What should we be teaching? What should we be teaching?

Dr Grant KleemanDr Grant KleemanSenior Lecturer in EducationSenior Lecturer in EducationMacquarie University – SydneyMacquarie University – Sydney

Geography: What should we be teaching?Geography: What should we be teaching?

• The nature of curriculumThe nature of curriculum

• Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues

• A personal viewA personal view

• DiscussionDiscussion

“As a young man, my fondest dream was to become a geographer. However, while working in the customs office I thought deeply about the matter and concluded it was too difficult a subject. With some reluctance I then turned to physics as a substitute.”

Albert Einstein

Presentation structure:Presentation structure:

The nature of curriculumThe nature of curriculum

Underlying assumptionsUnderlying assumptions

Geography curriculum documents, through their Geography curriculum documents, through their content and form, represent a particular construction content and form, represent a particular construction of reality – the means by which a subset of all of reality – the means by which a subset of all available geographical knowledge is selected and available geographical knowledge is selected and organised. They embody what Williams (1977) organised. They embody what Williams (1977) refers to as the “selective tradition” – someone’s refers to as the “selective tradition” – someone’s selection, someone’s vision of legitimate knowledge selection, someone’s vision of legitimate knowledge and culture, one that in the process of enfranchising and culture, one that in the process of enfranchising one group’s cultural capital disenfranchises one group’s cultural capital disenfranchises another’s.another’s.

Curriculum-related documents are the product of a Curriculum-related documents are the product of a series of trade-offs and compromises between series of trade-offs and compromises between competing positions and interests. They represent a competing positions and interests. They represent a consensus or ‘settlements of contestations’. There are consensus or ‘settlements of contestations’. There are – embedded in their underlying philosophy, their – embedded in their underlying philosophy, their structure and wording – ‘echoes’ or traces of the structure and wording – ‘echoes’ or traces of the debates and, in some cases, conflicts that characterise debates and, in some cases, conflicts that characterise the curriculum development process. the curriculum development process.

Syllabuses as “settlements of Syllabuses as “settlements of contestation”contestation”

Thus:• curriculum does not stand apart from the era curriculum does not stand apart from the era

and context in which it is developedand context in which it is developed• syllabus documents can be viewed as social syllabus documents can be viewed as social

and political artifacts, an analysis of which and political artifacts, an analysis of which will reveal the social political power will reveal the social political power struggles that underpin their constructionstruggles that underpin their construction

• the process of curriculum construction is the process of curriculum construction is both complex and multidimensional both complex and multidimensional

Why does it matter? – Issues of Why does it matter? – Issues of identityidentity

Moore (2000) is among those who stress the link between the selection of curriculum content and Moore (2000) is among those who stress the link between the selection of curriculum content and identityidentity with the former seen as being inextricably linked to competing representations of the nation and its with the former seen as being inextricably linked to competing representations of the nation and its heritage. heritage.

Identity in this context refers to Identity in this context refers to the ways in which people define the ways in which people define themselves individually and themselves individually and

collectively.collectively.

WhatWhat we know, affects we know, affects whowho we are (or are we are (or are perceived to be). perceived to be).

Curriculum related controversies are becoming increasingly Curriculum related controversies are becoming increasingly common – politicization of the curriculum – especially by those common – politicization of the curriculum – especially by those attracted to notions of social reconstructionismattracted to notions of social reconstructionism.

Shifts in curriculum thinkingShifts in curriculum thinking (As noted by Andy Hargreaves)(As noted by Andy Hargreaves)

1970s 1970s High degree of teacher discretion, choice High degree of teacher discretion, choice and autonomyand autonomy

1979 –1990s 1979 –1990s Schools torn between the age of autonomy Schools torn between the age of autonomy and the emerging top-down, standards and the emerging top-down, standards driven, agendadriven, agenda

Result:Result: Schools are increasingly preoccupied with testing Schools are increasingly preoccupied with testing rather than learning.rather than learning.

But!But! “Spaces of resistance spread, cynicism thrives and “Spaces of resistance spread, cynicism thrives and nostalgia pervades” nostalgia pervades” Nick Hutchinson. Nick Hutchinson.

KEY KEY CONSIDERATIONS/ISSUESCONSIDERATIONS/ISSUES

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issuesTo what extent should content be prescribed?

– – Content prescription versus teacher developed curriculumContent prescription versus teacher developed curriculum

– – Tendency towards greater prescription – driven by testing Tendency towards greater prescription – driven by testing regimes and accountability mechanisms regimes and accountability mechanisms

– – How do we avoid curriculum inertia if we opt for less How do we avoid curriculum inertia if we opt for less prescription? prescription?

How is content to be organised?

– – Aims/objectives based Aims/objectives based

– – Outcomes-based – A curriculum focused and organised around clearly Outcomes-based – A curriculum focused and organised around clearly defined outcomes that students are expected to demonstrate on completion. defined outcomes that students are expected to demonstrate on completion. Based on the assumption that there are a variety of ways in which students Based on the assumption that there are a variety of ways in which students can demonstrate a mastery of content can demonstrate a mastery of content

– – Thematically-based (for example, ‘environments and communities’)Thematically-based (for example, ‘environments and communities’)

– – Conceptually-based (broad conceptual framework incorporating ideas such Conceptually-based (broad conceptual framework incorporating ideas such the interconnectedness of physical and human environments, place and the interconnectedness of physical and human environments, place and place, scale, process, change, globalisation, ecological sustainability etc.) place, scale, process, change, globalisation, ecological sustainability etc.)

– – The use of key questionsThe use of key questions

Selected curriculum constructSelected curriculum construct

• • Relevance/importance statementRelevance/importance statement

• • ‘‘Big ideas’ – provide the syllabus’s conceptual frameworkBig ideas’ – provide the syllabus’s conceptual framework

• • Key processes in Geography – skills-based syllabus Key processes in Geography – skills-based syllabus outcomesoutcomes

• • Curriculum development criteria – this section provides Curriculum development criteria – this section provides guidance in terms of pupils’ experience/breadth of guidance in terms of pupils’ experience/breadth of study/context. study/context.

• • Attainment targets ( a standards framework)Attainment targets ( a standards framework)

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issuesHow do we accommodate the demands of marginalised and disadvantaged groups How do we accommodate the demands of marginalised and disadvantaged groups for a more inclusive set of curriculum arrangements? for a more inclusive set of curriculum arrangements?

• • Content relevant to the experience and interests of marginalised and Content relevant to the experience and interests of marginalised and disadvantaged groups – problematic disadvantaged groups – problematic

• • Mandated curriculum perspectivesMandated curriculum perspectives

The National Geography Standards (1994) – developed jointly by the National The National Geography Standards (1994) – developed jointly by the National Council for Geographic Education and the National Geographic Society – defines Council for Geographic Education and the National Geographic Society – defines perspectives as “points of view” and “ways of looking at the world”. perspectives as “points of view” and “ways of looking at the world”.

““[A perspective] is one point of view among many competing ways of interpreting [A perspective] is one point of view among many competing ways of interpreting the meanings and experiences, events, places, persons, cultures, and physical the meanings and experiences, events, places, persons, cultures, and physical environments. Having a perspective means looking at our world through a lens environments. Having a perspective means looking at our world through a lens shaped by personal experience, selective information, and subjective evaluation. A shaped by personal experience, selective information, and subjective evaluation. A perspective provides a frame of reference for asking and answering questions, perspective provides a frame of reference for asking and answering questions, identifying and solving problems, and identifying the consequences of alternative identifying and solving problems, and identifying the consequences of alternative actions. It is essential to be aware that many perspectives exist and that learning to actions. It is essential to be aware that many perspectives exist and that learning to understand the world from many points of view enhances our knowledge and skills. understand the world from many points of view enhances our knowledge and skills.

((National Geographic Research and Exploration. National Geographic Research and Exploration. Geography for LifeGeography for Life: : National National Geography StandardsGeography Standards, 1994, p. 57). , 1994, p. 57).

Geography syllabus Geography syllabus documents in New South documents in New South Wales define perspectives Wales define perspectives as: “a way of viewing the as: “a way of viewing the world, the people in it and world, the people in it and their relationship to each their relationship to each other and with their other and with their environments.”environments.”

In practice, this means that In practice, this means that people will describe and people will describe and explain geographical issues, explain geographical issues, features and processes features and processes differently.differently.

The perspectives or points of The perspectives or points of view a person holds will be view a person holds will be influenced by a range of influenced by a range of factors. These factors factors. These factors include age, gender, level of include age, gender, level of education, cultural and education, cultural and ethnic background and ethnic background and socioeconomic status (class). socioeconomic status (class).

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues

What should be the ‘entry point’ of study – the geographical process or issue?What should be the ‘entry point’ of study – the geographical process or issue?

How do we get the right balance between physical and human geography?How do we get the right balance between physical and human geography?

The ‘relevance revolution’ of the The ‘relevance revolution’ of the 1980s resulted in an increased 1980s resulted in an increased focuses on geographical issues. focuses on geographical issues. Has this been at the expense of Has this been at the expense of students’ understanding and students’ understanding and appreciation of geographical appreciation of geographical processes?processes?

Issue: Land degradation

Geographical processes:– wind and water erosion– land clearing/habitat destruction– soil structure decline– salinity (types and causes)

– water cycle – water table, infiltration,

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues

To what extent should school geography reflect developments within To what extent should school geography reflect developments within

academic geography?academic geography? The former tends to be ‘traditional’, narrow and prescriptive while The former tends to be ‘traditional’, narrow and prescriptive while

the later is more broad and increasingly diverse.the later is more broad and increasingly diverse.

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues To what extent should the curriculum promote or even mandate inquiry-based To what extent should the curriculum promote or even mandate inquiry-based

methodologies?methodologies? Inquiry-based methodologies facilitate classroom discussion and debate, and Inquiry-based methodologies facilitate classroom discussion and debate, and promote a deeper level of engagement with issues via critical thinking. promote a deeper level of engagement with issues via critical thinking.

The term ‘critical thinking’ refers to the processes by which individuals use The term ‘critical thinking’ refers to the processes by which individuals use reflective thinking to gather, interpret and evaluate information in order to reflective thinking to gather, interpret and evaluate information in order to formulate an informed opinion or judgment. formulate an informed opinion or judgment.

By developing students’ critical thinking skills we enhance their ability to By developing students’ critical thinking skills we enhance their ability to identify, and perhaps challenge dominant discourses, and develop their capacity identify, and perhaps challenge dominant discourses, and develop their capacity to evaluate various alternatives. Empowered by these understandings, the to evaluate various alternatives. Empowered by these understandings, the individual is better placed to act as an agent of social change, working towards individual is better placed to act as an agent of social change, working towards the removal of inequalities and injustices. For this reason, critical thinking is the removal of inequalities and injustices. For this reason, critical thinking is often championed by interest groups with a progressive or reconstructionist often championed by interest groups with a progressive or reconstructionist agenda, but opposed, often vehemently, by conservative interests who either see agenda, but opposed, often vehemently, by conservative interests who either see such pedagogy as a threat to the status quo or as an obstacle to their own such pedagogy as a threat to the status quo or as an obstacle to their own reconstructionist objectives. reconstructionist objectives.

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issuesWhat geographic skills are appropriate for this stage of learning?What geographic skills are appropriate for this stage of learning?

Identified using the Identified using the Skills Framework Skills Framework & those commonly & those commonly associated with the disciplineassociated with the discipline

• • Map related skillsMap related skills• • FieldworkFieldwork• • Graphs and statisticsGraphs and statistics• • PhotographsPhotographs• • Information and communication technologies (ICT)Information and communication technologies (ICT)

•

• Formatting, multiple-page documents containing web-links Formatting, multiple-page documents containing web-links

• Developing simple databasesDeveloping simple databases

• Multimedia presentations and/or webpages Multimedia presentations and/or webpages

• Website evaluationWebsite evaluation

• Accessing, collecting and interpreting electronic informationAccessing, collecting and interpreting electronic information

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues

What (and how) do students want to learn?What (and how) do students want to learn?

Always problematic because the labelling and Always problematic because the labelling and social profiling of young people is ultimately social profiling of young people is ultimately determined by discourse-dominating elites determined by discourse-dominating elites whose own limited perspective overgeneralises whose own limited perspective overgeneralises and even distorts reality. and even distorts reality.

Are, for example, all young people Are, for example, all young people “hedonistic”, “self-obsessed” and consumption “hedonistic”, “self-obsessed” and consumption orientated? Are they “too cool for school”? orientated? Are they “too cool for school”? Are they brand obsessed? Are they brand obsessed? Greater attention needs to be Greater attention needs to be

given to the lives and given to the lives and experiences of young people - experiences of young people - their personal geographies. their personal geographies.

Has the direction of social change been away Has the direction of social change been away from the traditional values of deference to from the traditional values of deference to authority and attraction to community towards authority and attraction to community towards a more individualistic and self-centred set of a more individualistic and self-centred set of social arrangements? If so, what are the social arrangements? If so, what are the implications for the selection of curriculum implications for the selection of curriculum content? content?

Student interestStudent interestWhat is studied (content)?What is studied (content)?- - Perceived relevancePerceived relevance- - Ideally grounded in the Ideally grounded in the

students’ students’ own life experienceown life experience-- Interesting – ‘a touch of the Interesting – ‘a touch of the

exotic’, place specificexotic’, place specific-- Related to contemporary Related to contemporary

events where possibleevents where possible

How it is studied (teaching and learning How it is studied (teaching and learning strategies, resources etc)strategies, resources etc)- - Active engagementActive engagement- - Challenging tasks that draw Challenging tasks that draw

on their desire to enquireon their desire to enquire-- Opportunities to explore Opportunities to explore

alternative views, attitudes alternative views, attitudes and valuesand values

The teacher’s enthusiasm for Geography The teacher’s enthusiasm for Geography and his/her ability to provide ‘quality and his/her ability to provide ‘quality teaching’ and learning.teaching’ and learning.

Cronulla race riots - a Geography of Sydney’s racial diversity

Globalisation: Grounding abstract geographical Globalisation: Grounding abstract geographical concepts in the life experience of studentsconcepts in the life experience of students

Key considerations/issuesKey considerations/issues

Promote a sense of optimism by including a focus on the actions of community-Promote a sense of optimism by including a focus on the actions of community-based groups, NGOs and governments that seek to address the impacts of global based groups, NGOs and governments that seek to address the impacts of global issues. issues.

How do we avoid the “doom and gloom”?How do we avoid the “doom and gloom”?

A personal viewA personal view

RecommendationsRecommendations• Adopt a conceptual framework that provides geographical leadership and Adopt a conceptual framework that provides geographical leadership and

certainty while encouraging teacher autonomy (and student empowerment) certainty while encouraging teacher autonomy (and student empowerment) through the choice of illustrative sample/case studiesthrough the choice of illustrative sample/case studies

• Promote an issues-based approach but strengthen the emphasis given to the Promote an issues-based approach but strengthen the emphasis given to the relevant geographical processesrelevant geographical processes

• Emphasise contemporary geographical issues at a range of scales – from the Emphasise contemporary geographical issues at a range of scales – from the local to globallocal to global

• Mandate enquiry-based methodologies especially those related to fieldwork and Mandate enquiry-based methodologies especially those related to fieldwork and critical thinkingcritical thinking

• Identify the geographical skills relevant to the stage of learning and them teach Identify the geographical skills relevant to the stage of learning and them teach them within contextthem within context

• Strengthen the spatial context of specific geographical phenomena/issues but be Strengthen the spatial context of specific geographical phenomena/issues but be mindful of the need to adopt a broader definition of what constitutes ‘spatial’ – mindful of the need to adopt a broader definition of what constitutes ‘spatial’ – For example, a ‘community’ can be defined as an identifiable group interacting For example, a ‘community’ can be defined as an identifiable group interacting on the basis of shared space and/or social organisation. on the basis of shared space and/or social organisation.

‘‘Content’ suggestionsContent’ suggestions• A study of the earth’s biophysical processes, especially those A study of the earth’s biophysical processes, especially those

fundamental to our understanding of the diversity of global fundamental to our understanding of the diversity of global environments, contemporary environmental issues and natural environments, contemporary environmental issues and natural hazards/disasters.hazards/disasters.

• Utilitarian physical geography – e.g. weather and climate, ecosystem Utilitarian physical geography – e.g. weather and climate, ecosystem functioningfunctioning

• Spatial impacts of technological changeSpatial impacts of technological change• The process of economic and cultural integration (globalisation) and The process of economic and cultural integration (globalisation) and

its impactsits impacts• Cultural geographyCultural geography• The processes (and impacts) of demographic and social changeThe processes (and impacts) of demographic and social change• Global inequalities (including development, debt, aid and trade)Global inequalities (including development, debt, aid and trade)• Global geographical issues (drawn from both the physical and human Global geographical issues (drawn from both the physical and human

environments)environments)• The unique physical and human environments of the UKThe unique physical and human environments of the UK• Factors causing change in UK communitiesFactors causing change in UK communities• The UK’s regional and global linksThe UK’s regional and global links• Future challenges – human rights, demographic change, global Future challenges – human rights, demographic change, global

terrorism, immigration, sustainability and environmental managementterrorism, immigration, sustainability and environmental management

ReferencesReferences

Moore, R. (2000). For knowledge: Traditions, progressivism and progress in Moore, R. (2000). For knowledge: Traditions, progressivism and progress in education – reconstructing the curriculum debate. In D. Scott (Ed.). (2003), education – reconstructing the curriculum debate. In D. Scott (Ed.). (2003), Curriculum studies: Major themes in educationCurriculum studies: Major themes in education. London: RoutledgeFalmer.. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

National Geographic Research and Exploration, Geography for Life, [American], National Geographic Research and Exploration, Geography for Life, [American], (1994). (1994). National Geography StandardsNational Geography Standards. Washington DC: National Geographic.. Washington DC: National Geographic.

New South Wales Board of Studies (1992). New South Wales Board of Studies (1992). Geography Syllabus Years 7–10Geography Syllabus Years 7–10. . Sydney: New South Wales Board of Studies. Sydney: New South Wales Board of Studies.

New South Wales Board of Studies (1999). New South Wales Board of Studies (1999). Stage 6 Geography SyllabusStage 6 Geography Syllabus. Sydney: . Sydney: New South Wales Board of Studies. New South Wales Board of Studies.

Williams, R. (1977). Williams, R. (1977). Marxism and literatureMarxism and literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Oxford: Oxford University Press.