this study only analyzed isolated clauses. We have therefore only been able to account for temporal and rhetorical con- straints. An analysis needs to be done on larger sections of text; there are

42 ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC Ptrfms~s

probably a number of textually based constraints, such as restrictions on the possible sequences of tense choices, that affect tense usage in the scientific articles.

(Received August 1986)

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Appendix

1. Olness, K. et al. (1980). Biofeedback: A new modality in the management of children with fecal soiling, Journal of Pediatrics, %, 503-509.

2. Minde, K. et al. (1980). Self-help groups in a premature nursery-a controlled evaluation, Journal of Pediatrics, 96, 933 - 940.

3. Kim, P. S. et al. (1980). Temperament of asthmatic children, Journal of Pediatrics, 97,483-486.

Rules of Tense Usage in Scientific Articles 43

4. Brown, J. V. et al. (1980). Nursery-based intervention with prematurely born babies and their mothers: Are there effects? Journal ofPediatrics, 97, 487 - 491.

5. Hochstadt, N. et al. (1980). Reducing hospitalizations of children with asthma, JOUY- nal ofPediatrics, 97, 1012- 1015.

6. Vaughn, B. et al. (1980). Measuring temperament in pediatric practice, Journal of Pediatrics, %(part l), 510-514.

7. Maloney, M. (1980). Diagnosing hysterical conversion reactions in children, Journal of Pediatrics, 97, 1016- 1020.

8. Mulhern, R. et al. (1981). Patterns of communication among pediatric patients with leukemia, parents, and physicians: Prognostic disagreements and misunderstand- ings, Journal of Pediatrics, 99, 480-483.

9. Couchells, S. et al. (1981). Behavioral and environmental characteristics of treated and untreated enuretic children and matched nonenuretic controls, Journal of Pedi-

atrics, 99, 812 - 816. 10. Frankenburg, W. et al. (1981). The new abbreviated and revised Denver Develop-

mental Screening Test, Journal of Pediatrics, 99, 995 - 999. 11. Lewis, B. et al. (1982). Family functioning as a mediating variable affecting psycho-

social adjustment of children with cystic fibrosis, Journal of Pediatrics, 101, 636- 640.

12. Zeltzer, L. (1982). Hypnosis and nonhypnotic techniques for reduction of pain and anxiety during painful procedures in children and adolescents with cancer, Journal of Pediatrics, 101. 1032 - 1035.

13. Nitschke, R. et al. (1982). Therapeutic choices made by patients with end-stage cancer, Journal of Pediatrics, 101, 471-476.

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Lois Malcolm has an MA in ESL and currently teaches linguistics and ESL at Bethel College, St. Paul, MN. Her current interests include pragmatics and second language acquisition research. Previously she was a teacher-supervisor in the Philippines.