What's Known A Managing EASTERN PINE

PINE

What's Known

A bout Managing

EASTERN

STATION PAPER N O . 121 . NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION 1959

F ~ R E S T SERVICE . U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . UPPER DARBY, PA.

RALPH W. MARQUIS, DIRECTOR

Foreword T t h e 1957 meet ing of t h e Nor theas te rn F o r e s t Research A Advisory Counci l t h e comment was made t h a t a l though

E a s t e r n w h i t e p i n e h a s been t h e most s t u d i e d f o r e s t t r e e s p e c i e s i n t h e Northeast , t h e o n l y l i t e r a t u r e on t h e management of t h e s p e c i e s was i n r e p o r t s on i s o l a t e d and uncoordi- na ted s t u d i e s . There was no comprehensive compendium of knowledge.

From t h e d i s c u s s i o n fo l lowing t h i s comment came a re- q u e s t t h a t t h e s t a f f o f t h e Nor theas te rn F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n assemble t h e known f a c t s about whi te p i n e management, and t h a t t h e y p r e s e n t t h i s summary a t t h e 1958 meet ing of t h e Counci l . T h i s was done a t t h e Council Meeting a t Kennebunk Beach, Maine.

I n p r e p a r i n g t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e S t a t i o n s t a f f d i d n o t a t t e m p t a complete coverage o f w h i t e p i n e a s a t imber s p e c i e s , such a s a monograph would r e q u i r e . N e i t h e r d i d i t a t t empt a manual on whi te p i n e management, such a s a prac- t i c i n g f o r e s t e r o r landowner might d e s i r e . Ins tead , a s i n - c e r e e f f o r t was made t o p r e s e n t t o a s e l e c t audience, and i n t h e l i m i t e d t ime a v a i l a b l e , a c o n c i s e s ta tement of t h e per- t i n e n t in format ion a v a i l a b l e on t h e management of whi te p i n e under t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e x i s t today. The s t a f f , wi th s c i e n t i f i c i n t e g r i t y , r e p o r t e d not on ly what i s known about managing w h i t e pine, b u t a l s o what i s no t known.

The Counci l members cons idered t h e r e p o r t s u f f i c i e n t - l y v a l u a b l e t o m e r i t p u b l i c a t i o n , and reques ted t h e S t a t i o n t o p r e p a r e t h e m a t e r i a l f o r issuai lce a s a S t a t i o n Paper . T h i s is it, i n somewhat r e v i s e d form.

Unl ike most papers i s s u e d by t h e S t a t i o n , t h i s i s not a r e p o r t on o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h by S t a t i o n s t a f f members, though such r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e inc luded . The r e p o r t con- t a i n s l i t t l e t h a t is new, and l i t t l e t h a t h a s no t p r e v i o u s l y been r e p o r t e d . I ts c o n t r i b u t i o n , i f it makes one, is an o r d e r l y p r e s e n t a t i o n , g a t h e r e d from many sources, o f t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f knowledge r e l a t e d t o whi te p i n e management.

A byproduct o f t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n of known f a c t s h a s been a much c l e a r e r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e gaps i n o u r knowledge, and t h e s e r i o u s n e s s of t h e s e gaps. Some a r e minor; some a r e g r e a t . Some may b e br idged w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f shor t - t e rm s t u d i e s . Some w i l l r e q u i r e e l a b o r a t e long-term experimenta- t i o n . Some gaps may never b e c l o s e d .

But knowing t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n our knowledge p o i n t s t h e way t o f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . Thus, by i n d i r e c t i o n , t h e Coun- c i l has performed i t s t r u e f u n c t i o n i n a d v i s i n g u s of t h e need f o r f u r t h e r and i n t e n s i f i e d s t u d i e s of t h i s s p e c i e s .

Ralph W. Marquis

What's Known

A bout Managing

EASTERN WHITE PINE

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6 3

The Future for White Pine Management

Markets & Products for Eastern White Pine

by Charles R. Lockard

E ASTERN white p ine is t h e wood upon which the lumber indus t ry was founded i n t h i s country 300 years ago. For

a long time t h i s wood was t h e mainstay of t h e indus t ry . I n Europe, white pine was known a s the American lumber spec ies . From the e a r l i e s t reports--from Spalding and Fernow (1899), through Frothingham (1914) and B e t t s (1941), t o the North- e a s t e r n Lumber Manufacturers Associa t ion (1950)--those who know wood have come t o t h e same b e l i e f : t h a t e a s t e r n whi te p ine i s t h e king of woods.

Because of i t s unique combination of p r o p e r t i e s - - i t s moderate s t r eng th , s t r a i g h t g ra in , s o f t and uniform texture , s t a b i l i t y and ease of drying, and r e s i s t a n c e t o decay--the e a s t e r n white p ine ( P i n u s strobus L. ) j.s s t i l l regarded a s the most i n t r i n s i c a l l y use fu l of a l l American softwoods.

The management of our white p ine timber s t ands can be developed i n the most r a t i o n a l manner i f two ques t ions a r e answered:

Are t h e r e now, and w i l l t h e r e cont inue t o be, adequate markets f o r the amount of whi te pine t h a t can beproduced?

What a r e t h e important use c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of white p ine products t h a t a r e sub jec t t o c o n t r o l by forest-management p r a c t i c e s ?

I n t h i s and t h e fol lowing papers we w i l l g i v e our answers t o t h e s e ques t ions .

M A R K E T S

Current ly , about 5 b i l l i o n board-feet of whi te p ine and white p ine - l ike spec ies of lumber a r e produced annual ly i n t h e United S t a t e s (U. S. Fores t Se rv ice 1958). About 70 pe rcen t of t h i s i s ponderosa pine, and 30 percent i s the whi te and sugar p ines . Of t h e t o t a l , e a s t e r n whi te p ine comprises 20 percent o r about a b i l l i o n f e e t ; th ree -quar te r s of i t produced i n the Northeast .

Since e a s t e r n whi te p ine can be used e f f e c t i v e l y f o r most of the purposes f o r which ponderosa p ine is used, t h e p o t e n t i a l lumber market may be a s much a s 5 b i l l i o n board- f e e t and no t t h e 1 b i l l i o n f e e t ind ica ted by c u r r e n t produc- t i o n of e a s t e r n whi te p ine .

P R O D U C T S

A l l white p ine moves from t h e f o r e s t s a s round prod- u c t s ( l o g s and b o l t s ) bu t only a l i m i t e d amount is used by consumers i n t h i s form. More could be used i n the round f o r f enc ing ( p o s t s and guard r a i l s ) , f o r t h e wood has adequate s t r e n g t h and t a k e s p r e s e r v a t i v e t reatment wel l . Less than 20 percent goes i n t h e round t o pulpmil ls , f e l t m i l l s , and b o l t m i l l s . More could go t o pa r t i c le -board p l a n t s t h a t do n o t now use round wood. S imi la r ly , although t h e spec ies is s u i t a b l e f o r veneer, t h e r e a r e no veneer p l a n t s i n t h e re- g ion t h a t u s e i t . The bulk of t h e round whi te p ine products, then, goes t o sawmills. Th i s w i l l probably be t h e f u t u r e s i t u a t i o n .

Thus, t h e need t o c o n t r o l t h e c h a r a c t e r of sawlogs ( a s judged by lumber-quality requirements) i s t h e primary f a c t o r in f luenc ing t h e c u l t u r e of t h e spec ies . Hence, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t c o n t r o l lumber q u a l i t y must be under- s tood. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e used a s lumber-grading s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Lumber grades i n t u r n a r e determined by t h e u s e requirements.

Uses f o r white p ine lumber a r e t o o wel l known t o re- q u i r e enumeration. A recen t s tudy of lumber consumed i n man- u f a c t u r e i n New York S t a t e showed 87 i tems i n which e a s t e r n whi te p i n e i s used. I t can be used f o r any member of a house. I t i s a l s o a s tandard i n d u s t r i a l lumber spec ies .

But whi te p ine lumber now s u p p l i e s only p a r t of t h e p o t e n t i a l market. I n New York S t a t e a s much ponderosa p ine

a s e a s t e r n white p ine lumber is used. Why? The only appar- e n t reasons a r e tha t , compared t o white pine, ponderosa--

Is aggress ive ly merchandized and may be s o l d a t lower p r i c e .

I s except i o n a l l y wel l manufactured and graded.

Has high grades a v a i l a b l e i n q u a n t i t y .

The f i r s t 2 poin t s , although no t unre la ted t o t h e t h i r d , a r e mat te r s f o r conver te r s t o cope with. But t h e las t - - lack o f ' high grades--to a l a r g e degree stems from t h e condi t ion of t h e whi te pine f o r e s t base and thus i s of s p e c i a l concern t o f o r e s t e r s and landowners. The f a c t t h a t t h e annual ha rves t of e a s t e r n whi te p ine sawlogs y i e l d s a poor grade-pat tern of lumber i s known. So t h e important ques t ions a r e : What causes low-grade lumber? and how do we grow high grade?

Some of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t lower lumber grade a r e oper- a t i o n a l . Degraders such a s b l u e s t a i n , worm holes, and poor manufacture a r e t h e exc lus ive concern of conver ters , and can be c o n t r o l l e d by them; f o r e s t e r s must be concerned with t h e r e s t . Some of t h e s e a r e of o r i g i n a s y e t unknown--bark pock- e t s , p i t c h pockets, shake. Much research w i l l be required t o f i n d a p r a c t i c a l means of i d e n t i f y i n g and c o r r e c t i n g t h e causes of these .

The cause and poss ib le con t ro l of t h e major degrading f a c t o r s a r e known. These f a c t o r s a r e t h e twins--knot and r o t . Knot e f f e c t i s evaluated by s i ze , t igh tness , and co lo r . I n general , high-value lumber c a r r i e s a t t h e most only a few very small t i g h t knots . Inc rease i n knot s i z e and decrease i n t i g h t n e s s l ead t o lower grade lumber. Allowable a c t u a l knot s i z e i s r e l a t e d t o width of board; the narrower t h e board, the smal ler the allowable knot.

Rot, t h e o t h e r major degrader, i s not permit ted i n t h e h ighes t grades.1 I n t h e premium grade, only 10 percent i n c i p i e n t r o t i s permit ted on a board face . I n t h e s tandard grade, 10 percent of s o f t r o t i s permitted, and i n t h e in- d u s t r i a l grade 50 pe rcen t .

Now t h e twins knot and r o t can be c o n t r o l l e d t o a l a r g e degree by f o r e s t management; knots by pruning and proper log making, and r o t by weevil con t ro l (Ostrander & F o s t e r 1957). Width of board obviously i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t r e e s i z e . Compression wood, another degrader, i s a r e s u l t of t r e e l e a n ; s o i t s occurrence can be reduced by management.

or l i s t o f grades and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f them, s e e S t a n d a r d Grading Rules for Northern White Pine and Norway P i n e ' , publ ished by the Northeastern Lumber Manu- f a c t u r e r s A s s o c i a t i o n , I n c . , New York, 1956.

The twins a r e negat ive o r degrading f a c t o r s . I t may be wel l t o look a t the reverse of t h e coin--at t h e major p o s i t i v e q u a l i t y f a c t o r . This i s c lea rness , o r freedom from degrade. Completely c l e a r boards a r e tops . But p a r t i a l c l e a r n e s s is a l s o near t h e top. A D-Select board, f o r exam- p le , is one with a c l e a r f a c e on a f i n i s h t o s tandard back. C lea r and sound board edges w i l l permit c e r t a i n unc lea r boards t o remain i n No. 1 and No. 2 f i n i s h . A t h i r d phase of c l e a r n e s s i s c l e a r in te rnodes . Boards with 3- t o &foo t c u t t i n g s w i l l make valuable No. 1 c u t s . This, too, can be p a r t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d i n the woods.

The whi te p ine weevil deserves very s p e c i a l not ice , s o f a r a s lumber i s concerned. I t is a s e r i o u s enemy because--

I t causes deformation t h a t r e s u l t s in : Excessively degrading branch knots. Dis to r ted and coarse g r a i n . Compression wood.

I t causes crook t h a t reduces y i e l d of wane-free lumber; wane i s a de fec t i n high grades.

I t i s assoc ia ted with t h e e n t r y of r ed- ro t .

9 I t causes d i f f i c u l t y a t t h e t r e e c e n t e r where much of t h e high-grade lumber i n small t r e e s i s found.

Ostrander and S to l t enberg (1957) es t imate t h a t f o r each observed weevil i n j u r y i n a l o g t h e r e i s a l o s s i n p o t e n t i a l lumber of from $2 t o $6 p e r thousand board-feet . This e s t i - mate is probably conservat ive .

I n summary, the f a c t o r s t h a t lower o r r a i s e lumber grade a r e known. The e f f e c t of t h e major degraders (knots and r o t ) can be reduced by proper f o r e s t management. The maintenance and expansion of t h e white p ine indus t ry i s pos- s i b l e and p r a c t i c a l i f f o r e s t landowners use e x i s t i n g o r new knowledge of the q u a l i t y f a c t o r s t o guide t h e i r timber-growing and harves t ing p r a c t i c e s .

Volume Growth & Quality

by Richard D. Lane

HE preceding paper has given u s an encouraging market T outlook f o r whi te p ine i f we can meet t h e chal lenge of

producing high-qual i ty t r e e s i n s u f f i c i e n t quan t i ty . What a r e t h e prospects f o r inc reas ing white p ine production and q u a l i t y i n t h e Northeast?

V O L U M E A N D G R O W T H

About 5 m i l l i o n of the 73 m i l l i o n a c r e s of commercial f o r e s t land i n t h e 12 Northeastern S t a t e s is i n red and white pines , according t o TIMBER RESOURCES FOR AMERICA'S FUTURE ( U . S . Fores t Se rv ice 1958). The same source g ives e s t i m a t e s of volume and growth of red and white p ines combined f o r t h i s t e r r i t o r y .

The volume i n l i v e sawtimber t r e e s 9.0 inches d.b.h. and l a r g e r i s about 11 b i l l i o n board-feet . The t o t a l white and red p ine growing s tock i n t r e e s 5.0 inches and l a r g e r i s es t imated a s 47 m i l l i o n cords .

Annual n e t growth of p ine sawtimber i n p ine types i s approximately 85 board-feet p e r a c r e . T o t a l p ine sawtimber growth i n the Northeast is about 0.4 b i l l i o n board-feet. By comparing t h i s with t h e es t imated c u r r e n t product ion of 0.75 b i l l i o n board-feet one can e a s i l y s e e t h a t we w i l l be hard put t o mainta in our p resen t white p ine market pos i t ion , l e t a lone improve i t . While these es t imates a r e not p rec i se , they can a t l e a s t be considered i n d i c a t i v e of t h e p resen t s i t u a t i o n and f u t u r e prospects .

To ta l growing s tock of r ed and white p ines i s in- c reas ing ( b e f o r e timber c u t but a f t e r m o r t a l i t y ) about 25 cubic f e e t p e r a c r e annually i n t h e Northeast . Not a l l of t h i s , of course, i s on sawtimber t r e e s .

These es t imates of c u r r e n t growth do not r e f l e c t t h e growth t h a t i s p o s s i b l e with whi te pine, even i n unmanaged s tands . Normal mean annual y i e l d s f o r whi te p ine i n New Hampshire have been given a s 110 cubic f e e t p e r a c r e on poor s i t e s and 155 cubic f e e t pe r a c r e on good s i t e s (Frothingham 1914). S imi la r mean annual y i e l d s have been repor ted from the Lake S t a t e s . DeLong (1955) repor ted mean annual increments from 76 t o 224 cubic f e e t per a c r e f o r 55-year-old Pennsylvania p l a n t i n g s with a 4 x 4-foot spacing. Baldwin (1949) repor ted a c u r r e n t annual growth of over 1,000 board- f e e t per a c r e f o r some New Hampshire p l a n t a t i o n s . Mean annual increments of 600 t o 800 board-feet p e r ac re a r e not uncommon i n managed s tands .

Q U A L I T Y

There a r e no v a l i d es t imates of t h e q u a l i t y of o u r s tanding white pine timber. However, Lockard has a l ready s t a t e d t h a t t h e poor grade-pat tern of white p ine is w e l l known. And, a t the 1958 annual meeting of t h e New England Section, Society of American Foresters , P e t e r Koch s t a t e d t h a t 55 percent of whi te p ine lumber goes on t h e market as No. 4 and No. 5 Common (Wilson 1958). The diameter d i s t r i - bu t ion of t h e s tanding timber can a l s o g ive u s some i d e a o f i t s q u a l i t y . I n red and white pine sawtimber, only 20 percen t o f t h e volume i s i n t r e e s 19 inches d.b.h. and l a r g e r . About 55 percent of t h e volume i s i n t r e e s below 15 inches d.b.h. (U. S. Forest Serv ice 1958).

Thus, it seems s a f e t o assume t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of white pine i n t h e Northeast is low. But, l i k e growth, t h e c u r r e n t low q u a l i t y of the resource does not r e f l e c t t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l . The i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t y of t h e wood is high and, by management p rac t i ces , it is r e l a t i v e l y easy t o produce t r e e s i n which t h e qua l i ty - regu la t ing f e a t u r e s a r e prominent and t h e degrading f e a t u r e s a r e reduced t o a s a t i s - f a c t o r y low.

Conclusion: The Objectives

by Charles R. Lockard # Richard D. Lane

P RESENT markets and t h e prospect f o r a sus ta ined heavy product demand lead t o t h e conclusion t h a t white p ine

management can be a promising business i f its goal i s quan- t i t y production of high-quality sawtimber. And timber qual- i t y a s well a s growth can be c o n t r o l l e d i n l a r g e measure by f o r e s t management.

Comparison of t h e p o t e n t i a l market with t h e p resen t q u a l i t y and growth of our whi te p ine resource l eaves no doubt t h a t t h e improvement and expansion of white pine management is a r e a l chal lenge t o a l l those who have a r e a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s resource, be they landowners, lumbermen, merchandisers, o r pub l ic f o r e s t r y o f f i c i a l s .

I t should be emphasized t h a t t h e market a v a i l a b l e t o us i s not a f ixed th ing . I t can be maintained only by t h e r igorous e f f o r t s of those concerned t o inc rease sharply t h e volume and q u a l i t y of white p i n e production. '

The Biological Bases for White Pine Management

What Is a Quality Tree?

by Richard D. Lane

HE f i r s t p a r t of t h i s symposium has c l e a r l y pointed ou t T t h a t t h e most a t t r a c t i v e white p ine management objec-

t i v e is the rap id production of high-qual i ty lumber. The q u a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of white p i n e lumber were b r i e f l y discussed. Since t h e f o r e s t manager d e a l s with t r ees , not lumber, he must answer two ques t ions i f he i s t o use h i s management e f f o r t s most e f f e c t i v e l y :

What kind of t r e e has t h e g r e a t e s t growth of q u a l i t y lumber?

What environmental f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e production of such t r e e s ?

A complete answer t o t h e f i r s t ques t ion r e q u i r e s t h e a b i l i t y t o i d e n t i f y t h e lumber-grading f a c t o r s i n t h e t r e e c o n s i s t e n t l y and t o eva lua te them accura te ly . W e do no t y e t have the a b i l i t y , bu t t h e whi te p ine log grades being developed by t h e S t a t i o n w i l l b e a long s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n .

A complete answer t o t h e second ques t ion r e q u i r e s a thorough knowledge of the whole complex of environment s o t h a t real causes can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from apparent ones.

We a r e reasonably c e r t a i n of t h e r o l e of some, but no t a l l , environmental f a c t o r s . Current s i te-growth s t u d i e s a t t h e S t a t i o n w i l l h e l p g i v e a b e t t e r answer t o t h i s ques t ion .

I n s p i t e of these shortcomings we can g i v e u s e f u l answers t o the ques t ions . What then, i s a q u a l i t y t r e e ?

A S T R A I G H T , , S I N G L E - S T E M M E D ,

R O T - F R E E T R E E

I n s t r a i g h t , single-stemmed t r e e s t h e r e is no l o s s o f merchantable volume from crooks, sweeps, o r forks , and t h e r e w i l l be a minimum l o s s of q u a l i t y because of compression wood, I f t h e t r e e s a r e a l s o rot - f ree , t h e r e w i l l be no l o s s of volume o r q u a l i t y from t h i s cause.

Stands i n which a l l o r most of t h e t r e e s have these d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be developed by adequate pro- t e c t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n t h e s i l v i c u l t u r e and management program, combined with a con t inua l c u l l i n g of t h e growing s tock t o e l i m i n a t e undes i rab le t r e e s . P r o t e c t i o n must inc lude p r a c t i c e s t h a t prevent o r hold down damage from f i r e , insec t s , d i seases , and animals.

G O O D K N O T C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S

Trees i n which knots are l i m i t e d i n occurrence and d i s t r i b u t i o n , and i n which most of t h e knots a r e small , sound, red, and t i g h t , w i l l have a l a r g e p a r t of t h e i r board-foot volume i n p o t e n t i a l l y high-qual i ty m a t e r i a l . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e w i l l be few No. 4 and No. 5 Common boards.

These p r o p e r t i e s a r e developed i n t h e t r e e p r imar i ly by proper pruning. Maintenance of t h e r i g h t s tocking l e v e l o r s t a n d d e n s i t y may he lp reduce t h e c o s t s of pruning but i t w i l l not, by i t s e l f , produce t r e e s wi th good knot charac te r - i s t i c s . Here a r e some f a c t s about branch c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r e e s i n pure even-aged white p ine s t ands (Paul 1938):

There o f t e n a r e a s many a s 85 branches on t h e f i r s t 20 f e e t of a pine pole--the number v a r i e s with s i t e q u a l i t y .

L a t e r a l branches s t a y a l i v e on t h e lower 20 f e e t of t h e b o l e an average of 15 years ; dead branches p e r s i s t f o r an average of 27 years, may l a s t a s long a s 80 years .

The kno t s from these branches range from 0 .1 inch t o about 3 inches i n diameter ; average i s about 0.4 inch .

Rap id i ty of crown closure , s t and densi ty , and s tand composition have some e f f e c t upon t h e l i f e and s i z e of

branches, bu t have no measurable e f f e c t on t h e r a t e o f natu- r a l pruning.

Thus a r t i f i c i a l pruning i s the sures t way t o improve the knot cha rac t e r i s t i c s of white pine t r e e s and, consequently, t h e i r qua l i ty poten t ia l .

L O N G I N T E R N O D E S

Trees with long internodes have fewer branches per foot of bole and therefore produce la rger volumes of c l e a r lumber. I n addition, valuable c l e a r cu t t ings may be obtained even from the knotty port ions of the stem and thus r a i s e the t o t a l grade y ie ld .

Internode length is a function of s i t e qual i ty , crown class , and t r e e age a t the time the internode i s formed. Therefore, we can exert some control on internodal length by carefu l se lec t ion of the s i t e s on which we w i l l grow pine, and by cu l tu ra l p rac t ices designed t o maintain crop t r ee s i n the upper crown classes, pa r t i cu l a r ly during the period of rapid height growth.

R A P I D B U T U N I F O R M

D I A M E T E R G R O W T H

A t r e e tha t increases rapidly i n diameter w i l l produce a given s i z e and quanti ty of products i n a shor te r time than a t r e e t ha t grows more slowly. Neither r a t e nor uniformity of diameter growth a r e recognized a s qua l i t y deter- minants i n lumber grades, but i nd i r ec t ly uniformity of r ing width c rea tes some improvement of qua l i ty by improving appearance, reducing the number and sever i ty of drying de- fec ts , and improving in-service performance of t he lumber.

I t has been shown repeatedly t h a t volume growth of a t r e e i s proportional t o crown s i z e o r some function of crown s i ze . Burger (1930) showed tha t about 1 gram ( f r e sh weight) of needles is required t o produce 1 cubic centimeter of white pine wood i n a year. An analogous re la t ionship is tha t of diameter growth with the r a t i o of crown surface. t o bole surface. We have found i n our current s tud ies t ha t about 50 percent of the variance i n periodic diameter growth i s explained by t h i s r a t i o . Variations i n s i t e qual i ty , i n t r e e age, and i n growing space ( r e l a t i v e t o crown s ize) may explain pa r t of the residual 50 percent of diameter-growth variance.

The r a t i o of crown surface t o bole surface is closely r e l a t ed t o stand density and t o r e l a t i v e crown posi t ions of t h e ' t r e e s . Consequently the r a t e of diameter growth is sub- j e c t t o considerable control through the control of growing space. I f the crown i s allowed t o expand a t the same r a t e a s the bole, the r a t e of diameter growth should be uniform o r near1 y so.

Our s tud i e s have a l so shown tha t t he r a t i o of l i v e crown length t o t o t a l t r e e height (expressed as a percentage) i s nearly as good an ind ica tor of diameter growth a s t he r a t i o of crown surface t o bole surface--at l e a s t among dominant and codominant t rees . Live crown r a t i o explained 42 percent of diameter growth variance i n t he s t ud i e s we a r e making. Average 10-year diameter growth of dominant and codominant t r e e s increases about 0.4 inch f o r each 10 percent increase i n average l i v e crown r a t i o . Similar--in fac t , re- markably consis tent--resul ts have been obtained i n cen t r a l Maine (Davis 1958), Ontario (Smithers 1954), and western North Carolina (Wahlenberg 1955). Over a wide range of s i t e s , ages, and stand conditions, the average 10-year diameter growth of t r e e s with a 40 percent live-crown r a t i o appears t o be about 1.5 inches.

G O O D B O L E F O R M

I n a t r e e with good bole form, the sawlog port ion of t he bole approaches the cy l inder a s t h e i dea l form. I t is round i n cross-section and has a minimum of taper . Such t r e e s y i e ld the g r ea t e s t proportion of t h e i r cubic-foot con- t e n t i n lumber, o f f e r t he g r ea t e s t opportunity f o r the production of long wide boards, and permit maximum recovery of t he valuable c l e a r wood near t h e bark of the t r ee .

Bole taper appears t o be control led pr imari ly by the form and pos i t ion of the crown. Gevorkiantz and Hosley (1929) found tha t form quotient of white pine increased with increases i n both t he live-crown r a t i o and i n crown width r e l a t i v e t o bole diameter. I n o ther words, among t r e e s with a crown of a given s ize, t aper w i l l be l e s s i f t he crown i s shor t and wide, than i f i t were long and narrow.

Since crown width and crown length a r e c lose ly re- l a t ed t o growing space, i t appears t ha t we can reduce taper by c u l t u r a l measures tha t give t he t r e e t he r i gh t amount of growing space. A r t i f i c i a l pruning of green limbs may a l so ' be a necessary p a r t of t h i s cu l tura l control .

G E N E T I C C O N T R O L O F Q U A L I T Y

Ernst J. Schreiner has s t a t ed : o ore st genet ics is merely one of the sciences e s sen t i a l t o t he successful appl ica t ion of t he a r t of s i l v i c u l t u r e . Forest genetics, per se, cannot produce high-quality timber because of the many q u a l i t y charac te rs t ha t a r e highly suscept ib le t o environmental modification. For qua l i ty production, it w i l l be necessary t o cont ro l environmental f ac to r s as c lose ly as poss ib le through appropriate s i l v i c u l t u r a l p rac t ices . "

Some of t he qual i ty-regulat ing cha rac t e r i s t i c s tha t a r e he r i t ab l e and subject t o some gene t ic control a r e growth

r a t e s , stem form, and branching hab i t . There i s some evidence t h a t r e s i s t ance t o p e s t s a l s o can be improved through gene t ics ( H i r t 1948, Wright & Gabriel 1959).

S U M M A R Y

An examination of qua l i t y f e a tu r e s of white p ine t r e e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o environment and management prac- t i c e s l eads t o t h e conclusion t h a t through pro tec t ion , s i t e se lec t ion , s tocking control , and a r t i f i c i a l pruning we have o r w i l l soon have the means t o produce j u s t t he kind of t r e e we want i n the sho r t e s t poss ib le time.

Effect of Site & Stocking on Quality Growth

by Robert W. Wilson

I F w e a r e t o use s i t e s e l ec t i on and s tocking cont ro l i n producing high-quality white pine, w e must know how t o

recognize s i t e q u a l i t y . We must a l s o know how si te and s tocking a f f e c t q u a l i t y growth.

S I T E Q U A L I T Y A P P R A I S A L

Height of dominant and codominant t rees , i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r age, is the most commonly used measure of s i t e qua l i t y . When r e f e r r ed t o a standard age through curves of height over age prepared f o r t h a t purpose, i t i s c a l l e d s i t e index. Several s e t s of s i t e - index curves a r e ava i l ab l e f o r white pine (Bar re t t 1934, Frothingham 1914, Gevorkiantz & Zon 1930, Husch 1954, McCormack 1956, Spurr 1952). When a s i t e i s occupied by an even-aged white pine stand more than about 30 years old, i t s q u a l i t y can be estimated by the ap- p rop r i a t e height and age measurements. Damage by t he white- p ine weevil t o t r e e l eaders undoubtedly has some e f f e c t on t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of these estimates, but apparently t he ef- f e c t i s not very g r e a t (Husch & Lyford 1956).

When stands su i t ab l e f o r d i r e c t estimation of white pine s i t e index a r e not present, o ther means must be used. As the r e s u l t of work recent ly completed by Ralph Foster (1959) i n western New England and eas te rn New Hampshire, s i t e qua l i t y fo r white pine can now be estimated from red maple s i t e index. He expressed the re la t ionship between the s i t e indices f o r these two species i n a predict ion equation. Predic t ion i s improved a l i t t l e i f aspect is added a s an independent variable. Foster a l s o concluded t h a t s i t e qua l i t y f o r white pine was governed by the moisture r e l a t i ons of t he s i t e a s expressed by a s many a s f i ve individual s i t e fea- tu res .

A number of other inves t iga tors have sought t o eval- ua te the r e l a t i o n between the height o r s i t e index of white pine and ce r t a in combinations of s i t e features . Investiga- t i ons of t h i s kind provide t h e bas i s f o r estimating , s i t e qua l i t y from the s i t e i t s e l f , regardless of ex is t ing vegeta- t ion .

I n southeastern New Hampshire, height of dominant and codominant white pines has been shown t o increase with increased age, decreased na tura l drainage, and increased stand densi ty (Husch & Lyford 1956). The s ignif icance of stand densi ty may r e s u l t from its r e l a t i o n with stand age and with s i t e fea tures t ha t a f f ec t both height growth and stand den- s i t y ( o r carrying capacity) of the s i t e .

Comparable r e s u l t s have been obtained i n cen t r a l Massachusetts where Spurr (1952) described f i v e s i t e c lasses by the kind of parent material (pr imari ly r e f l ec t i ng or ig in and coarseness of the pa r t i c l e s ) and the depth t o t he water tab le . Poor s i t e s a r e e i t h e r very dry (such as many of the Hinckley, Merrimac, and Jappreg outwash so i l s ) , o r very wet. Medium s i t e s a r e g l a c i a l t i l ls ( r e l a t i v e l y fine-textured) with low t o medium-depth water tables, such a s the Charlton, Brookfield, and Gloucester s o i l s . The bes t s i t e s a r e gla- c i a l t i l l s with high water t ab l e s and moderate t o imperfect drainage such as the Acton and Sutton s o i l s . Similar re- s u l t s have a l s o been obtained i n the Lake S t a t e s (Roe 1935).

I n Maine and the Central S t a t e s the thickness and tex ture of the A and B s o i l horizons have been used in sev- e r a l combinations and modes of expression t o estimate s i t e qua l i t y (Young 1954, Czapowskyj 1957, Gaiser & Merz 1953). Generally, s i t e qua l i ty improves with increased depth and f i n e r tex tures of t he horizons.

Thus, we have a number of s i t e s tudies , each appar- en t ly expressing a bas ic soil-moisture/parent-material rela t ionship with s i t e qua l i t y i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r en t way; and each applicable only i n one loca l i t y . One of the objec- t i v e s of the S t a t i on ' s white pine management program i s t o supplement these f indings with addit ional f i e l d work i n order t o develop a s i te-est imation scheme with regional applicat ion.

S I T E A N D S T O C K I N G

I N R E L A T I O N T O Q U A L I T Y G R O W T H

I n the previous paper, s i t e o r s tocking o r both were considered t o have some e f f e c t on internode length, diameter growth, t r e e form, and c h a r a c t e r of knots . Avai lable in fo r - mation on a number o f these r e l a t i o n s i s a t b e s t fragmentary and i n d i r e c t , bu t a l l t h a t we have s u b s t a n t i a t e s Lane's con- c lus ions .

Height growth, and t h e r e f o r e in ternode length, of dominant t r e e s is g r e a t e s t between t h e ages of 10 and 40 years, approximately. During t h i s per iod i t may be twice a s g r e a t on the b e s t s i t e s a s on t h e poorest ones (Frothing- ham 1914). Average internode length of t r e e s t h a t a r e dominant-between these ages is 1 . 8 f e e t on the b e s t s i t e s , but =t i s not uncommon f o r in ternodes up t o 4 f e e t long t o occur . In ternode l eng th is, of course, l e s s i n t h e t r e e s of t h e lower crown c l a s s e s than i n dominant t r e e s . In ternode l eng th appears t o be independent of s tocking l e v e l (Tarbox & Reed 1924, Hawley 1936)) d e s p i t e t h e apparent r e l a t i o n observed by Husch and Lyford.

Reports of increased diameter growth a f t e r th inning t o reduce s tocking i n white p ine a r e too numerous t o mention. The r e l a t i o n between s tocking and diameter growth i s q u i t e genera l ly accepted. However, t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a th in - ning depends not so much on the amount of s tocking l e f t i n t h e s t and a s on the degree t o which t h e competit ion among t h e remaining t r e e s is r e l i e v e d (Adams & Chapman 1942, Smi t h e r s 1954) .

I n general , white p ine s t ands have been thinned l i g h t l y and from below--taking o u t t h e smal les t and lowest- crown-class t r e e s f i r s t . Dominant t r e e s show l i t t l e o r no response t o such thinnings bu t response among t h e lower crown c l a s s e s i s progress ively g r e a t e r from t h e codominants t o the in termediates . I n a number of t e s t s where both crown th inn ings and th inn ings from below were used, Smithers observed t h a t some t r e e s of a l l crown c l a s s e s responded well t o th inning while o t h e r s responded poorly, depending upon how much of t h e i r competit ion had been remo"ed.

The e f f e c t of s i t e q u a l i t y on diameter growth i s not s o c l e a r - c u t . I t appears t o be much l e s s marked than t h e e f f e c t of s tocking; ye t normal y i e l d t a b l e s show d e f i n i t e inc reases i n average s tand diameter wi th s i t e q u a l i t y , de- s p i t e accompanying inc reases i n normal s tocking. Average diameter of t h e 50 l a r g e s t t r e e s per a c r e ( t h e t r e e s l e a s t inf luenced by s tocking l e v e l ) has been shown t o inc rease with s i t e q u a l i t y (McCormack 1956) and, with the e f f e c t of s tock ing held constant , average diameter of dominant and codominant t r e e s was shown t o inc rease with decreasing n a t u r a l drainage--an inverse expression of s i t e q u a l i t y (Husch & Lyford 1956).

Very l i t t l e i s known about t h e e f f e c t of s i t e and s tock ing on form of white p ine beyond t h e genera l observa- t i o n t h a t i t i s b e t t e r i n dense than open s tands . Behre (1932) sugges t s t h a t form improves a f t e r th inn ing . Observa- t i o n s by Gevorkiantz and Hosley (1929) and Bedel l (1948) suggest t h a t , a s s t ands become over ly dense, form c l a s s de- c reases . The good form of t h e famous "punkin" p ines of t h e p a s t was apparent ly t h e r e s u l t of s t rong compet i t ion dur ing t h e f i r s t 50 years o r so, followed by complete freedom t o grow (Fos te r 1957).

When crowns have c losed by t h e time a whi te p ine s t and is 20 years old, the s i z e of knots i n t h e f i r s t log i s i n v e r s e l y p ropor t iona l t o t h e number o f t r e e s p e r a c r e (Tarbox & Reed 1924). Qual i ty of t h e timber y i e l d from pure s t ands depends upon t h e time requ i red t o complete crown clo- su re . Tarbox and Reed a l s o found t h a t s p e c i e s composition i s an important s tock ing element i n t h e product ion of q u a l i t y t imber. The h ighes t q u a l i t y o f lumber i s produced from pine- hemlock s tands i n which t h e p ine was p a r t i a l l y suppressed through t h e f i r s t 40 t o 50 years of l i f e . The q u a l i t y of lumber produced from a well-stocked pine-hardwood s tand i s b e t t e r than t h a t obta ined from most pure p ine s t ands . How- ever, mixed s tands o f o rd ina ry dens i ty do not produce a s good- q u a l i t y lumber as do dense pure pine s t ands .

Gevorkiantz and Hosley (1929) used t h e r a t i o of r e la - t i v e dead l e n g t h t o crown width a s a measure of t h e growing space a v a i l a b l e t o a t r e e throughout i t s l i f e . They concluded t h a t when t h i s growing space was l a rge , branch s i z e was large, and r a t e of n a t u r a l pruning was low i n comparison t o small growing space.

S I T E A N D S T O C K I N G

I N R E L A T I O N T O S T A N D V O L U M E G R O W T H

Normal whi te pine y i e l d t a b l e s developed f o r New Hampshire (Frothingham 1914) and t h e Lake S t a t e s (Gevorki- a n t z & Zon 1930) g i v e volume of normally stocked whi te p ine s t ands by s i t e and age c l a s s e s . These t a b l e s g i v e u s an es t imate of t h e normal s tocking o r ca r ry ing capac i ty of t h e s i t e i n terms of basa l a rea . They a l s o make p o s s i b l e an es t imate of the n e t volume-growth p o t e n t i a l of the s i t e . However, they a r e not very u s e f u l a s d i r e c t guides t o s i l v i - c u l t u r e and management p r a c t i c e because they do no t consider t h e q u a l i t y of t h e growth nor do they permit e s t imates of growth a t o t h e r s tock ing l e v e l s .

On t h e b e s t s i t e s ( s i t e index 75) normal s tocking i s roughly 250 square f e e t of b a s a l a r e a pe r a c r e a t 50 years and about 310 square f e e t a t 100 years . On t h e poorest s i t e s covered by both y i e l d t a b l e s ( s i t e index 55) normal s tock ing i s about 200 square f e e t a t 50 years and about 250

square f e e t a t 100 years . The corresponding ne t y i e l d s a r e 8,400 and 14,900 cubic f e e t on t h e b e s t sites, 5,100 and 10,100 cub ic f e e t on t h e poorer s i t e s .

Probably t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e a n a l y s i s of per-acre growth r e l a t i o n s i s t h a t made by Smithers (1954) with d a t a from n a t u r a l r ed and whi te p ine s t ands a t the Petawawa Fores t Experiment S t a t ion, Onta r io . P e r i o d i c measurements of a number of th inn ing experiments c a r r i e d on over pe r iods up t o 30 years were a v a i l a b l e . The s o i l s on which t h e s t a n d s grow a r e coarse- textured outwash and water-washed t i l l s ; the s i t e q u a l i t y i s lower than t h a t t y p i c a l of north- e a s t e r n United S t a t e s . S i t e index ranges from about 43 t o about 55 f e e t a t 50 years t o t a l age. Normal s tock ing o r c a r r y i n g capac i ty a l s o appears t o be l e s s than t h a t g iven by o u r normal y i e l d t a b l e s .

I n unthinned s tands , Smithers found t h a t b a s a l a r e a p e r a c r e increased very l i t t l e a f t e r t h e s t and reached 50 t o 55 years of age. This maximum stocking o r ca r ry ing capac i ty was about 220 square f e e t on t h e b e s t s i t e s ( s i t e index 55) and about 140 square f e e t on t h e poorest s i t e s ( s i t e index 40). Gross p e r i o d i c basa l -a rea increment va r ied with s tand age and s i t e q u a l i t y . I n f u l l y stocked s tands t h e g r e a t e s t g ross p e r i o d i c basa l -a rea increment occurs a t about 25 years of age and i s 7+ square f e e t p e r a c r e annual ly on t h e b e s t s i t e s ( s i t e index 55) and 5 square f e e t per a c r e annual ly on t h e poores t . A t 80 years of age, increment drops t o 2.4 and 1.2 square f e e t p e r a c r e annual ly on the b e s t and poores t s i t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Basal a r e a pe r a c r e seemed t o have l i t t l e e f f e c t on g ross basa l -a rea growth. However, t h e r e was a g r e a t d e a l o f v a r i a t i o n from p l o t t o p l o t . Smithers expressed both increment and s tocking l e v e l a s percentages of normal and compared t h e va lues with those t o be expected i f t h e th inn ing d i s t r i b u t i o n had been a s poor a s possible--a p o r t i o n of t h e p l o t c l e a r c u t , t h e remainder uncut. He concluded t h a t i f th inn ings a r e - well d i s t r i b u t e d , i t may be p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y a s tocking 70 percent of normal without s a c r i f i c e i n g r o s s basa l -a rea increment.

Among these p l o t s , c u r r e n t annual n e t increment and n e t y i e l d s p l u s th inn ings were c o n s i s t e n t l y g r e a t e r on t h e th inned than on t h e unthinned p l o t s . Gross yie ld , including mor ta l i ty , was l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by th inn ing i n most cases . The same r e l a t i o n s h i p s he ld f o r board-foot volume.

A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of the p l o t d a t a given by Smithers r e v e a l s t h a t p e r i o d i c n e t cubic-foot increment dec reases wi th age and inc reases with s i t e q u a l i t y but i s unaffected by s t and dens i ty . S i t e q u a l i t y i s t h e more important v a r i - a b l e i n exp la in ing cubic-foot increment. Board-foot n e t p e r i o d i c increment i s inf luenced by a l l t h r e e independent v a r i a b l e s . S i t e q u a l i t y i s t h e most important va r iab le , followed by s tand d e n s i t y .

S U M M A R Y

From information now available it is possible to draw some general conclusions about the relation of site and stocking to the growth of quality sawtimber:

The best sites produce not only the greatest growth of timber but the best quality timber--other things being equal.

A substantial reduction of stocking below the normal level is possible without loss of per-acre volume growth.

Stocking level, in itself, has limited influence on quality growth. Internode length is not affected by

stocking level. Branch size is smaller and rate of natural pruning is greater at high than at ,low stocking levels but the differences in terms of timber quality are not very great. Average diameter growth is less in high-stocked than in low-stocked stands.

Effect of Site & Stocking on Reproduction

by William E. McQuilkin

S ITE in the strictly physical sense refers to the conditions on an area that derive from the soil and its

location with respect to slope, aspect, altitude, and regional climate. Closely associated, and comprising an in- tegral part of site in the broad sense, are biologic factors, of which plant cover usually is the most obvious and often has the most influence upon tree reproduction. In these remarks the term site is used in the physical sense, and stocking refers to the plant cover on a physical site.

Site and stocking profoundly affect the establishment of white pine reproduction, its survival and growth through the seedling-sapling period, and the species composition of young stands developing after logging, fire, or agricultural use. The effects of site and stocking upon growth of trees and stands beyond the sapling stages have been discussed by Wilson in the preceding paper.

E S T A B L I S H M E N T O F R E P R O D U C T I O N

Assuming the presence of seed o r p lan ted seedl ings , and l o c a t i o n wi th in t h e n a t u r a l range of white pine, s i t e and s tocking a f f e c t t h e f a t e o f whi te p ine reproduct ion l a r g e l y through t h r e e b a s i c s i l v i c a l o r eco log ica l f a c t o r s : s u r f a c e s o i l temperature, s o i l moisture, and l i g h t .

S u r f a c e S o i l T e m p e r a t u r e

Surface s o i l temperatures a r e of g r e a t e s t concern i n e s t a b l i s h i n g white p ine d i r e c t l y from seed. I t has been known from t h e t i m e of Tourney's s t u d i e s t h a t su r face s o i l temperatures i n t h e open commonly become high enough t o cause m o r t a l i t y of newly germinated white p ine seed l ings (Tourney & Neethling 1924). David Smith (1951) c i t e s Lorenz (1939) i n p lac ing t h e th resho ld of heat i n j u r y a t 131°F. Seedl ings a r e most vulnerable immediately a f t e r emergence; by mid and l a t e summer the danger of h e a t m o r t a l i t y i s prac- t i c a l l y over .

The composition and c o l o r of t h e s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l have considerable e f f e c t upon t h e build-up of hea t . The black s u r f a c e of r ecen t burns i s very conducive t o high temperatures. P i n e l i t ter becomes one o f t h e h o t t e s t sur- f a c e s when exposed t o f u l l sun; i n f a c t , p ine seed l ings r a r e l y su rv ive on f u l l y exposed p ine l i t t e r un less t h e spe- c i f i c m i c r o s i t e of a seed l ing rece ives some mid-day shade, a s from a rock, a fragment of wood, o r another p l a n t . Moss mats, p a r t i c u l a r l y of Polytrichum moss, a r e among t h e cool- e s t and most f avorab le seedbeds f o r white p ine . Mineral s o i l f a l l s i n between.

Obviously su r face s o i l temperatures a r e important t o seed l ing su rv iva l only i n s p o t s o r a reas t h a t r ece ive f u l l mid-day sun. Vegetation of any s o r t t h a t w i l l shade t h e ground amel iorates t h e condition, and reduces t h e importance of seed-bed m a t e r i a l . The shade of a shelterwood enab les seed l ings t o s t a r t and surv ive even on p i n e - l i t t e r seedbeds.

Mineral s o i l , when dry and i n t h e open, can b u i l d up l e t h a l temperatures, but it i s a favorab le seedbed i f moist o r l i g h t l y shaded. Since i t does not dry o u t s o quickly a s p i n e l i t t e r , seed l ings on mineral s o i l even i n t h e open have a f a i r chance t o su rv ive t h e c r u c i a l weeks immediately a f t e r emergence. Where excess ive s tocking t o undes i rab le brushy o r herbaceous p l a n t s n e c e s s i t a t e s s i t e p repara t ion with earth-moving equipment, exposure of mineral s o i l i s a normal consequence. Despi te some danger from hea t in jury, c r e a t i o n of a mineral -soi l seedbed i n such a r e a s usua l ly i s t h e most p r a c t i c a b l e measure t h a t we can t ake t o favor n a t u r a l whi te p i n e regenerat ion. I f t h e s i t e treatment can be manipulated t o leave a s c a t t e r e d o r s p a r s e p l a n t cover t o provide some shade, so much the b e t t e r .

Phys ica l s i t e p r o p e r t i e s a f f e c t the l ike l ihood of l e t h a l su r face temperatures occurr ing i n exposed mineral- s o i l seedbeds. S o i l t e x t u r e a f f e c t s water-holding capaci ty: sandy s o i l s dry o u t f a s t e r than f i n e r textured ones, and thus a r e more sub jec t t o hea t ing . P o s i t i o n on a s lope and aspect a f f e c t moisture r e l a t i o n s : upper s lopes and south- e r l y o r wester ly aspec t s d ry quicker and t o g r e a t e r degree than t h e oppos i te pos i t ions , again predisposing t o sur face- s o i l hea t ing .

S o i l M o i s t u r e a n d L i g h t

Since both s o i l moisture and l i g h t a r e much i n f l u - enced by p l a n t cover, and can most r e a d i l y be modified by manipulations of the cover, they may be considered toge ther . A l l types of cover, from low herbs t o t a l l t r e e s , use and compete f o r s o i l moisture, and a l l except t h e lowest herbs reduce t h e l i g h t a v a i l a b l e t o small p i n e seedl ings . I n general , l i g h t i s the more c r u c i a l f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g seed l ing surv iva l . Moisture d e f i c i e n c i e s may account f o r considerable mor ta l i ty i n t h e immediate post-emergence period, and i n open spo ts may predispose t o heat in jury; but t h e r e a f t e r i t s e f f e c t s a r e manifested more i n reduced growth than i n out- r i g h t m o r t a l i t y . I n nature, however, without t h e helping hand of man o r t h e d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n of f i r e o r windthrow, t h e vas t major i ty of t h e p i n e seed l ings t h a t germinate do not g e t enough l i g h t t o survive. White p ine seed l ings re- q u i r e a s a minimum about 20 percent of f u l l n a t u r a l l i g h t t o surv ive and grow enough t o maintain themselves from year t o year ( S h i r l e y 1945).

So, t o provide condi t ions favorable f o r white p ine regenerat ion, we must work l a r g e l y with t h e p l a n t cover. I n f o r e s t stands, we open t h e canopy by shelterwood, patch, o r s t r i p cu t t ings , and a s necessary c o n t r o l t h e unders tory and ground cover with chemicals (Fos te r 1954) o r by such t r e a t - ments a s disking. I n brushlands o r heavy sod, we reduce t h e cover with earth-moving equipment or, i n some s i t u a t i o n s , with chemicals. Bearing i n mind tha t , f o r regenerat ion from seed, some shade is des i rab le , t h e aim i n a l l such opera- t i o n s should be t o reduce and c o n t r o l the cover, but not t o e l imina te i t . Such con t ro l r e s u l t s i n condi t ions t h a t minimize hea t in ju ry , reduce t h e competit ion f o r s o i l moisture, and g i v e t h e p ine seedlings--whether n a t u r a l o r planted-- adequate f i g h t f o r good growth.

J U V E N I L E S U R V I V A L A N D G R O W T H

With a ca tch of whi te p ine seedlings--natural o r planted--on the ground, s i t e and s tocking continue t o a f f e c t t h e i r growth through t h e b a s i c f a c t o r s of s o i l mois ture and l i g h t . The physical s i t e - - s o i l t ex ture , topographic posi-

t ion, aspect, e t c . - -a f fec t s mois ture r e l a t i o n s d i r e c t l y ; a lso , i n d i r e c t l y , i t a f f e c t s both s o i l mois ture and l i g h t through i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e stocking, growth ra tes , and composition of t h e assoc ia ted p l a n t cover.

I n general , hardwood spec ies become e s t a b l i s h e d i n g r e a t e r numbers and grow much more vigorously on heavier, mois ter s o i l s than on t h e s a n d i e r s o i l s and d r i e r s i t e s . Ecological and weeding s t u d i e s show conclusively t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e capac i ty of white p ine t o compete v a r i e s wi th site q u a l i t y : it competes r e l a t i v e l y b e t t e r on t h e sand ie r o r d r i e r s i t e s . Because t h e hardwoods do poorly on t h e s e sites, s u b s t a n t i a l numbers of whi te pine seed l ings can g e t enough l i g h t t o become e s t a b l i s h e d and t o cont inue t o grow, even tua l ly overtopping t h e hardwoods and becoming dominant. On t h e s i t e s where hardwoods t h r i v e b e t t e r , any whi te p ine seed l ings t h a t may s t a r t a r e mostly shaded ou t i n t h e seed- l i n g o r smal l -sapl ing s t ages .

These d i f f e r i n g spec ies c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s thus r e s u l t , under n a t u r a l competition, i n white p ine being r e s t r i c t e d l a r g e l y t o t h e sandier , d r i e r s i t e s . This has given r i s e t o t h e concepts of "white pine s i t e s " and "permanent white p ine types." A whi te p ine site i n t h i s sense means l i t t l e more than t h a t i t i s a poor s i t e f o r hardwoods. I n t h e i r phys- i c a l a t t r i b u t e s , such sites a r e mostly only mediocre f o r p ine growth.

White pine, i f f r e e from suppression, a c t u a l l y grows b e s t on t h e so-cal led "hardwood s i t e s " ; i .e . , i t responds t o t h e same s i t e f a c t o r s t h a t f avor hardwoods. I t i s genera l ly absent from such s i t e s because, under n a t u r a l competition, t h e hardwoods respond with even g r e a t e r v igor . Where s i t e q u a l i t y f a l l s between d e f i n i t e l y good and d e f i n i t e l y poor f o r hardwoods, p ines and hardwoods dur ing t h e seedling-sap- l i n g pe r iod tend t o compete on more near ly equal terms, and pine-hardwood s tands commonly r e s u l t . Except where n a t u r a l t r e n d s a r e upset by cu t t ings , f i r e , o r o t h e r dis turbance, t h e b e t t e r t h e sits, the fewer t h e p ines t h a t w i l l su rv ive t o en te r i n t o t h e l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e s t and .

Insect Damage & Control

by Raymond C. Brown

E ASTERN white p ine i s known hos t t o nea r ly 50 i n s e c t spec ies (Craighead 1950) including roo t , bark, and

l e a f f eeders ; bark, phloem, wood, twig and cone b o r e r s ; and sucking i n s e c t s t h a t i n f e s t a l l p a r t s of t h e t r e e . Most of these cause r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e timber damage i n the f o r e s t . k few cause r e a l damage when they reach epidemic l e v e l s . Three can be r a t e d a s very d e s t r u c t i v e i n s e c t s : t h e cone b e e t l e , t h e p a l e s weevil, and t h e white-pine weevil .

Each i s a n a t i v e i n s e c t i n North America. Each c a r r i e s an enormous p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of whi te p ine t imber va lues . And each is near ly alwayb presen t i n s u f f i c i e n t numbers t o cause s u b s t a n t i a l damage. While none of them th rea tens t h e ex i s tence of white p ine a s a species , they do, i n combination, s e r i o u s l y r e s t r i c t reproduct ion and reduce volume and q u a l i t y of whi te p ine timber crops . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o contemplate what white p ine management might accomplish i n t h e absence of these t h r e e i n s e c t s .

R O L E O F C O N E B E E T L E

The d e s t r u c t i v e power of the cone b e e t l e has been d ramat ica l ly demonstrated on t h e Massabesic Experimental Fores t a t Alfred, Maine, where, except f o r a l i g h t seed c rop i n 1954, v i r t u a l l y no seed has matured i n 7 yea rs . Observa- t i o n s dur ing the l a s t t h r e e of those years have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t good crops of cones were s e t every year but nea r ly a l l cones were dest royed i n t h e i r second season by the cone bee- t l e .

No region-wide survey has been conducted t o determine t h e ex ten t of damage, f o r a s y e t no p r a c t i c a l method has been devised t o make such an a p p r a i s a l . However, i t i s known t h a t the cone b e e t l e occurs throughout t h e n a t u r a l range of white p ine and t h a t i t i s capable of completely des t roy ing t h e seed c rop i n some a r e a s i n c e r t a i n years .

Fores t entomologists i n genera l have sh ied away from cone insec t s , probably because i t is not easy t o s tudy an i n s e c t a t t h e top of a seed-producing t r e e . Consequently, we lack informat ion on the biology and h a b i t s of t h e white- p ine cone b e e t l e .

The a d u l t b e e t l e s apparent ly h ibe rna te i n i n f e s t e d cones t h a t f a l l t o t h e ground p r i o r t o maturat ion. I n the e a r l y sp r ing t h e b e e t l e s emerge from t h e dead cones and a t t a c k l i v i n g second-year cones. The b e e t l e s mine down the

a x i s of the cones and k i l l them. Eggs a r e l a i d i n the in- f e s t e d cones, and the b e e t l e grubs feed on s c a l e s and seed. Development is completed i n t h e cone.

E f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l the cone b e e t l e have not been encouraging. I n 1956 a number of i n s e c t i c i d e s were appl ied t o a few t r e e s with a m i s t blower. The r e s u l t s looked promising. I n 1957 t h e two b e s t m a t e r i a l s were appl ied i n e a r l y s p r i n g by h e l i c o p t e r t o lo -ac re p l o t s on the Massabesic Fores t . P r o t e c t i o n from b e e t l e a t t a c k was apparent ly ob- t a ined f o r a few weeks, but by Augus.t a l l cones on pines i n the sprayed p l o t s were i n f e s t e d . I t must be concluded from these t e s t s t h a t more information on the biology and h a b i t s of t h e i n s e c t is needed t o ob ta in con t ro l , e i t h e r by chemi- c a l o r o t h e r means.

R O L E O F P A L E S W E E V I L

The pa les weevil i s respons ib le f o r heavy l o s s e s of white p ine seed l ings on r e c e n t l y cut-over p ine l ands . No es t imates of s t a tewide o r r eg iona l l o s s e s have been made, bu t f o r e s t e r s and entomologis ts have o f t e n observed near ly complete m o r t a l i t y of seed l ings es tab l i shed a f t e r t h e cut- t i n g of a pine s t and . When pine i s planted r i g h t a f t e r a c u t t i n g operat ion, t o t a l l o s s of t h e p lan ted s tock is t h e usual r e s u l t .

The l o s s e s a r e t h e r e s u l t of stem-girdling by the a d u l t weevil . Adults over-winter i n the l i t t e r . They emerge i n the sp r ing and feed on t h e tender bark of s a p l i n g twigs and a t the bases of small seed l ings . Eggs a r e l a i d i n the inner bark of f r e s h l y c u t p ine logs and stumps. A new crop of a d u l t s appears i n September.

The most severe damage t o seed l ing pines i s caused by t h i s second generat ion. They feed mostly a t n i g h t ; by day they feed below the su r face of the l i t t e r . The f i r s t evidence of damage is the wi l t ed seed l ings . Then i t i s too l a t e f o r c o n t r o l measures.

Several means a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r p ro tec t ing seed l ings from a t t a c k . One i s t o delay p l a n t i n g o r o t h e r regenerat ion t reatments u n t i l t h e i n s e c t populat ion has subsided. Cut- over a r e a s may be s a f e l y p lan ted t h e second o r t h i r d season a f t e r c u t t i n g . Bundled seed l ing may be dipped i n lead arse- n a t e suspensions, o r emulsions of DDT o r benzene hexa- chlor ide , taking c a r e t h a t t h e r o o t s do not come i n con tac t wi th the chemical. O r , s eed l ings may be sprayed a f t e r they have been planted ( P o t t s 1955).

R O L E O F W H I T E - P I N E W E E V I L

The g r e a t reduct ion of whi te p ine timber volume and q u a l i t y assoc ia ted with stem crooks and . fo rks i s common

knowledge among people dea l ing with t h e spec ies . Much o f t h i s l o s s i s caused by t h e white-pine weevil, which i n the opinion of many i s t h e most s e r i o u s f o r e s t i n s e c t p e s t i n t h e Northeast . How g r e a t t h e l o s s has been i s p a r t i a l l y documented by the r e s u l t s o f a s tudy of whi te pine p l o t s i n New Hampshire (Waters e t a 1 1955). I n t h a t s t a t e , t h e t o t a l s tanding volume i s an es t imated 13 percent l e s s i n pole- timber t r e e s and an es t imated 40 percent l e s s i n t h e sawtimber p o r t i o n of sawtimber t r e e s than i t would have been had t r e e s n o t been damaged by t h e weevil . And the s i t u a t i o n i s a l l t h e more s e r i o u s because t h e r e i s s t i l l no f u l l y e f f e c t i v e and p r a c t i c a l way t o c o n t r o l the weevil under a l l cond i t ions .

Trees become s u s c e p t i b l e t o a t t a c k when they reach a he igh t of about 3 f e e t and remain s u s c e p t i b l e t h e r e a f t e r . The leader , and o f t e n one o r two previous y e a r ' s growth, is k i l l e d by the feeding of many l a r v a e under t h e bark. Sub- sequently, one o r more s i d e branches assume dominance, and a crooked o r forked t r e e r e s u l t s .

Eggs a r e l a i d i n e a r l y sp r ing by a d u l t s t h a t emerge from t h e duff where they overwinter . Thus damage can be prevented by k i l l i n g t h e weevil a d u l t s b e f o r e eggs a r e l a i d .

This can be accomplished by thoroughly spraying the l e a d e r s i n e a r l y sp r ing p r i o r t o egg-laying (Crosby 1954). A number of chemicals a r e e f f e c t i v e and i t has been found t h a t some appl ied i n the f a l l a r e e f f e c t i v e t h e following s p r i n g (Crosby 1958). But t o o b t a i n t h e thorough coverage requ i red f o r complete con t ro l , the spray must be appl ied with knapsack sprayers and t h i s r e s t r i c t s t reatment t o small t r e e s . Even with an extension rod a t t ached t o t h e sprayer , t reatment i s l i m i t e d t o t r e e s no more than 12 f e e t t a l l .

Exhaustive t e s t s with a i r c r a f t , us ing high dosages of many i n s e c t i c i d e s , have been made (Connola e t a 1 1955). A t e s t conducted i n 1957 using 4 pounds of DIYT i n 4 g a l l o n s of spray per a c r e app l ied by a i r p l a n e f a i l e d t o g ive s a t i s f a c - t o r y c o n t r o l . He l icop te r s have given b e t t e r r e s u l t s than fixed-wing p lanes . Ninety-eight percent con t ro l has been obtained i n some t e s t s . But t h e problem i n ae r ia l - sp ray a p p l i c a t i o n is t o c o n s i s t e n t l y o b t a i n thorough coverage of t h e l eader .

Control of t h e weevil through s i l v i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s may be a p o s s i b i l i t y , f o r i t i s common knowledge t h a t weevil a t t a c k i s l e s s severe on white p ines growing i n mixture wi th hardwoods t h a t over top them than on open-grown p ines . The problem, therefore , i s t o c rea te , through s i l v i c u l t u r a l methods, j u s t t h e r i g h t amount of overtopping t o i n h i b i t weevil g t t a c k and s t i l l permit s a t i s f a c t o r y growth of pine .

Disease Damage & Control a

by Marvin E. Fowler

HITE p ines may be k i l l e d o r ro t t ed , o r both, by d i s - w eases t h a t a t t a c k t h e l i v i n g t r e e s . Some d i s e a s e s of whi te pine produce ex te rna l symptoms t h a t a r e r e a d i l y noticed, but many o t h e r s a r e o f t e n obscure t o t h e unprac- t i c e d observer . Knowledge of d i sease behavior i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e development of sound c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s . Our f i r s t l i n e of a t t a c k a g a i n s t d i s e a s e s should be t o prevent condi- t i o n s t h a t favor them and t o recognize and con t ro l poten- t i a l l y s e r i o u s d i s e a s e s be fore damage becomes widespread and s e r i o u s .

W H I T E P I N E B L I S T E R R U S T

White p ine b l i s t e r r u s t cont inues t o be t h e p r i n c i p a l d i s e a s e t h r e a t t o whi te pine . I t w i l l i n f e c t , and eventu- a l l y k i l l , whi te p ines a t any age o r s t a g e of development. Even before t h e d i s e a s e was introduced i n t o t h i s country it was widespread and had i n f l i c t e d severe l o s s e s i n e a s t e r n whi te pine p l a n t a t i o n s i n western Europe. The l i f e h i s t o r y of the fungus had been worked o u t and p a t h o l o g i s t s knew t h a t t h e fungus could n o t spread from pine t o p ine but had t o spread t o r i b e s and from them t o p ine .

Thus, when t h e white p i n e b l i s t e r r u s t was discovered on c u l t i v a t e d r i b e s i n N e w York S t a t e a h a l f century ago, i t s t h r e a t t o our n a t i v e white p ine s t ands was immediately recognized. I n 1915 a con t ro l program was i n i t i a t e d , based on the d e s t r u c t i o n of r i b e s i n and near white p ine s tands . The cont inuing con t ro l program has given p r o t e c t i o n t o o u r commercial whi te p ine s tands . There is no doubt tha t ,wi th - o u t con t ro l , a l l of our r ibes - inhab i ted commercial s t ands i n t h e Northeast would be dest royed before they reached m e r - chantable s i z e .

B l i s t e r r u s t is ins id ious , and t h e g r e a t e s t economic l o s s i t can cause is no t r e a d i l y apparent . I n a r e a s where con t ro l measures have n o t been i n i t i a t e d , t h e r u s t usua l ly k i l l s s o many seed l ings and small sap l ings t h a t i t p reven t s t h e development of commercial s t ands . The more apparent l o s s e s of volume and q u a l i t y from cankers and k i l l e d t r e e s (much of which goes unsalvaged) i s u s u a l l y l i g h t and sca t - t e r e d . Only occas iona l ly a r e heavy l o s s e s encountered i n s t ands of merchantable s i z e .

Consequently, regenerat ion and management of young whi te p ine s t ands is p r a c t i c a l only where r i b e s do no t regenera te r e a d i l y o r where they a r e e rad ica ted . I n l a r g e

pole-s ized stands, management i s p r a c t i c a l i n regard t o b l i s t e r r u s t whether the r i b e s a r e e rad ica ted o r n o t . I n f a c t , t h e opportuni ty t o remove diseased and k i l l e d t r e e s i n improvement and salvage c u t s can reduce rust-caused l o s s i n s t ands of t h i s k ind.

B l i s t e r r u s t con t ro l measures have worked wel l i n most a r e a s and have provided the p r o t e c t i o n d e s i r e d . But i n some l o c a l i t i e s c o n t r o l is hampered by environmental condi- t i o n s t h a t f a v o r t h e development and spread of the r u s t . Fog, humidity, temperature, and p r e v a i l i n g wind a l l a f f e c t r u s t behavior . For ins tance, a reas where fog s e t t l e s f avor r u s t spread more than nearby higher ground. Research on these e f f e c t s of c l imate and micro-climate i s being conducted i n t h e Lake S t a t e s and t h e West; and t h e r e s u l t s w i l l no doubt apply, a t l e a s t p a r t l y , i n the Northeast .

For many years p a t h o l o g i s t s and f o r e s t e r s have looked f o r a n a t i v e white p i n e t h a t i s r e s i s t a n t t o b l i s t e r r u s t . A number of p ines have been s e l e c t e d f o r r e s i s t a n c e and a r e being f i e l d - t e s t e d . I n one t e s t t h e S t a t i o n i s cooperat ing with t h e New York S t a t e Univers i ty College of Fores t ry a t Syracuse. Se lec ted t r e e s a r e ou tp lan ted and rus t - in fec ted r i b e s a r e grown between t h e rows of pine . In fec ted p ines a r e allowed t o d i e and t h e o t h e r s a r e kept under observat ion.

C A N K E R S A N D D I E B A C K S

I n a d d i t i o n t o white p ine b l i s t e r r u s t t h e r e a r e a h a l f dozen o t h e r fungi t h a t cause cankers on t h e main stems of whi te p ine . Some of t h e s e w i l l occas iona l ly g i r d l e and k i l l t h e trees, but t h e damage c o n s i s t s mostly of degrade and of storm breakage t h a t i s increased by t h e weakening e f f e c t of t h e cankers . The b e s t known stem cankers a r e those caused by Phomopsis, A trope l lus, and Tympanis .

Two dieback fungi, a Diplodia and a Cenangium, some- t imes cause damage t o white pine . The t r e e crop i s no t threatened by them, but l o s s e s i n r e s t r i c t e d a r e a s a r e some- t imes severe .

Both canker and dieback d i s e a s e s a r e most damaging on t r e e s of low v igor . Thus t h e es tabl ishment of p l a n t a t i o n s and t h e favor ing of n a t u r a l reproduct ion on good s i t e s , proper c o n t r o l o f s t and densi ty , and o t h e r p r a c t i c e s t h a t r e s u l t i n vigorous growing s tock , w i l l do much i n minimizing these d i s e a s e l o s s e s .

WOOD D E C A Y

Decays of h e a r t and sapwood g r e a t l y reduce timber q u a l i t y and volume. I n old-growth white p ine decay i s be-

l i e v e d t o amount t o more t h a n 20 pe rcen t of t h e volume. There i s no r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e of t h e a d d i t i o n a l l o s s i n q u a l i t y . I n a l a r g e sample i n On ta r io , i t was found t h a t 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e 60-year age c l a s s whi te p i n e s con ta ined decay (White 1953) . T h i s pe rcen tage inc reased wi th age t o t h e 220-year age c l a s s i n which a l l of t h e t r e e s had some decay.

Over 30 s p e c i e s o f fung i a r e known t o cause r o t i n l i v i n g o r dead whi te p i n e i n t h e Nor theas t . I n t h e l i v i n g t r e e t h e fung i e n t e r through some abnormal opening. Broken stems, s c a r s from logging o p e r a t i o n s and from f i r e s , ax b l azes , a t t a c k s by i n s e c t s , and n a t u r a l pruning o f l a r g e branches cause such openings.

The most common of t h e h e a r t - r o t t i n g fungi , r e d r i n g r o t (Fomes p i n i ) , causes l a r g e losses of t imber volume and, i n i t s i n c i p i e n t s t ages , causes degrade o f an a d d i t i o n a l l a r g e volume o f lumber. I t f r e q u e n t l y e n t e r s t h e t r e e through l e a d e r s k i l l e d by t h e whi te-p ine weevil s o t h a t , i n e f f e c t , t h i s i n s e c t is a double hazard i n t h e management o f wh i t e p i n e f o r q u a l i t y sawtimber.

P r e v e n t i o n o f i n j u r y t o l i v i n g t r e e s w i l l g r e a t l y reduce r o t l o s s e s . B u t t - r o t l o s s e s a r e reduced through f i r e p r o t e c t i o n and g r e a t e r c a r e i n logging. Trunk r o t s a r e r e - duced through avo id ing logg ing damage, removal o f r o t - r i s k trees i n p a r t i a l cu t s , making sa lvage c u t s i n bad ly damaged s t ands , j u d i c i o u s pruning, and a d j u s t i n g t h e r o t a t i o n age s o a s t o h a r v e s t t h e t r e e s b e f o r e t h e r o t i n c r e a s e o f f s e t s t h e growth increment .

R O O T R O T S

Di sease l o s s e s i n wh i t e p i n e p l a n t a t i o n s have in- c r eased i n r e c e n t yea r s . Fomes annosus, a b u t t - and roo t - r o t fungus, i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y impor t an t , The r o o t d i s e a s e caused by t h i s fungus has n o t been impor tant i n n a t u r a l s t a n d s , b u t l o s s e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g i n o l d e r c o n i f e r o u s p l a n t a t i o n s . The fungus b u i l d s up and sp reads a s f r e s h l y c u t stumps become i n f e c t e d fo l lowing t h i n n i n g o p e r a t i o n s . Once t h e fungus spreatls through t h e r o o t s o f t h e c u t t r e e s i t can sp read i n t o ad jacen t l i v i n g t r e e s when t h e i r r o o t s come i n t o c o n t a c t w i th t h e d i s e a s e d r o o t s . En la rg ing pock- e t s o f dead t r e e s r e s u l t .

Fomes annosus r o o t r o t is a l r e a d y a s e r i o u s problem i n c o n i f e r o u s p l a n t a t i o n s i n New Jersey, N e w York, and t h e N e w England S t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y on r e d p i n e . I t i s p r e s e n t i n s e v e r a l whi te p i n e p l a n t a t i o n s , and whi le l o s s e s have n o t been severe , t h e t h r e a t i s very r e a l . T h i s fungus i s re- p o r t e d t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e decay i n c o n i f e r s i n Grea t B r i t a i n . We a r e c u r r e n t l y t e s t i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of applying c r e o s o t e t o f r e s h l y c u t stumps i n

th inned p l a n t a t i o n s . B r i t i s h p a t h o l o g i s t s have recommended t h i s procedure a s an e f f e c t i v e o o n t r o l .

The shoe s t r i n g fungus, Armi 1 laria me 1 lea, and Phyto- phthora r o o t r o t a l s o cause l o s s e s of whi te p ine . The form- e r is p a r t i c u l a r l y seve re on t r e e s of low v igor and t h e l a t t e r on t r e e s growing on wet s i t e s . P roper s i t e s e l e c t i o n and maintenance of t r e e v i g o r a r e t h e b e s t ways of combat- t i n g l o s s e s from t h e s e d i s e a s e s .

F O L I A G E D I S E A S E S

The d i s e a s e s t h a t a t t a c k t h e f o l i a g e of wh i t e p ine cause an undetermined amount o f damage. I n f e c t e d t r e e s a r e seldom k i l l e d , b u t t h e i r v igor and r a t e of growth a r e a f - f e c t e d . T rees of low v igor become more s u s c e p t i b l e t o o t h e r d i s e a s e s and e v a l u a t i o n of t h e importance of t h e need le d i s - e a s e s becomes more complicated.

White p i n e i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o a number of need le fung i . The more common a r e s p e c i e s of Septoria, Phacidiam, Bis-

fusella, and Hypoderma.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e need le d i s e a s e s of known cause t h e r e i s through much of t h e Nor theas t a gene ra l d e c l i n e of w i ~ i t e p i n e from an unknown cause. The cond i t ion i s - P a r t i c - u l a r l y seve re l o c a l l y , from Massachuset ts t o Maine. I n t h i s d i sease , t h e needles a r e c h l o r o t i c and s h o r t . The symptoms d i f f e r from t h e more commonly known whi te p i n e needle b l i g h t ( a l s o from an unknown cause) i n which t h e c u r r e n t y e a r ' s need les d i e from t h e t i p t o about h a l f t h e i r l e n g t h . While t h e r e i s some thought t h a t s i t e and t r e e v i g o r may b e asso- c i a t e d wi th t h i s dec l ine , we cannot recommend p r a c t i c e s t o e f f e c t c o n t r o l .

C O N C L U S I O N

I n t e n s i v e surveys a r e necessary t o o b t a i n p r e c i s e d a t a on t h e magnitude of t h e impact of d i s e a s e s of e a s t e r n whi te p i n e . By such means more accura te e s t i m a t e s of f u t u r e t imber y i e l d s could be made, d i sease - re sea rch p r i o r i t i e s e s t a b l i s h e d , and adequate d i s e a s e c o n t r o l and r e l a t e d re- sea rch needs determined.

We need t o measure t h e d i s e a s e l o s s e s caused by h e a r t r o t s , r o o t r o t s , cankers , and o t h e r major d i s e a s e s . We need a d d i t i o n a l informat ion on t h e behavior of d i s e a s e organisms and on t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t t h e i r spread and i n t e n s i - f i c a t i o n . We need more informat ion on t h e e f f e c t s of management p r a c t i c e s on t h e occurrence and s e v e r i t y of d i s e a s e s . I n shor t , we need more r e s e a r c h on t h e d i s e a s e s of whi te p i n e t h a t w i l l l e a d t o improved c o n t r o l measures. Every r educ t ion i n t h e d i s e a s e l o s s , e i t h e r i n volume o r i n qual- i t y , w i l l be a n e t g a i n t o whi t e p ine f o r e s t r y .

White Pine Management for Quality Production

Evaluating Management Opportunities

0

by Carl H. Stoltenberg

I N one way o r another, the f o r e s t e r ea rns h i s bread and b u t t e r b$ being a b l e t o advise f o r e s t owners about fo r -

e s t r y p r a c t i c e s . And bacause owners want t h e i r funds used prudently, t h e f o r e s t e r i s a c t u a l l y concerned with t h e re- l a t i o n s h i p of management p r a c t i c e c o s t s and t h e value of t h e i r r e s u l t s .

Thus from the f o r e s t e r ' s s tandpoint , t h e ques t ion "What's known about managing white pine?" might appropri- a t e l y be phrased "1n s p e c i f i c s tands , what r e t u r n s can be expected from s p e c i f i c investments t o maintain pine, in- c r e a s e i t s growth r a t e , and improve i t s qua l i ty?"

This o r i e n t a t i o n p laces our knowledge of white p ine management i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t l i g h t . Several b r i e f examples w i l l i l l u s t r a t e the d i s t i n c t i o n .

I N F O R M A T I O N N E E D E D

F O R I N V E S T M E N T A N A L Y S E S

We know t h a t on t h e b e t t e r s i t e s ( t h e heavier s o i l s ) p i n e w i l l u sua l ly be competing with valuable hardwoods, and on t h e poorer s i t e s wi th r e l a t i v e l y low-value hardwoods. We know t h a t i t w i l l t ake more e f f o r t pe r ac re t o keep p ine i n t h e mixture on t h e heavier s o i l s ; bu t on t h e o t h e r hand these good s i t e s can grow p ine fas ter- -perhaps twice a s f a s t a s t h e poorer s i t e s . Unfortunately, we don ' t know how t h e cost-per-thousand of growing pine v a r i e s with s i t e condi- t i o n s . S i l v i c i d e s have put p ine management of the b e t t e r s i t e s wi thin the realm of poss ib i l i ty - -bu t we d o n ' t y e t know under what condi t ions t h e i r use is p r a c t i c a l .

We know t h a t t r e e s i n l i g h t l y stocked s tands grow f a s t e r i n diameter than t r e e s i n dense s tands , and t h a t th inn ing i s a non-commercial venture i n young s tands . But we don ' t know i n which s t ands th inning investments w i l l pay o f f .

We know t h a t c l e a r p ine logs a r e more valuable than kno t ty ones, and a l s o t h a t they c o s t more t o produce. But we don ' t know whether t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t i s warranted i n view of f u t u r e market prospects .

We know p i n e i n dense s t ands develops c l e a r bo les f a s t e r than i f i t i s open-grown. We a l s o know t h a t a r t i f i - c i a l pruning could achieve t h e c l e a r b o l e without slowing t h e t r e e ' s growth. But we don ' t know whether t h e f i n a n c i a l advantages l i e with dense-stands-and-natural-pruning o r wi th open-stands-and-artif icial-pruning.

We know t h a t white-pine weevil damage i s s e r i o u s and a l s o t h a t weevil-control c o s t s a r e high. But we a r e j u s t beginning t o develop a sound b a s i s f o r s e l e c t i n g those s t ands i n which the c o s t s of weevil con t ro l a r e l e s s than t h e c o s t s of weevil damage without c o n t r o l . 2

We know t h a t damage from t h e white-pine weevil is l e s s when p ine has an overs to ry of hardwood. But unfortu- n a t e l y t h i s overs to ry slows t h e growth of t h e pine, in- c reases the number o f knots pe r log, and leaves the p ine i n a, rus t - suscep t ib le s t a g e longer . But our knowledge i s n ' t good enough t o i d e n t i f y those cases where t h e s i l v i c u l t u r a l form of weevil con t ro l would be more expensive than spraying. Or those where n e i t h e r i s j u s t i f i e d .

B l i s t e r r u s t w i l l e l imina te pine under c e r t a i n condi- t ions--but i n o t h e r s t ands l o s s e s a r e l e s s , and i n some s tands they a r e neg l ig ib le . A study now being completed by

%arty, Robert J . , and Glen R. A l l i s o n , 'Assessing white-pine weevi l c o n t r o l o p p o r t u n i t i e s ' . Unpublished manuscript, Northeast . Forest Expt. S t a . , 1959.

t h e U . S . Fores t Se rv ice w i l l i n d i c a t e what we can a f fo rd t o spend p r o t e c t i n g a given s tand from b l i s t e r r u s t , Unfortu- n a t e l y t h e p resen t scope of t h i s study i s l i m i t e d t o white p ine s t ands i n the Lake S t a t e s . S imi la r guides a r e no t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e Northeast .

I n mixed s tands on t h e l i g h t e r s o i l s , we can repro- duce p ine n a t u r a l l y by severa l s i l v i c u l t u r a l systems. On the heavier s o i l s (higher s i t e ind ices ) we can o b t a i n p i n e regenera t ion by v a r i a t i o n s of the shelterwood system-- although we expect d i f f i c u l t y from aggress ive hardwoods. But can we, with any degree of confidence, s e l e c t those s t ands i n which i t is worthwhile t o go t o the e f f o r t of ob- t a i n i n g pine reproduct ion?

Q U A N T I F I C A T I O N O F K N O W L E D G E

I S E S S E N T I A L

These examples i n d i c a t e we know q u i t e a b i t about managing whi te pine . But i n almost every case we a r e unable t o answer t h e c r i t i c a l problem--or a t l e a s t t o provide a r e a l l y convincing answer. When we g e t r i g h t down t o it, we a r e n ' t a b l e t o compare t h e a v a i l a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . How can we compare t h e d o l l a r c o s t of weevil-control-by-spraying with t h e growth l o s s of weevil-control-by-overtopping-hardwoods, f o r example? Actual ly we have the t o o l s . The business man's ya rds t i ck of d o l l a r values and c o s t s is, i n most cases, an adequate device .

The r e a l problem l i e s i n t h e form of our knowledge. We know t rends ; we know t h e general n a t u r e of r e l a t i o n s h i p s --but we lack q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a . We know which way--but we d o n ' t know how much. And t h e how much i s abso lu te ly essen- t i a l i f we a r e t o eva lua te a l t e r n a t i v e s .

Let me r e f e r t o one example i n more d e t a i l . A f a i r - l y common s i t u a t i o n i n t h e p ine region i s t o have a f a i r l y w e l l stocked s tand of pine under an overs to ry of hardwoods. A t l e a s t one d e c i s i o n must be made i n such a s i t u a t i o n - - whether o r not t o remove t h e overs to ry t o r e l e a s e the pine.

What t o do about t h i s s i t u a t i o n ?

We know t h a t without r e l e a s e we may l o s e some of our pine stocking--but usua l ly we d o n ' t know how much.

We know t h a t w i t h r e l e a s e weevil damage w i l l probably be greater--but we don ' t know how much grea te r , o r indeed how much t h e volume o r value l o s s e s due t o the weevil would be i n e i t h e r s i t u a t i o n .

W e know t h a t r e l e a s e would inc rease t h e r a t e of p ine growth--but we d o n ' t know how much .

Dealing with the pine and hardwoods in the same way, we know that the denser the stand, the slower individual tree diameter growth will be--but our quanti- tative knowledge of this relationship is limited.

Until we can enter a stand and have some idea of how much stocking would be saved by removing the overstory, and how much weevil damage would be increased and how much pine growth would be accelerated, we won't be of much help in deciding whether to release. And until we know, quantita- tively, at least how much diameter growth will be accelerated by various degrees of thinning, we can't with any confidence recommend how heavily to thin--indeed whether to thin at all.

P R O G R E S S I N A T T E M P T I N G

T O Q U A N T I F Y K N O W L E D G E

To quantify some of these relationships, several good starts are being made. They include:

0 A study to estimate the volume loss to be expected from weeviling of various intensities.

0 A study to estimate the value loss due to lumber degrade from weeviling of various intensities.

A study to determine the effect of stand density on the frequency and severity of weevil attack.

0 A study to determine the effect of stand density and soil-site quality on pine growth rates.

Unfortunately most of these studies are operating on a modest scale, and to the best of my knowledge no one is working on the problem of growth or stocking losses from a hardwood overstory. But the region's forestry-research institutions are making definite progress.

S U M M A R Y

We have a good deal of raw knowledge regarding the growth of mixed stands of pine and hardwood. But to analyze managerial alternatives--to answer the really vital ques- tions of management--we need to quantify the general knowledge we now have. Current knowledge is inadequate for effi- cient management. And this inadequacy is one of the most serious deterrents to intensive white-pine forestry in the Northeast.

But current knowledge is adequate to make research really pay off in terms of vital, usable results in a rela-

t i v e l y s h o r t t ime. Answers t o t h e q u e s t i o n s managers need a r e " j u s t ove r t h e h i l l " , s o t o speak. W e know what we need; we know where and how t o f i n d t h e answers; b u t we have j u s t begun sea rch ing f o r them.

Establishing White Pine on Open Land

by William E. McQuilkin

HITE p i n e poses no s p e c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t o e s t a b l i s h - ment op open l and . Given a seed supply , i t u s u a l l y

w i l l r e s t o c k s p a r s e l y vege ta t ed a r e a s abundantly by n a t u r a l seeding, a s wi tnessed by t h e thousands of a c r e s of o l d - f i e l d p i n e t h a t developed ove r t h e p a s t cen tu ry throughout t h e Nor theas t a s farm land was abandoned. I n a r t i f i c i a l re- gene ra t ion , i t o f f e r s no unusual p roduc t ion problems i n t h e nursery , and i t t r a n s p l a n t s e a s i l y t o t h e f i e l d . The main o b s t a c l e t o b o t h n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l r e g e n e r a t i o n i s t h e widespread p reva lence o f f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e unfavor- a b l e f o r s e e d l i n g e s t ab l i shmen t and growth.

The open l a n d s of today a r e most ly brushlands of one s o r t o r another--cut-over o r burned-over f o r e s t l ands covered wi th hardwood sp rou t s , b r i a r s , shrubs, and f e r n s ; o r o l d pas tu re s , s t i l l soddy i n p a r t , b u t invaded t o varying de- g r e e s by hawthorn, hardhack, j un ipe r , and o t h e r woody growth. Ne i the r n a t u r a l nor p l a n t e d s e e d l i n g s can develop i n t o s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a n d s i n such s i t u a t i o n s . F i e l d s r ecen t - l y abandoned from c u l t i v a t i o n and occupied on ly by herbaceous p l a n t s u s u a l l y a r e f a v o r a b l e f o r p i n e r egene ra t ion , b u t t h e s e make up on ly a sma l l p a r t o f t h e t o t a l o f open non-productive land i n t h e Nor theas t . So, i n most p l aces , t h e e s s e n t i a l f i r s t requirement f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g w h i t e p i n e i s adequate p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s i t e .

S I T E P R E P A R A T I O N

Elsewhere i t has been po in ted o u t t h a t t h e b a s i c s i l v i c a l o r e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d wi th s i t e a r e su r - f a c e s o i l temperature, s o i l mois ture , and l i g h t . S i t e prep-

a r a t i o n invo lves modi f i ca t ions of t h e s e f a c t o r s through ma- n i p u l a t i o n s o f t h e s o i l s u r f a c e and t h e v e g e t a t i o n . The modi f i ca t ions may b e accomplished by mechanical means such a s t o o l s o r machines t h a t c u t o r d ig , by chemical h e r b i c i d e s o r s i l v i c i d e s , o r by f i r e . F i r e a s a c o n t r o l l e d t r ea tmen t f o r s i t e p repa ra t ion , though e x t e n s i v e l y used i n t h e South, has not been used i n whi te p i n e s i l v i c u l t u r e . Mechanical and chemical methods a r e d i scussed below.

M e c h a n i c a l M e t h o d s

Mechanical methods invo lve t h e u s e o f plows, d i sks , bu l ldoze r s , and r o o t r akes . Some p l a n t i n g machines open a shallow furrow ahead of t h e p l a n t i n g shoe, o r have s c a l p e r at tachments, and thus do a k ind o f s i te p r e p a r a t i o n . On smal l jobs, s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n may mean hand s c a l p i n g of s p o t s wi th a mattock o r grub hoe.

Mechanical methods bo th reduce t h e compe t i t ive p l a n t cover and provide a mine ra l s o i l s u r f a c e ; they c l e a r t h e ground f o r p l an t ing , o r p r e p a r e a seedbed f o r seed regenera- t i o n . I n many s i t u a t i o n s a well-chosen mechanical t r ea tmen t w i l l r e s u l t i n an eminently s a t i s f a c t o r y job.

The cho ice of method, however, may be impor tant . For in s t ance , one would apply some s o r t of broad t rea tment i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r n a t u r a l s eed ing o r a r t i f i c i a l b roadcas t seeding, whereas a furrow might be adequate f o r p l a n t i n g . Also, method must be adapted t o cover ; heavy brush r e q u i r e s heavy equipment such a s a b u l l d o z e r o r r o o t rake, whereas d i s k s o r l i g h t plows may work well , and a t l e s s cos t , i n l i g h t e r types o f cover . However, some k inds of v e g e t a t i o n r ecover very qu ick ly from t r ea tmen t s , l i k e d i sk ing , t h a t merely chew t h e p l a n t s t o p i e c e s . A f t e r a yea r o r two, s t o l o n i f e r o u s s p e c i e s l i k e b luebe r ry , sweetfern, meadow- sweet, bracken fe rn , and quackgrass may be a s compe t i t ive a s be fo re . For l a s t i n g e f f e c t s , such s p e c i e s must b e skinned o f f , r o o t s and a l l , wi th a b u l l d o z e r o r r o o t rake.

A major d isadvantage wi th a l l power equipment is t h a t i t s use may be r e s t r i c t e d by s tony s o i l s and rough t e r r a i n . Disks a r e poor ly s u i t e d f o r use on s tony s o i l s . Bu l ldoze r s and r o o t r a k e s can cope wi th a cons ide rab le degree o f s t o n i - ness, bu t where s t o n e s a r e s o dense t h a t t h e machine t ends t o s k i d ove r r a t h e r than b i t e i n t o t h e ground, s i t e prepara- t i o n by any k ind of earth-moving equipment becomes impract i - cab le .

I n t e s t s of va r ious k inds of equipment i n s tony s o i l s o f t h e sc rub oak type i n Pennsylvania, a r o o t r a k e on a c rawle r t r a c t o r of t h e D-6 o r D-7 c l a s s has worked b e s t . T h i s machine has done an adequate job except where s t o n e s formed p r a c t i c a l l y a cont inuous l a y e r on o r i n t h e s u r f a c e s o i l . The brushy vege ta t ion was removed i n d i scon t inuous s t r i p s amounting t o about one- th i rd o f t h e t o t a l a r e a . C o s t s

The t r ee a t l e f t is beyond help; no forest-management treatment could improve its qual i ty . I t s wood con- ta ins miny large, black knots.

The smaller t ree i n the center of fe rs an opportunity fo r qua l i ty improvement through pruning--provided i ts c r w n is large enough s o it could grcw rapidly a f t e r re lease.

S i z e of crown i n r e l a t i o n t o stem ind ica tes t h a t the t r e e a t l e f t is growing twice a s f a s t i n diameter ( 2 inches i n 10 yea r s ) as the t r e e a t r i g h t . Because of its smll crown, the tree a t r i g h t is un l ike ly t o increase growth very much a s a r e s u l t of r e l e a s e .

Evidence of damage many years ago by whi te-pine weevil .

Upper photo: t h e s t u b pointed t o is the remains of an o ld weeviled l eade r .

Lower photo: t h e swol len node and d i s t o r t e d branches show t h a t here t h e l eade r was w e e v i l - k i l l e d and t h e l a t e r a l branches competed t o form a new leade r .

A success fu l sheltenvood c u t t i n g with reproduction, on the Pack Demonstration Forest , Warrensburg, N.Y.

White pine f o r the fu tu re? A group-se lec t ion system of sii-. i c u l t u r e brought about t h i s s t and . Notice the d i f f e r e n t age c l a s s e s , small seed l ings i n foreground.

f o r t h i s treatment a t 1958 p r i ce s were i n the range of $15 t o $20 per acre .

The idea of a rugged, 2-way pusher plow on aheavy crawler t r a c t o r has occasional ly been proposed f o r planting- s i t e preparat ion i n stony brushlands, but i n the pas t no such equipment has been ava i lab le . Recently, advertisements of a plow of t h i s type have appeared (Anon. 1958), with t he descr ip t ion of i t s performance or iented t o s tone-free s o i l s i n the South. Although we have no information on how well t h i s plow would work i n stony so i l s , i t would seem worth inves t iga t ing .

C h e m i c a 1 M e t h o d s

Chemical methods of s i t e preparat ion a r e based mostly upon use of 2,4,5-T. I f t he r e a r e sca t te red c u l l t rees , o ther chemicals such as ammate o r sodium a r sen i t e may be used on them; ammate a l so i s a possible, but l i t t l e used, a l t e r n a t i v e t o 2,4,5-T f o r t r ea t i ng growth of a brushy character .

2,4,5-T may be sprayed on brush with hand equipment, power ground equipment, o r by a i r c r a f t . With ground equipment, i t may be applied a s a fo l i age treatment o r as a basa l stem spray. We have considerable empirical information on methods f o r applying 2,4,5-T and t he r e s u l t s l i k e l y t o be obtained. But many of our northeastern hardwoods a r e f a i r l y r e s i s t a n t t o chemical treatment. I t i s important, therefore, t h a t the p r ac t i t i one r be well informed about s i l v i c ide s , and t h a t he choose t he method bes t su i ted t o h i s needs.

Foliage or, more properly, stem-foliage spraying with ground equipment (except mist-blowers) usua l ly is done with low concentrations of the chemical and high volumes of water o r oil-water emulsion a s t he c a r r i e r . Four )pounds of 2,4,5-T acid equivalent per 100 gal lons of c a r r i e r i s a common concentration. Volumes vary widely with height and den- s i t y of the brush, from perhaps 100 ga l lons per acre on low, open cover up t o 500 gal lons per acre on t a l l , dense growth. Leaves should be wetted on both sides, together with a l l twigs and t he stems,to ground l i n e . This can be done bes t with the s t rong b l a s t of a power sprayer operat ing a t 200 t o 300 p s i . Such treatment w i l l t op-k i l l most hardwood brush, but considerable resprouting by t he more r e s i s t a n t species, such a s t h e maples, can be expected.

Basal-stem sprays a r e done with 2,4,5-T i n o i l solu- t i ons (d i e se l o i l , f u e l o i l , o r kei-osene). Concentrations of 8 t o 16 pounds acid equivalent per 100 ga l lons a r e used. Hand sprayers of t he back-pack type se rve very well, as only low pressures a r e required. With thorough appl icat ion, wet- t i ng every stem base t o the point of copious run-down, a high percent of r oo t -k i l l can be accomplished by t h i s method. However, i t is slow and comparatively expensive i n both

l abor and m a t e r i a l s ; and i f n o t done properly, r e s u l t s a r e no b e t t e r than with f o l i a g e t reatment . I t s most p r a c t i c a b l e use i n f o r e s t r y probably i s i n weeding opera t ions where only s e l e c t e d stems o r clumps need be t r e a t e d .

Aer ia l sprays a r e low-volume, high concen t ra t ion ap- p l i c a t i o n s , with e i t h e r o i l o r o i l -water c a r r i e r s . One t o two pounds of 2,4,5-T ac id equivalent i n 24 t o 5 g a l l o n s of s o l u t i o n o r emulsion pe r ac re a re used. S imi la r appl ica- t i o n s can be made with a mist-blower. Small r i g s t h a t can be mounted on a t r a c t o r a r e b e s t f o r f o r e s t r y work. Back- pack mist-blowers a l s o a r e use fu l f o r c o n t r o l l i n g unders tory hardwoods i n p ine s t ands where i t would not be p r a c t i c a b l e t o b r ing i n heav ie r equipment.

For jobs of more than an ac re o r two, chemical t r e a t - ment by hand o r simple power equipment becomes a formidable job. Moreover, u s e of power ground equipment may be l i m i t e d by rough t e r r a i n . Consequently, a e r i a l app l i ca t ion i s es- p e c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f o r the l a r g e r jobs, both because it i s not l imi ted by t e r r a i n , and because o f i t s comparatively low c o s t . I t may be done a t c o s t s wel l under $10 an a c r e when an opera to r can do a t l e a s t 150 a c r e s i n one l o c a l i t y (McConkey 1959).

There a r e very few precedents i n t h e Northeast f o r use of a e r i a l spraying a s pre-plant ing s i t e p repara t ion . The jobs t h a t have been done a r e too recen t t o permit a f i n a l judgment of r e s u l t s . Consequently, what i s s a i d he re i s more o r l e s s specu la t ive . We do know t h a t a e r i a l spraying w i l l n o t usua l ly g ive a high percentage of r o o t k i l l i n mixed nor theas te rn hardwood brush. I t w i l l g ive good top k i l l , p lus some r o o t k i l l of the more s e n s i t i v e spec ies . I f t h e r e i s not a t u r f - l i k e ground cover of low blueberry, bracken, o r o t h e r s t o l o n i f e r o u s species , we b e l i e v e p ines could be success fu l ly planted a f t e r t h e spray t reatment . I f a t u r f - l i k e ground cover were p resen t and survived the spray treatment, p l a n t i n g would n o t genera l ly be advisable because of t h e i n t e n s e r o o t competit ion. I n a l l p robab i l i ty , p ines p lan ted following an a e r i a l spray i n hardwood brush- land w i l l r equ i re one o r more repea t sprays a t i n t e r v a l s of 2 o r 3 years t o r e l e a s e them from resurging sprouts . On good white p ine s i t e s , a t o t a l of two, o r even three, a e r i a l sp rays might be economically f e a s i b l e .

A l l chemical methods l eave much t o be d e s i r e d a s a s i t e -p repara t ion measure. They do not improve t h e seedbed f o r seed regenerat ion, and they l eave s tanding dead brush, which g r e a t l y impedes hand p l a n t i n g . To accomplish the de- s i r e d degree of r o o t k i l l of many spec ies r e q u i r e s i n t e n s i v e treatment by men on t h e ground; g e t t i n g t h e necessary equipment t o and over the p lan t ing s i t e s o f t e n is d i f f i c u l t . The chemicals t h a t w i l l k i l l g r a s s l eave t o x i c res idues f o r a year o r more.

The upshot of the s i l v i c i d e s i t u a t i o n a s it s tands now i s t h a t a e r i a l sprays with 2,4,5-T o f t e n do not do a s good a job a s we would l i k e ; f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, some s i t e s a r e i n a c c e s s i b l e f o r ground t reatments ; and on a c c e s s i b l e s i t e s r e a l l y e f f e c t i v e ground t reatments o f t e n w i l l c o s t more than we can a f fo rd . .S i lv ic ides a r e without doubt a u s e f u l tool , but t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s and disadvantages must be recognized; they do no t ips0 f a c t o solve the problem of c o n t r o l l i n g hardwoods and regenerat ing p ine . There s t i l l i s room f o r much research, both b a s i c and applied, i n t h i s f i e l d .

R E G E N E R A T I O N M E T H O D S

Three general methods f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g whi te p ine ( o r any o t h e r spec ies ) on open land can be considered: (1 ) natu- r a l seeding, (2) d i r e c t a r t i f i c i a l seeding, and (3 ) p l a n t i n g nursery-grown o r wi ld l ing seed l ings . Although p l a n t i n g nursery-grown s tock is t h e method most commonly used, t h e o t h e r s may se rve well, and sometimes cos t l e s s , i n s i t u a - t i o n s t o which they a r e s u i t e d .

N a t u r a l S e e d i n g

I n t h e pas t , n a t u r a l seeding was the means by which p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o l d - f i e l d white pine i n the Northeast be- came e s t a b l i s h e d . This means can s t i l l se rve u s well i n the occasional ins tances where sparse ly vegeta ted land (such a s r e c e n t l y abandoned crop land) l i e s adjacent t o a good white p ine seed source. However, t h e range of seed d i s p e r s a l i s l i m i t e d ; good s tocking becomes inc reas ing ly uncer ta in a t d i s t a n c e s g r e a t e r than 200 o r 300 f e e t .

Natural seeding of white p ine i s somewhat u n r e l i a b l e because o f t h e uncer ta in ty of seed crops . Between the rav- ages of cone i n s e c t s and seed f a i l u r e s caused by c l i m a t i c o r physiological f ac to r s , pe r iods of 10 years o r more may pass without s u b s t a n t i a l seed product ion. A s i t e t h a t i n i t i a l l y was r e c e p t i v e may go i n t o heavy sod o r dense brush be fore a seed crop m a t e r i a l i z e s .

m e r e a densely vegeta ted s i t e l i e s c l o s e t o a prom- i s i n g seed source, n a t u r a l regenerat ion might be g r e a t l y increased by s i t e p repara t ion timed t o coincide with a matur- ing seed crop. But regard less of s i t e condition, i f no seed crop is i n s i g h t and regenerat ion i s des i red without delay, t h e landowner had b e t t e r t u r n t o a r t i f i c i a l methods.

D i r e c t A r t i f i c i a l S e e d i n g

Direc t seeding of white p ine has been done only exper imental ly , and mostly with nega t ive r e s u l t s . However, southern p ines and western c o n i f e r s a r e being success fu l ly

seeded. There i s no obvious reason why reasonably depend- ab le methods fo r white pine could not be developed; but t he r e is one obvious d i f f i c u l t y a s compared t o those o ther species and regions--the r e l a t i v e s ca r c i t y of white pine seed.

The most important recent advance i n direct-seeding methodology has been the development by the Fish and Wild- l i f e Service of an e f f ec t i ve means f o r p ro tec t ing seed against b i rd s and rodents. This technical break-through underl ies t he successful use of d i r e c t seeding i n the South and West. The bas i c ingredients f o r seed treatment a r e Arasan t o repe l b i rd s and Endrin t o poison o r repel rodents.

The S t a t i on i s now conducting s tud i e s on d i r e c t seeding white pine on the Massabesic Experimental Forest . These involve both empirical t e s t s of repe l len t - t rea ted seed, and more bas ic s t ud i e s of the e f f e c t s of shade, ground-cover competition, and animal depredation.

Direct seeding is done i n one of two general ways: (1) cont ro l led placement of seeds i n spots o r d r i l l e d i n furrows; and (2) broadcast seeding.. The former involves hand labor, and may cos t almost as much a s plant ing. I t has l i t t l e appeal except possibly on small t r a c t s where use of heavy equipment might not be f ea s ib l e .

Broadcast seeding lends i t s e l f t o mechanization, e i t h e r on the ground o r by a i r c r a f t . I f it i s successful, subs t an t i a l savings a r e possible . I t simulates nature, but s ince we cannot a f ford t o spread seed as lav ish ly a s na ture does, seed pro tec t ion and s i t e preparat ion a r e espec ia l ly important. A l l p a s t experience warns against gambling on broadcast seeding without preparing t he s i t e . More than 20 years ago Shi r ley (1937) wrote: h here seems t o be no more c e r t a i n way of wasting a l a rge amount of seed, and accom- p l i sh ing nothing, than t o broadcast it on unprepared so i l " .

S i t e preparat ion f o r seeding should provide: (1) a mineral s o i l seedbed; (2) a roughened surface t o f a c i l i t a t e seed coverage; and (3) a l i g h t p lan t cover su f f i c i en t t o c a s t dappled o r patchy shade, but so reduced a s not t o be highly competitive. With these conditions, normal weather, and t rea ted seed, t he r e seems a good chance t ha t broadcast seeding would succeed. However, s ince l oca l precedents a re lacking, any such seeding a t t h i s time should be done only on an experimental bas i s .

P l a n t i n g

The plant ing of nursery-grown seedl ings i s a proved and r e l i a b l e method f o r es tab l i sh ing white pine on open land. There a r e no pa r t i cu l a r problems i n the nursery o r i n the plant ing operat ion. For hand planting, any of the standard hole o r s l i t procedures may be used. Most nurser ies d i s t r i - bute 2-0 o r 3-0 seedl ings. Few t ransp lan ts a r e produced.

Although wi ld l ing s tock p lays an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the o v e r a l l regenerat ion p i c t u r e , i t m e r i t s mention a s a supplemental source of supply. Wildlings o r d i n a r i l y would be used only by a farmer o r p r i v a t e landowner wishing t o p l a n t a few hundred t r e e s . I f he had e a s i l y l i f t e d wild- l i n g s ava i l ab le , i t would be e n t i r e l y f e a s i b l e t o make use of them i n a small one-man o r family p l a n t i n g job. I f l abor had t o be hired, wi ld l ings might c o s t a s much o r more than nursery stock, and t h e i r use would o f f e r no advantages.

With uniform nursery-grown stock, p l a n t i n g machines work wel l on reasonably open, smooth l and ; they w i l l p l a n t up t o 10,000 t r e e s per day under favorable condi t ions . On most s i t e s , however, accomplishments a r e considerably below t h a t f i g u r e because of impediments of one s o r t o r another-- rough t e r r a i n , stones, stumps, s l a sh , o r s tanding brush. On t h e Massabesic Experimental Fores t , machine p l a n t i n g by a 2- man crew on a r e a s within the 1947 burn has ranged from 1,500 t o 4,500 t r e e s per day; the average r a t e f o r 186 a c r e s was about 3,400 t r e e s pe r day. For the moderately rough condi- t i o n s encountered on t h i s job, a custom-bullt V-blade was mounted on t h e f r o n t of t h e t r a c t o r t o c l e a r loose s l a s h from the l i n e of t r a v e l , and s p e c i a l r e i n f o r c i n g was added t o the p l a n t e r .

The Lowther Company makes a "rough-land p lan te r" based on t h e same p r i n c i p l e a s the Massabesic o u t f i t ; t h a t is, a t r a sh-c lea r ing blade i n f r o n t , followed by a ruggedly constructed p l a n t e r . The Lowther equipment, however, i s somewhat more e labora te ly designed, and more c o s t l y . The b lade i n both o u t f i t s i s simply skidded along t h e ground sur face , pushing loose d e b r i s a s i d e ; i t i s not very e f fec - t i v e among s o l i d stumps o r p a r t i a l l y burned s tones .

I n Connecticut a p r i v a t e inventor f o r s e v e r a l yea rs has been working on a rough-land p l a n t e r designed f o r con- t r o l by t h e man on t h e p lan te r , r a t h e r than t h e man on t h e t r a c t o r . Among stones, stumps, and t h e l i k e , the opera to r can r a i s e and lower t h e p l a n t i n g shoe a s necessary t o c l e a r obs tac les , he can s t o p and s t a r t the t r a c t o r a t w i l l and p l a n t t h e t r e e s i n s e l e c t e d s p o t s along the l i n e o f t r a v e l . The Connecticut S t a t e Park and Fores t ry Commission has re- c e n t l y acquired a custom-built model o f t h i s machine f o r use on rough burned-over f o r e s t land. Anyone with a rough-land p l a n t i n g job would be well advised t o i n v e s t i g a t e what t h i s machine w i l l do.

Even with rough-land p lan te r s , t h e r e a r e many s i t e s capable of growing t r e e s t h a t a r e too stony, too steep, o r c l u t t e r e d with too much down timber o r heavy s l a s h f o r mech- anized p l a n t i n g . On these a r e a s one must s t i l l r e l y on hand methods.

One of the debatable ques t ions i n p l a n t i n g white p ine i s the spacing. The t r a d i t i o n a l 6 by 6 f e e t s t i l l is widely

p r a c t i c e d . Spacing a t 5 by 5 has been advocated by some a s an a i d i n overcoming weevil damage--the crooks r e s u l t i n g from k i l l e d l e a d e r s a r e l e s s pronounced when the t r e e s a r e crowded. The t r e n d now, however, i s t o space wider and spray a g a i n s t the weevil .

Spacing a t 8 by 8 f e e t o r wider reduces p l a n t i n g c o s t s and g e t s away from non-commercial th innings , b u t re- q u i r e s proper ly timed pruning a s wel l a s weevil c o n t r o l i f t r e e q u a l i t y i s not t o s u f f e r . Actually, on the rougher lands t h a t make up most present-day p l a n t i n g s i t e s , spacing becomes a somewhat academic ques t ion . Of necess i ty , the spacing w i l l be i r r e g u l a r . General ly it w i l l average wider than 6 by 6. The p r a c t i c a l o b j e c t i v e i s t o g e t a reasonably adequate s t a n d ; adherence t o a r e g u l a r spacing p a t t e r n would be an u n j u s t i f i a b l e refinement. I n any event, t h e r e w i l l have t o be weevil con t ro l , pruning, and roba ably some th in - ning t o produce q u a l i t y pine .

S U M M A R Y

S i t e p repara t ion i s requ i red f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g whi te p ine on most open land i n t h e Northeast because of t h e usual presence of hardwood brush. Mechanical p repara t ion with plows, bul ldozers , o r r o o t rakes i s e f f e c t i v e where s o i l and t e r r a i n permit use of such equipment. S i l v i c i d e s o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e method, by which competing brush can be s e t back; but f o r n a t u r a l regenerat ion t h e seedbed i s no t improved. Aer ia l spraying has cons ide rab le appeal because of i t s r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t and i t s independence of ground con- d i t i o n s . However, i n many brush types, spraying may have t o be repeated one o r more times t o b r i n g young p ines through.

P l a n t i n g i s the usual method f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g p i n e on open land. Di rec t seeding has been done only experimentally, without marked success, and n a t u r a l seeding i s l i m i t e d t o zones wi th in 200 t o 300 f e e t from a seed source. Rough-land p l a n t i n g machines have been developed t h a t work s a t i s f a c - t o r i l y under moderately rough, stony, o r t r a s h y cond i t ions ; bu t t h e r e a r e many s i t u a t i o n s where hand p l a n t i n g i s t h e only way.

Spacing a t the t r a d i t i o n a l 6 x 6 f e e t i s no t p r a c t i - c a b l e i n most rough land p l a n t i n g ; i r r e g u l a r spacings averaging around 8 x 8 o r wider a r e acceptable p r a c t i c e .

Managing Young Stands for Quality Production

by Richard D. Lane

D RODUCTION of high-quality white pine must begin i n young - -

A stands . The inunediat k 0b.j e c t ive of management i n - young stands i s t o develop a growing-stock "base" on which qua l i ty growth can be accumulated rapidly during the l a t t e r pa r t of the ro ta t ion . The bes t way t o reach t h i s object ive depends upon a number of factors , of which stand conditions and the amount of management e f f o r t ava i lab le f o r the job a r e the most important.

I n any case, the applicat ion of several management prac t ices is required t o bring white pine reproduction through t o a s a t i s f ac to ry stand of l a rge poles and small sawtimber. The four most important prac t ices i n young-stand management a re : (1) protect ion; (2) weeding and releasing; (3) thinning and stand-density cont ro l ; and (4) pruning.

P R O T E C T I O N

Since protect ion i s a prime r equ i s i t e t o any management program, i t may be redundant t o even mention it here. F i r e protect ion cer ta in ly i s a "must", espec ia l ly i n young stands.

G r a z i n g a n d B r o w s i n g

The pros and cons of c a t t l e grazing i n seedling and sapl ing stands of white pine have been argued a t length i n the l i t e r a t u r e . A special committee of the New England Section, Society of American Foresters (1929), has given a well-rounded report on the use of grazing a s a cu l tu ra l t oo l i n white pine management. The Committee reported tha t any fo re s t grazing causes some damage, ch ief ly through tramp- l ing, scarring, and breaking young pines. Where grazing is uncontrolled, the damage can prevent the development of a white pine stand. But by carefu l ly cont ro l l ing the time and in t ens i ty of grazing, the amount of damage can be reduced t o the point where i t i s more than o f f s e t by the value of release from competition afforded the p ine stand. The Commit- t e e concluded tha t grazing, as a cu l tu ra l tool, is not wide- l y useful but t h a t some woodland owners may be ab le t o employ i t advantageously.

Except i n l oca l spots o r under s ta rva t ion conditions, deer browsing of white pine usual ly i s not severe i n the

Northeast . The b e s t con t ro l measure f o r browsing is, of course, t o manage t h e deer herd t o keep i t i n balance with a v a i l a b l e food supp l ies . The Fish and W i l d l i f e Serv ice and t h e Forest Se rv ice a r e cooperat ing i n screening p o t e n t i a l chemical r e p e l l e n t s f o r deer and r a b b i t s . A s y e t no com- p l e t e l y e f f e c t i v e chemical has been discovered. McQuilkin and L i t t l e (1952) t r i e d one of t h e more promising r e p e l l e n t s and repor ted t h a t i t of fe red no p r o t e c t i o n t o whi te p ine i n Pennsylvania.

S n o w a n d W i n d

Snow and wind damage a r e t h e most s e r i o u s types o f weather i n j u r y t o young whi te p ine . Of the two, snow is the l e s s e r enemy. C u r t i s (1936) s t a t e s t h a t white pine i s occa- s i o n a l l y sub jec t t o snow breakage i f t h e t r e e s a r e c l o s e l y spaced and have one-sided crowns. The Lake S t a t e s Fores t Experiment S t a t i o n (1939) has repor ted t h a t t h e spec ies was damaged only s l i g h t l y by a heavy wet snowfall i n l a t e Octo- be r . Such damage as d id occur was t o t r e e s 4 t o 9 inches i n diameter-- larger t r e e s were no t damaged a t a l l .

Damage done t o c e n t r a l New England s tands by t h e 1938 hur r i cane i n d i c a t e s t h a t : (1) up t o about age 25, white p ine i s more r e s i s t a n t than e i t h e r Scotch o r Norway p ines ; (2 ) t r e e s with long, open, o r small crowns and th in , f l e x i b l e t runks a r e t h e most wind- res i s t an t ; (3) t h e g r e a t e s t damage i s l i k e l y t o occur on exposed slopes, e s p e c i a l l y on south- f ac ing ones; and (4) t h e older , denser, even-aged s tands a r e t h e most s u s c e p t i b l e t o wind damage ( C u r t i s 1943). C u r t i s suggests e a r l y th inn ing i n young s tands t o develop f i rmly rooted dominant t r e e s wi th crown r a t i o s ( r a t i o of crown leng th t o t o t a l he igh t ) of 40 percent o r more. He a l s o sug- g e s t s leaving a dense b e l t o f t r e e s i n s tand per imeters and making l i g h t but uniform th inn ings i n o l d e r s t ands t o avoid open holes and dense clumps.

D i s e a s e a n d I n s e c t s

The more s e r i o u s p e s t s of white p ine a r e discussed i n o t h e r papers of t h i s s e r i e s . However, i t may not be over- working t h e sub jec t t o mention he re t h e two s i l v i c u l t u r a l methods t h a t a r e a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g white-pine weevil damage. They a r e : (1) b r ing ing young pine up through an overs to ry of hardwoods (Peirson 1922, Young & Eyre 1937); and (2 ) developing and mainta ining dense, pure, even-aged s tands (Hawley & Clapp 1942, Lutz & Cl ine 1947, Tarbox & Reed 1924). Thus, some s i l v i c u l t u r a l c o n t r o l of weeviling appears poss ible , but only a t t h e expense of t r e e growth.

W E E D I N G A N D R E L E A S I N G

Of a l l whi te p ine management p r a c t i c e s , weeding ahd r e l e a s e t reatments i n seedling-and-sapling s t ands a r e prob- ab ly t h e most d i f f i c u l t t o apply e f f e c t i v e l y . From t h e mass of s c a t t e r e d information on t h e competit ion among species , on t h e s t r u c t u r e and composition of p r e f e r r e d stands, and on the t o o l s and techniques of t reatment , two f a c t s seem q u i t e c l e a r :

Some weeding would be b e n e f i c i a l i n nea r ly every seed- l ing-and-sapling white p i n e s t and . I n many such s tands i t i s v i t a l t o t h e product ion of a p ine crop.

Weeding i s a r e l a t i v e l y c o s t l y c u l t u r a l practice--even with s i l v i c i d e s .

With these f a c t s i n mind, a few g u i d e l i n e s t o weeding prac- t i c e can b e d i scussed b r i e f l y .

An i d e a l weeding chance is a s t and wel l stocked w i t h whi te p ine seed l ings about 4 years o l d and overtopped by hardwood seed l ings and sprou t s . Here t h e r e may be s e v e r a l t reatment opt ions: ( I ) begin t h e weeding a t once t o produce a dense, pure p ine s rand ; (2) delay weeding u n t i l competi- t i o n has reduced t h e p i n e stocking, then weed t o produce a moderately stocked, pure s t and ; (3) on t h e b e t t e r s i t e s de- l ay weeding u n t i l compet i t ion has reduced t h e pine s tocking and t h e b e t t e r hardwoods have become a dominant component, then weed t o produce a mixed s tand of p ine and d e s i r a b l e hardwoods.

To o b t a i n a dense, pure stand, weeding must be ap- p l i e d e a r l y be fore t h e pine s tocking is s e r i o u s l y reduced by competit ion. A l l t h e hardwoods must be removed. I f t h e weeding is done with c u t t i n g t o o l s , t reatment may have t o be repeated a s many a s four t imes. This method i s expensive but i t i s sometimes the only one p r a c t i c a l when t h e a rea t o be t r e a t e d i s smal l . A e r i a l spraying of s i l v i c i d e s f o r a weeding treatment can be done economically on a r e a s a s small a s 15 acres , provided t h a t the acreage of such small jobs adds up t o a t l e a s t 150 a c r e s (McConkey 1958, 1959). On smal le r jobs t h e spray may be appl ied with simple hand o r power sp rayers o r with one of t h e newer mist-blowers.

Delay of t h e weeding w i l l reduce t h e pine s tocking and may a l s o reduce t h e c o s t s . We cannot p r e d i c t how long t h e treatment may be delayed but we do know:

I n t e n s i t y of competit ion v a r i e s with competing spec ies and s i t e q u a l i t y . Gray b i r c h i s not a s t rong competitor

(Toumey 1919) and p ine w i l l f r equen t ly come through both gray and paper b i r c h unaided and i n s u b s t a n t i a l numbers. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e maples--par t icular ly red maple--always

o f f e r s t rong competit ion t o white pine. Aspen and t h e oaks a r e intermediate i n the competit ion they o f f e r (Lutz & C l i n e 1947, Cl ine 1929, Spaeth 1922, Young & Eyre 1937). The in- t e n s i t y of competit ion o f fe red by any spec ies is g r e a t e r on good s i t e s than on poor s i t e s .

" . . . the re is a p r a c t i c a l he igh t f o r t h e white p i n e a t which, i f t h e hardwoods a r e removed, t h e re leased pine

w i l l not need f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . " (Minuse a s quoted by Spaeth, 1922). On medium-quality s i t e s i n t h e Harvard For- e s t t h i s height i s 15 f e e t i f t h e competit ion is aspen, and 12 f e e t i f it i s red maple. I n t h e Lake S t a t e s (on what may have been poorer s i t e s ) t h e equivalent he igh ts a r e about 8 f e e t i f t h e compet i tors a r e aspen and about 6 f e e t i f they a r e red and white oak (Engle 1951). The s tands w i l l be about 20 years old when t h i s height i s reached.

A e r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n of f o l i a g e spray i s a good delayed-weeding treatment when r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a reas a r e in- volved. Where ground methods must be used, small competi- t o r s should be c u t with hand t o o l s o r k i l l e d by basa l spray of s i l v i c i d e . However, stems over about 4 inches i n diame- t e r a r e most economically k i l l e d with s i lvic ide-dosed s in- gle-hack g i r d l e s , f r i l l s , o r spaced ax c u t s (McQuilkin 1957, L i t t l e & Mohr 1956, C u r t i s 1956, Rushmore 1958). The t r e a t - ment should be s e l e c t i v e . No more work should be done than i s necessary t o f u l l y re lease , say, 300 well-spaced p ine t o t h e a c r e and, on t h e b e t t e r s i t e s , t o moderately r e l e a s e an occasional good hardwood where t h e p ine is lacking.

On good s i t e s , and where t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l num- b e r of good hardwood stems, i t may be b e t t e r t o work f o r a mixed r a t h e r than a pure s tand (Cl ine & Lockard 1925). W e don ' t know ye t how t o determine t h e breaking point, b u t we do know t h a t t h e mixed s tand i s cheaper t o develop on small areas , has l e s s weevil damage and b e t t e r knot charac te r i s - t i c s , and may c o n t r i b u t e t o improved growth and v igor of a l l t r e e s i n the s tand (Lutz & C l i n e 1947). To favor mixed stands, t h e groupwise arrangement of t h e hardwood and pine components t h a t f requen t ly develops n a t u r a l l y should be encouraged. I n t h e pine groups, f u l l r e l e a s e should be given t h e whole group. I n the hardwood groups, r e l e a s e should be s e l e c t i v e and moderate t o favor t h e b e s t hardwood stems without pe rmi t t ing room f o r excessive crown expansion, epi- cormic branching, and t h e l i k e . Of course a e r i a l f o l i a g e sprays cannot be used i n developing pine-hardwood s tands . With these exceptions, weeding p r a c t i c e i n mixed s tands is t h e same a s pure s tands .

This covers t h e important weeding a l t e r n a t i v e s . Treatment of t h e o l d e r seedling-and-sapling s tands t h a t a l - ready e x i s t w i l l p a r a l l e l t h a t discussed above a s delayed t reatment . Weeding i n s tands t h a t a r e not adequately stocked with pine o r good hardwoods i s an uncer ta in investment. Re-

l e a s e o f a v a i l a b l e growing s t o c k may keep t h e a r e a a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y p roduc t ive and u l t i m a t e l y provide a seed source f o r t h e nex t s t a n d . I f t h e s t a n d i s young, i t may be worth- wh i l e t o seed f o r a d d i t i o n a l s t o c k i n g by methods d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r by McQuilkin. Or, i t may be b e t t e r simply t o f o r g e t t h e s t a n d and niake t h e investment where t h e o p p o r t u n i t y i s g r e a t e r . The d e c i s i o n h e r e i s beyond t h e scope o f a weeding d i s c u s s i o n .

T H I N N I N G

Like weeding, t h i n n i n g f o r p roduc t ion o f q u a l i t y saw- t imber can be done i n s e v e r a l ways: low th inn ing , crown th inn ing , s e l e c t i o n th inning, and mechanical thinning--each a t s e v e r a l i n t e n s i t i e s (Hawley & Smith 1954). The cho ice o f method depends l a r g e l y on s t a n d c o n d i t i o n s and on t h e over- a l l i n t e n s i t y o f t h e management program.

L o w T h i n n i n g

Low t h i n n i n g has been by f a r t h e most widely prac- t i c e d method i n wh i t e p i n e s t a n d s . O r i g i n a l l y des igned p r i - m a r i l y t o sa lvage t r e e s o f t h e lowest crown c l a s s e s t h a t o t h e r w i s e would have d ied , t h e method found p a r t i c u l a r f a v o r i n whi te p i n e because i t a l s o ho lds down average branch s i z e , pe rmi t s a r e l a t i v e l y h igh r a t e o f n a t u r a l pruning, and reduces stem deformat ion from white-pine-weevil i n j u r i e s . C u l t u r a l c o s t s a r e the reby h e l d down whi l e ma in ta in ing good p r o s p e c t s f o r a h igh -qua l i ty f i n a l y i e l d . F i n a l l y , r e l a - t i v e l y l i t t l e s k i l l i s needed t o s e l e c t t h e t r e e s t o be c u t .

On t h e o t h e r hand, even when t h i n n i n g i s moderately heavy, l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l growing space i s provided f o r t h e r e s i d u a l t r e e s of t h e upper crown c l a s s e s , s o t h e growth of t h e s e t r e e s i s n o t g r e a t l y a c c e l e r a t e d by t h e th inn ing . Consequently, t h e sawlog r o t a t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y long. I n t e r - media te y i e l d s a r e g e n e r a l l y o f low va lue because they a r e t h e product o f sma l l t r e e s o f t h e lower crown c l a s s e s . The h igh s t a n d d e n s i t y upon which t h e method i s based i s o f t e n hard t o ma in ta in and causes t h e s t a n d t o b e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o wind and d i s e a s e damage.

Low t h i n n i n g has i t s c h i e f v a l u e i n dense s t a n d s and i n s t a n d s on t h e b e t t e r s l t e s , and i n s i t u a t i o n s where r e - d u c t i o n of cash o u t l a y s f o r c u l t u r a l work i s more d e s i r a b l e than r educ t ion o f t h e number of y e a r s needed t o grow t h e c rop .

There a r e s e v e r a l n o t a b l e examples of t h e low-thin- n ing method a p p l i e d c o n s i s t e n t l y on sma l l p l o t s ove r p e r i o d s o f 30 y e a r s . I n t h e Saginaw F o r e s t i n s o u t h e a s t e r n Michigan (Spur r e t a l . 1957), t h e B i l tmore E s t a t e i n western North C a r o l i n a (Wahlenberg 1955) and t h e Yale Fores t i n south-

western New Hampshire (Hawley 1936), l i g h t t o moderately heavy low th inn ings a t 5- t o 7-year i n t e r v a l s each removed about 10 t o 20 pe rcen t o f the s tocking. I n none o f these examples was an i n c r e a s e shown i n g ross yield--the t o t a l growth of wood whether o r not i t was usab le .

However, n e t y ie lds-- the amount of wood t h a t could be used--was 12 t o 35 pe rcen t h igher where th inning had been done. I n t h e Biltmore example, the th inn ing advantage was g r e a t e r i n terms of t o t a l board-feet (52 percent) than i n terms of t o t a l cub ic f e e t (35 p e r c e n t ) . This r e f l e c t s t h e f a s t e r i n c r e a s e of average s t and diameter i n t h e thinned s tands . I n both the Biltmore and t h e Saginaw low th inn ings t h e a c t u a l average diameter growth r a t e was only s l i g h t l y b e t t e r i n t h e thinned than i n the unthinned stand, however. The i n c r e a s e i n average s t and diameter r e s u l t e d almost wholly from c u t t i n g more s m a l l t r e e s than would have died had t h e th innings n o t been made.

Wahlenberg found an average l i v e crown r a t i o of 42 pe rcen t a f t e r the f i r s t th inn ing i n the 20-year-old Biltmore p lan ta t ion , compared t o a 34 percent r a t i o i n t h e unthinned p l o t . A t t h e age of 56 years , a f t e r a s e r i e s of seven th in - nings, the th inned p l o t had a live-Crown r a t i o of 37 percen t and the unthinned p l o t a r a t i o of 29 pe rcen t . Wahlenberg s t a t e s t h a t a crown r a t i o l e s s than 35 pe rcen t ( f o r which diameter growth i s about 1 inch i n 10 years) i s unsa t i s fac - t o r y . Evident ly these low-thinning regimes were b a r e l y s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t h e average crown r a t i o above t h e minimum l e v e l . Spurr and h i s a s s o c i a t e s concluded t h a t heavier th innings a r e necessary t o keep t h e t r e e s r e t a i n e d growing vigorously t o the end of t h e r o t a t i o n . Although the d a t a from these examples a r e c e r t a i n l y no t conclusive, they sug- g e s t t h a t t h i s k ind of th inning is p r e f e r a b l e on t h e b e t t e r s i t e s .

C r o w n T h i n n i n g

Largely a s a r e s u l t of exper ience with low thinning, more recen t recommendations p r e s c r i b e crown th inn ing . Here most of t h e t r e e s c u t a r e i n t h e codominant crown c l a s s bu t some t r e e s i n t h e dominant c l a s s and some i n the lower crown c l a s s e s a l s o a r e cut , depending upon spacing requirements and t h e value and q u a l i t y of t h e t r e e s . The p r i n c i p a l advantages over low thinning a r e : (1) The in te rmedia te y i e l d s a r e g e n e r a l l y of h igher value because they come from l a r g e r t rees , ( 2 ) The crown space a v a i l a b l e t o r e s i d u a l t r e e s is increased, thus pe rmi t t ing more rap id diameter growth and a reduct ion i n the time needed t o produce sawlogs o f a given s i z e . T o t a l net cubic-foot y i e l d s may be l e s s than i n low th inn ing b u t t o t a l n e t board-foot y i e l d may be g r e a t e r . I f crown th inn ings a r e s t a r t e d e a r l y enough, t h e s t and should have g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e t o wind and d i s e a s e damage.

Successful a p p l i c a t i o n o f crown thinnings r e q u i r e s

g r e a t e r s i l v i c u l t u r a l s k i l l than does t h e p r a c t i c e of low thinning. And t h e tendency f o r more open-grown t r e e s t o be of poorer q u a l i t y must be overcome by more i n t e n s i v e app l i - c a t i o n of o t h e r c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s such a s pruning and weevil c o n t r o l . Therefore, c u l t u r a l c o s t s a r e genera l ly higher f o r crown thinning. A s t r e e s grow o l d e r t h e i r r a t e of crown expansion becomes l e s s . I t seems almost i n e v i t a b l e t h a t some growing space w i l l be wasted by crown th inn ing i n the l a t e r s t a g e s of t h e r o t a t i o n .

Nevertheless, crown th inn ing o f f e r s a b e t t e r opportu- n i t y than low th inn ing f o r r a p i d production o f q u a l i t y saw- t imber. I t i s t h e p r e f e r a b l e th inn ing method f o r those who a r e w i l l i n g t o make some investment i n c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s i n o rder t o shor ten t h e r o t a t i o n . I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y app l ica - b l e i n s t ands on poor s i t e s and i n s t ands where severe com- p e t i t i o n has not y e t s t a r t e d .

S e l e c t i o n T h i n n i n g

S e l e c t i o n th inn ing has found favor among f o r e s t e r s dea l ing with young o r previously unmanaged whi te p ine s t ands because it o f f e r s o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o t h i n e a r l y and t o con- c e n t r a t e the c u t on t h e l a rge , coarse, and crooked o r mul t i - ple-stemmed dominant t r e e s t h a t a r e o f t e n found i n such s tands . S e l e c t i o n thinning i s t h e oppos i t e of low th inn ing . The c u t progresses downward from t h e dominant crown c l a s s a s t h e th inn ing i n t e n s i t y becomes p rogress ive ly heavier . Trees p r e s e n t l y i n the lower crown c l a s s e s a r e depended upon t o produce f u t u r e y i e l d s .

I f t h e s t and i s i n such poor cond i t ion t h a t t h e t r e e s c u t i n th inn ing a r e almost a l l of c l e a r l y undes i rab le qual- i t y , then t h e s e l e c t i o n th inn ing i s no d i f f e r e n t than crown th inn ing i n p r a c t i c e . Such th inn ing see-to have ample j u s t i f i c a t i o n . However, when s e l e c t i o n . . rnning r e q u i r e s the c u t t i n g of a s u b s t a n t i a l p ropor t ion of t a e good q u a l i t y dominant and codominant t r ees , use o f t h e method should be c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e d .

The main j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t r u e s e l e c t i o n th inn ing i n whi te p ine i s t h a t s t ands commonly need th inn ing b e f o r e a "commercial" low th inn ing o r crown thinning can be made. Th i s p o i n t i s reached when m o r t a l i t y i s acce le ra ted by r a p i d l y inc reas ing competit ion wi th in t h e s t and . (Smithers 1954, Tarbox & Reed 1924). I t o f t e n occurs when t h e s t and i s about 30 years old, although t h e exac t age i s a func t ion of s i t e q u a l i t y and s tand dens i ty . Increased m o r t a l i t y is s igna led by a sharp reduct ion i n diameter growth, For example, i n t h e Harvard Fores t t h i s has occurred i n s t ands 30 years o l d and 40 f e e t t a l l (Tarbox & Reed 1924). When av- e rage s t and diameter i s about 4 t o 6 inches a t t h i s time, the only t r e e s from which products can be obtained a r e t h e l a r g e r dominants and codominants.

Thus, s e l e c t i o n thinning, whi le reducing c u l t u r a l costs , lengthens t h e r o t a t i o n . I f c a r r i e d o u t c l o s e t o the time when th inn ing i s f i r s t needed, s e l e c t i o n thinning can improve q u a l i t y production. I f i t i s delayed u n t i l the crown s i z e of t h e t r e e s i n subordinate crown c l a s s e s i s very much reduced, i t can be d i s a s t r o u s . Repeated s e l e c t i o n thinning can produce small products such a s pulpwood bu t i s incompatible with t h e rap id production of high-qual i ty saw- t imber (Hawley & Smith 1954).

Mechanics l T h i n n i n g

Mechanical th inn ing includes a l l those methods based on a regu la r spacing o r p a t t e r n of t r e e removal r a t h e r than t h e crown c l a s s and q u a l i t y of the ind iv idua l trees. Row thinning i n p l a n t a t i o n s is a prime example of mechanical th inning. I n general, mechanical th innings a r e app l icab le t o the same s i t u a t i o n s a s s e l e c t i o n thinning and a r e s u b j e c t t o the same r e s t r i c t i o n s . They a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y use fu l f o r e a r l y th inning i n p l a n t a t i o n s where t r e e development i s r e l a t i v e l y uniform. A s a r u l e mechanical th inn ings a r e l e s s de t r imenta l t o sawtimber product ion than s e l e c t i o n th inn ing because a smal ler proport ion of the good-quality dominant t r e e s i s c u t . However, they produce l e s s immediate timber value because some of t h e t r e e s c u t w i l l be marginal o r sub- marginal i n value.

I n c o n t r a s t t o s e l e c t i o n thinning, mechanical th in - nings can o f t e n be repeated s e v e r a l times i n the production of sawtimber, bu t such thinnings should be supplanted by crown th inn ings a s soon a s p o s s i b l e .

C o n c l u s i o n

Although t h e four th inn ing methods have been d i s - cussed a s exc lus ive choices, t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s of a method a r e o f t e n hard t o i d e n t i f y i n p r a c t i c e . The appearance of a s t and thinned by a given method w i l l n a t u r a l l y vary a s the o r i g i n a l condi t ion of t h e s t and v a r i e s . And, t h e r e i s no r u l e requ i r ing t h a t any of the methods be used i n t h e i r p u r e s t form. Indeed, i t i s o f t e n p r e f e r a b l e t o employ some compromise between two methods, and t h e product o b j e c t i v e may b e s t be reached by changing from one method t o another dur ing t h e l i f e of t h e s t and .

Stand cond i t ions d i c t a t e t h e choice . Thus, e a r l y s e l e c t i o n thinning may be replaced by crown thinning u n t i l t h e s tand i s of sawtimber s i ze , t o be followed by low thinning dur ing the r e s t of the r o t a t i o n (Hawley & Smith 1954). This p a t t e r n appears t o have considerable mer i t f o r sawlog production i n many white p ine s t ands because it makes t h e b e s t u s e of the s t and and t h e s i t e on which i t grows a t every s t a g e of development.

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n has cen te red on p a r t i c u l a r , i d e a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n s . But, more o f t e n than not , t h e f o r e s t e r w i l l d e a l w i th a t y e i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . He must d e v i s e th inn ing r e - gimes t o f i t them. I n doing so, t h e p r i n c i p l e s evolved from p a s t t h inn ing s t u d i e s must b e cons ide red i n terms of t h e management i n t e n s i t y t h a t can b e p r a c t i c e d and t h e appropr i - a t e p roduc t o b j e c t i v e . For r a p i d p roduc t ion of q u a l i t y saw- t imber, t h i n n i n g s i n young whi t e p i n e s t a n d s ought t o fo l low t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s :

Crown th inn ing , r epea ted o f t e n , t o g i v e c rop trees room t o expand.

S e l e c t i o n of a t l e a s t enough w e l l - d i s t r i b u t e d crop t r e e s t o compose a f i n a l s t and wi th t h e d e s i r e d average diame- t e r and s t and d e n s i t y .

Maintenance of a below-normal o r unders tocked cond i t ion , s o a s t o r e t a i n a t l e a s t a 35-percent l ive-crown r a t i o on t h e c rop t r e e s .

S T A N D - D E N S I T Y C O N T R O L

" ~ a s a l a r e a pe r a c r e i s p o s s i b l y one o f t h e most i m - p o r t a n t c r i t e r i a on which t h i n n i n g p r a c t i c e should b e based", according t o Smithers (1954) i n h i s i l l u m i n a t i n g r e - p o r t on a number of t h i n n i n g experiments i n r ed and wh i t e p i n e s t a n d s i n t h e Ottawa V a l l e y . He u s e s b a s a l - a r e a development t o propose crown-thinning regimes f o r t h e s e s t ands , by s i t e c l a s s e s .

The f i r s t t h inn ing i s made a t about age 30 when natu- r a l m o r t a l i t y beg ins t o a c c e l e r a t e , i f s tock ing i s normal. On one o f t h e b e t t e r s i t e s ( s i t e index 55) t h i n n i n g s t h a t remove about 1 5 pe rcen t o f t h e b a s a l a r e a a r e made a t 5-year i n t e r v a l s u n t i l age 50. T h e r e a f t e r , t h i n n i n g s a r e made a t 10-year i n t e r v a l s ; and about 10 pe rcen t of t h e b a s a l a r e a i s removed each t ime. Under t h i s p r a c t i c e the s t o c k i n g l e v e l i s g r a d u a l l y reduced from normal a t age 30 t o 70 pe rcen t of normal a t about age 55 and then i s allowed t o b u i l d back t o normal a t r o t a t i o n age of 100 y e a r s . Mean s tock ing du r ing t h e th inn ing pe r iod i n c r e a s e s a t a n e a r l y l i n e a r r a t e of about 1 . 7 squa re f e e t annua l ly . The f i n a l normal y i e l d i s 7,500 cub ic f e e t con ta ined i n 160 t r e e s wi th a mean diameter of 16 inches . The t h i n n i n g s y i e l d an a d d i t i o n a l 3,200 cubic f e e t .

Smithers imposes two impor tant q u a l i f i c a t i o n s on t h e use of t h e t h i n n i n g regimes: (1 ) Crown th inn ing must be used t o f a v o r c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , w e l l - d i s t r i b u t e d c rop t r e e s . ( 2 ) The t h i n n i n g s themselves must be we l l d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e a r e a . By t h e s e means t h e f u l l b e n e f i t s of t h i n n i n g can b e r e a l i z e d .

Heiberg (no d a t e ) has developed a th inn ing regime f o r whi te pine p l a n t a t i o n s on good s i t e s i n the Adirondacks t h a t i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t . The f i r s t th inning i s made a t about 24 years . I t i s repeated a t roughly 5-year i n t e r v a l s t o r o t a t i o n age, removing about 25 square f e e t of basa l a r e a i n each th inn ing . Under t h i s program the mean s tocking in- c r e a s e s slowly. I t b u i l d s up a t a r e g u l a r annual r a t e of $ square f o o t from about 130 square f e e t a t t h e f i r s t th inning t o about 155 square f e e t a i t h e last--84 years . This appears t o cause a gradual reduct ion of s tocking l e v e l from near normal a t the f i r s t th inn ing t o about 60 percent of normal a t r o t a t i o n age. The y i e l d a t 84 years i s 6,200 cubic f e e t contained i n 85 t r e e s averaging 19.0 inches i n diameter . In termediate y i e l d s add 7,700 cubic f e e t t o the g r o s s . Heiberg, too, s t r e s s e s the need f o r we l l -d i s t r ibu ted crown th inn ings t o con t inua l ly inc rease the growing space a v a i l a b l e t o crop t r e e s .

P R U N I N G

One of t h e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s of white pine i s t h e number and p e r s i s t e n c e of branches. Thus a r t i f i c i a l pruning a t an e a r l y age i s t h e s u r e s t way t o c o n t r o l knot c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t o ob ta in c l e a r lumber. I t i s the only p r a c t i c a l way i n s t ands t h a t a r e wel l thinned.

Considerable research has been done i n pruning white p ine . This work has provided t h e following important guides:

Pruning may be done i n one o r i n severa l s t e p s . For purposes of q u a l i t y growth alone, f requent l i g h t prunings

a r e p r e f e r r e d over a s i n g l e heavy pruning (Smithers 1954). This p r a c t i c e w i l l he lp hold the crown r a t i o a t a d e s i r a b l e l e v e l , w i l l y i e l d a small kno t ty core of uniform diameter, and green pruning may reduce the incidence of "black" kno t s .

Between one- thi rd and one-half of t h e l i v e crown can be removed i n pruning without s e r i o u s l o s s of growth

( B a r r e t t & Downs 1943, Smithers 1954). Bud pruning has been t r i e d on white p ine (Fox 1957, D o o l i t t l e 1954), b u t t r e e s pruned t h i s way seem t o " a t t r a c t " more than t h e usua l number of white-pine weevi ls . Therefore, i t i s n o t recommended.

O The amount of crown t h a t can s a f e l y be removed i s a l s o sub jec t t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t a t l e a s t one- thi rd and

p re fe rab ly one-half o r more of t h e t o t a l . stem leng th be i n l i v e crown f o r the b e s t growth (Wahlenberg 1955, Smithers 1954).

Pruning should be done i n t h e dormant season f o r b e s t hea l ing (Adams & Schne l le r 1939).

Live branches over 2 inches i n diameter should not be pruned because of t h e high cos t , slow hea l ing r a t e , and

danger of decay (Hawley & Clapp 1942). Campbell (1956) states that healing time ranges from 1 to 5 years for knots from 4 to 1 inch in diameter. And a study made in Maine by Davis (1958) indicates that about 1.3 inches of growth is necessary to completely heal the largest knots pruned on white pine averaging 7 . 7 inches d.b.h. at time of pruning.

The number of trees to be pruned should at least equal the number expected to make up the stand at the end of

the rotation. How many more might profitably be pruned is problematical, but certainly more--perhaps 30 percent more-- than the minimum should be pruned if pruning is started early. This will compensate for mistakes in tree selection and accidental loss of pruned trees, and will produce some clear lumber from later thinnings.

S U M M A R Y

In managing young white pine stands for quality pro- puction, these practices are known to be important: (1) pro- tection is a prime requisite; (2) weeding and releasing will be required in most seedling and sapling stands; (3) thinning is needed for the rapid production of high-quality poles and small sawtimber; and ( 4 ) pruning is the surest way to grow high-quality and sound-knotted white pine lumber. Although additional knowledge is needed, application of that now available will increase substantially the production of high-quality white pine in the Northeast.

Managing Merchantable Stands for Quality Production

by Charles R. Lockard 6? William E. McQuilkin

I N general terms, merchantable s t ands a r e those t h a t con- t a i n a s u f f i c i e n t number of t r e e s l a r g e enough t o y i e l d

products t h a t can meet minimum use requirements, and t h a t can be harvested a t a p r o f i t .

H O W T O H A R V E S T

Under modern management concepts, t h e ha rves t c u t s should: (1) remove products a s e f f i c i e n t l y a s poss ible , and ( 2 ) r e s u l t i n a new s tand of t h e d e s i r e d species--white pine, wholly o r i n p a r t , i n t h i s case . I t i s u s u a l l y nec- essa ry t o e f f e c t some compromises i n t h e method of opera t ion t o accomodate these two o b j e c t i v e s .

Only one po in t need be made about t h e mechanics of t h e ha rves t ing opera t ion i t s e l f ; namely, t h a t t h e opera t ion be d i r e c t e d toward cap tu r ing t h e maximum of t h e p o t e n t i a l t r e e values . To do t h i s , i t is necessary t o understand t h e f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t values adversely . This impl ies a more s c i e n t i f i c approach t o log-making than i s genera l ly taken. For ins tance, i n a b i l i t y t o recognize weevil incidence may r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e t o make bucking c u t s a t a p o i n t i n t h e bo le t h a t W i l l minimize damage and avoid s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s of p o t e n t i a l value. S imi la r ly , l ack of knowledge of t h e e f f e c t of knot charac te r , a s seen i n t h e log, on lumber grade pat- t e rn , and t h e consequent f a i l u r e t o a l t e r l o g l eng th i n accordance with knot c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a l s o w i l l adversely a f f e c t y i e l d s of t h e higher lumber grades .

A s t o reproduct ion of t h e s tand: Several choices of c u t t i n g methods a r e ava i l ab le , t h e choice depending upon t h e cond i t ion of t h e s tand and t h e environmental modif icat ions necessary t o ob ta in reproduct ion on t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t e . These c u t t i n g methods a r e : (1) c l e a r - c u t t i n g ; ( 2 ) s h e l t e r - wood c u t t i n g ; (3) she1 terwood-with-standards cu t t ing , lead- ing t o two-storied f o r e s t ; and (4) c l e a r - c u t t i n g by small areas--group, patch, o r s t r i p c u t t i n g s . Clear-cut t ing i n l a r g e blocks commonly l e a d s t o regenera t ion problems, and i s seldom adv isab le un less the owner i s prepared t o r e p l a n t . Both p r a c t i c a l experience and s t u d i e s of s i l v i c a l r equ i re - ments i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e shelterwood system o f c u t t i n g whi te p ine s t ands o f f e r s t h e g r e a t e s t assurance of reproducing t h e spec ies by n a t u r a l seeding.

The shelterwood system i s def ined a s " the removal of the mature t imber i n a s e r i e s o f cu t t ings , which extend over a pe r iod of yea rs equal usua l ly t o not more than one-quarter and o f t e n no t more than one-tenth o f t h e time requ i red t o grow t h e crop, by means of which t h e es tabl ishment o f natu- r a l reproduct ion under the p a r t i a l s h e l t e r of seed t r e e s i s encouraged" (Meyer & Eyre 1958) . A she1 terwood-with-stand- a r d s means t h a t , a t the time of t h e f i n a l cu t , a l imi ted number of high-qual i ty t r e e s a r e reserved f o r continued growth through p a r t o r a l l of t h e next r o t a t i o n .

The purpose of standards, a s w i l l be discussed l a t e r , i s t o permit t r e e s with high-qual i ty p o t e n t i a l t o produce l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of wood of super io r q u a l i t y by u t i l i z i n g t h e a b i l i t y of whi te pine t r e e s t o grow wel l f o r long per iods a s i s o l a t e d ind iv idua l s . From t h e s tandpoint of g e t t i n g reproduction, i t mat te r s l i t t l e whether o r n o t s t andards a r e c a r r i e d over. Standards would provide a re- s e r v e seed source, however, i n case t h e previously es tab- l i s h e d reproduct ion were wiped out by f i r e o r o t h e r ca tas - t r o p h i e s .

The advantages of t h e shelterwood method f o r es tab- l i s h i n g reproduct ion a r e :

The opening of t h e s tand by th inn ings and p a r t i a l cut- t i n g s promotes breakdown of t h e l i t t e r and improves seedbed cond i t ions .

The shelterwood canopy r e t a i n e d a f t e r t h e reproduct ion c u t provides t h e d i f f u s e d l i g h t from high shade t h a t

f avors seed l ing es tabl ishment . Seedl ings must have a t l e a s t 20 percent of f u l l s u n l i g h t t o s t a r t and grow reasonably wel l dur ing t h e juven i le per iod. Th i s requirement and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e seed source and a t t endan t shade can be re- t a ined a s long a s needed g ives opportuni ty f o r p r e c i s e con- t r o l of s t and development by u s e of t h e shelterwood system.

The shade of t h e shelterwood minimizes t h e importance of having optimum seedbed cond i t ions because seedbed temper-

a t u r e s a r e amel iorated. With shade, seed l ings can germinate and surv ive under seedbed cond i t ions t h a t would be i n t o l e r - a b l e under f u l l sun.

The r e t e n t i o n of a canopy u n t i l t h e p i n e reproduct ion i s e s t a b l i s h e d reduces t h e compet i t ive e f f e c t of t h e usual invading hardwoods.

The f i r s t requirement f o r g e t t i n g reproduct ion is, of course, abundant seed. Seed crops of white p ine tend t o be c y c l i c ; t h e Seed Manual (U. S. Fores t Se rv ice 1948) r e p o r t s good crops a t 3- t o 5-year i n t e r v a l s . Recently we have become inc reas ing ly aware of t h e damage done by cone bee t l es , a s desc r ibed e a r l i e r by Brown. Because of t h e c y c l i c e f f e c t and damage by b e e t l e s , i n t e r v a l s o f 10 years o r longer may

e lapse without a good seed crop. For b e s t ca tches of seed- l ings , reproduction c u t s should be timed with good seed years .

A second major requirement f o r developing a good new s tand by n a t u r a l seed regenera t ion i s t h a t the seedbed be i n a favorab le condi t ion. Mainly, t h i s means t h a t the ground be f a i r l y f r e e of understory hardwood t r e e s and shrubs. Although under the shelterwood system t h e maintenance of some shade u n t i l p ine reproduct ion i s e s t a b l i s h e d he lps t o r e s t r a i n t h e hardwoods, shade a lone w i l l not g ive adequate control , e s p e c i a l l y on s i t e s with heav ie r s o i l s . Addi t ional con t ro l measures usua l ly w i l l be necessary, e i t h e r a t t h e time of t h e reproduct ion cut, o r a t o t h e r t imes whenever hardwoods seem t o be g e t t i n g o u t of hand.

An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e orthodox shelterwood method of reproduct ion is t o c lea r -cu t by small areas--group o r patch cutting--or by narrow s t r i p s . Here, i n s t e a d of d i s t r i b u t i n g severa l p e r i o d i c p a r t i a l c u t s over an e n t i r e stand, each pe r iod ic c u t i s concentra ted i n s e l e c t e d p a r t s of the s t and With these methods, logging and hardwood-control t reatments may be accomplished a t lowest c o s t s . I n highly i r r e g u l a r s tands , group o r patch c u t t i n g s can be d i s t r i b u t e d so a s t o ha rves t c l u s t e r s of mature t r e e s o r c l u s t e r s of merchantable hardwoods. I f t h e c lea r -cu t s a r e kept s u f f i c i e n t l y small, most of t h e s i l v i c u l t u r a l advantages of a t r u e shelterwood can be r e a l i z e d . Th i s means t h a t t h e width of c lea r -cu t a reas should no t exceed t h e height of the border ing t r e e s .

W H E N T O H A R V E S T

I n d i scuss ing t h e "how" before t h e "when" we have put t h e c a r t be fore t h e horse. We have done t h i s wi th i n t e n t . "HOW t o harvest" i s now a r e l a t i v e l y s t ra igh t fo rward sub- j e c t , backed up by a s u b s t a n t i a l body of l i t e r a t u r e based on p r a c t i c a l experience. I n deciding when t o cut , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n dea l ing with t h e r a t h e r gloomy prospect of wild s t ands a s they e x i s t today, t h e f o r e s t manager i s faced with many ad- d i t i o n a l problems ( o r oppor tun i t i e s o f t e n dimly seen) . There a r e two b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t approaches t o t h e management of merchantable s t ands .

The f i r s t i s the s t and opera t ion concept. I n t h e past , much cons ide ra t ion has been given t o s tand management pe r s e . Under t h i s approach, per-acre y i e l d s i n both volume and value and per-acre growth formed t h e b a s i s f o r manage- r i a l dec i s ions . Here we average wide v a r i a t i o n s i n growth ra te , volume, and value o f ind iv idua l t r e e s . A g r e a t dea l of l i t e r a t u r e involving concepts and knowledge on t h i s method of management i s ava i l ab le , and most f o r e s t e r s a r e famil- i a r wi th i t . But not much l i t e r a t u r e i s a v a i l a b l e on the e f f e c t of t h i s type of management on q u a l i t y of y i e l d . The

wide d i f f e r e n c e s i n a l l r e s p e c t s between t r e e s found i n today ' s stands, and t h e remarkable a b i l i t y of whi te p ine t r e e s t o t h r i v e a s ind iv idua l s under widely varying s tand condi t ions , make t h i s e a r l y approach somewhat anachron i s t i c - -ce r ta in ly it i s wasteful of p o t e n t i a l s . I t appears, then, t h a t a s t r o n g and l o g i c a l approach t o management i s through ind iv idua l t r e e development. Not much research-based information on t h i s method i s ava i l ab le , but good examples a r e common i n t h e f o r e s t .

The second i s the t r e e and s tand matur i ty concept. " ~ a t u r i t y " a s a b a s i s f o r c u t t i n g o r l eav ing t r e e s i s no t r e l a t e d t o age but r a t h e r t o p o t e n t i a l . A t r e e i s "mature1' i f i t s prospec t ive va lue growth represen t s inadequate r e t u r n on t h e p resen t value of t h e t r e e and the space i t occupies. Matur i ty i n t h i s sense can be judged from (1) growth r a t e , ( 2 ) ex ten t of weevil damage, (3) coarseness of branch development, and (4) expected improvement o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of the q u a l i t y f a c t o r s . Of these, growth r a t e i s p a r t i a l l y independent of t h e o t h e r s . Actually, a slow-growing t r e e with t h e a b i l i t y t o recover and go i n t o a per iod of acce le ra ted growth can be c l a s s i f i e d a s immature--if i t is, o r can be expected t o become, a " q u a l i t y v t r e e . On t h e o t h e r hand, low-quality t r e e s a r e mature, no mat te r how f a s t they a r e growing--unless t h e r e i s a prospect f o r improved q u a l i t y . This b a s i s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g t r e e s (and s tands) d e r i v e s d i - r e c t l y from t h e opera t ion of the lumber-degrading f a c t o r s . I t i s a guide t o c a p i t a l i z i n g on t h e "upgrading" f a c t o r s discussed i n t h e s e c t i o n on Markets and Products .

Regardless of age then, i n modern f o r e s t p rac t i ce , t r e e s t h a t f a l l i n t o t h e "mature1' c l a s s could be c u t a t once. The dec i s ion t o ha rves t o r no t t o ha rves t r e s t s on the nun- b e r of " ~ o s i t i v e fu tu re" t r e e s i n t h e s tand. I f t h e r e a r e enough of these t o form a r e s i d u a l s t and of perhaps h a l f normal s tocking, then t h e s t and should not be harvested bu t should be continued under t h e k ind of management descr ibed by Lane f o r "young" s t ands , The "mature" t r e e s should be c u t i n th inn ings o r improvement c u t t i n g s .

I f t h e number of "immature" t r e e s i s too small t o c o n s t i t u t e reasonable stocking, o r i f they a r e too poorly d i s t r i b u t e d t o make f u l l use of the growing space, the en- t i r e s t and should be harvested. The method of ha rves t cut- t i n g used can b e s e l e c t e d t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e f u t u r e of t h e It. immature" t r e e s dur ing t h e regenera t ion per iod. I n f a c t , t h e shelterwood with s tandards o r "continuous" shelterwood method of c u t t i n g advocated by Heiberg and Fos te r a t t h e Pack Fores t i s wel l s u i t e d t o c a p i t a l i z i n g on a few "imma- tu re" t r e e s j u s t a s long a s they remain i n t h a t c l a s s .

Although d a t a a r e needed on t h e r a t e and degree t o which improved q u a l i t y can be b u i l t i n t o a t r ee , t h e time requ i red f o r s i g n i f i c a n t improvement may n o t be a s long a s

one thinks. The remarkable a b i l i t y of a healthy but iso- l a t ed white pine t o continue t o grow s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f o r long periods of time (perhaps cen tur ies ) i s well known. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s the ba s i s f o r t he p r ac t i ce of leaving any 11 . immature" t rees-- i .e., those capable of good fu tu re q u a l i t y growth--and of carrying these as a stand o r a s an overstory i f necessary. Observations a t t he Pack Forest a t Warrens- burg, N. Y., reveal s t a r t l i n g value increment on 8- t o 11- inch t r e e s of t h i s s o r t i n as l i t t l e a s 20 years. Sorely needed i s a comprehensive s e r i e s of s t ud i e s t o e s t ab l i sh not whether i t i s p ro f i t ab l e t o manage white pine under t h i s concept, but t o e s t ab l i sh how p r o f i t a b l e it is ,

I n general, i f the po t en t i a l is t o be rea l ized on reserved t rees , those t r e e s must be pruned. Except where No. 1 c u t s a r e the pr inc ipa l grade object ive, 1 t o 3 logs should be pruned. To be most e f f i c i en t , t h i s operat ion should be backed by research t h a t es tab l i shes t h e advantages of pruning a t various ages, of pruning high o r low, and t h a t leads t o improved mechanical pruning devices. I t should be remembered t h a t t he object of pruning is to : (1) produce c l ea r s o r s e l e c t s and No. 1 f i n i s h by el iminat ing knots; (2) produce No. 2 f i n i s h by working f o r sound-edge boards; and (3) produce premium by cont ro l l ing knot character--espe- c i a l l y co lor and t igh tness . L i t t l e e f f o r t need be expended on t he production of standard o r i n d u s t r i a l grades; ra ther , e f f o r t should be d i rec ted toward not producing them.

I t i s conceivable t h a t weevil control w i l l have t o be ca r r i ed on throughout most of t he l i f e of t he t r ee , f o r s t ud i e s have shown t h a t weevils h i t high and low.

One f i n a l point : The wild s tands of t he pa s t a r e not too good an example of the p o t e n t i a l i t y of the species . I n t he famous Michigan p iner ies of the 9 0 f s , only 15 percent of output was of the grades we now c a l l "select" . Wild t r e e s were always "wild" i n qua l i t y . I n our managed fores t s , t r e e s should be "engineered". Such t r e e s w i l l have low percentages of the standard, i ndus t r i a l , and dunnage grades, but w i l l run heavy t o t he profi t -bearing high grades.

In Conclusion.. .

by Ralph W. Marquis

T HERE a r e people i n the Northeast who a r e about ready t o g ive up on whi te pine . Some a r e s k e p t i c a l about t h e

mere physical a b i l i t y of t h e spec ies t o survive, f e e l i n g t h a t i t s n a t u r a l enemies--f i r e , windthrow, insec t s , d isease , and hardwood competit ion--are too powerful t o be overcome. Others a r e inc l ined t o doubt t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e value of a crop w i l l be a b l e t o cover the c o s t s o f regenerat ion, management, p r o t e c t i o n , and wai t ing. Others f e a r t h a t p resen t white p ine sawtimber supp l ies w i l l be gone before another crop i s ready f o r harvest and t h a t i n t h e in tervening per iod markets f o r whi te p i n e lumber w i l l be l o s t forever t o o t h e r spec ies o r s u b s t i t u t e mate r ia l s .

Some might ques t ion t h e p ropr ie ty of a r esea rch or- gan iza t ion such a s ours--s taffed l a r g e l y by men t r a i n e d i n the b i o l o g i c a l sciences--peering i n t o t h e future , weighing imponderables, and deciding t h e f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of white p ine production. But i t must be done; o therwise our research program would have no r a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n . We cannot evade the i s s u e and t h e r e i s no p o i n t i n being coy about i t . The very f a c t t h a t our research i n white p ine i s being i n t e n s i f i e d d i s c l o s e s our pos i t ion , r i g h t o r wrong.

We a r e conf ident t h a t r e sea rch can po in t the way t o master t h e n a t u r a l enemies of white p ine and b r ing i t through a s a crop. We a r e s o convinced of the super io r q u a l i t i e s of white pine i n use--if grown, manufactured and merchandised properly--that we b e l i e v e i t can recover any markets i t might l o s e . And our hunch i s t h a t growing high- q u a l i t y p ine timber can be an economically sound opera t ion .

A l l t h e evidence p o i n t s t o q u a l i t y a s t h e determining f a c t o r . Our confidence i n t h e f u t u r e of whi te p ine r e s t s e n t i r e l y on the assumption t h a t s a l e s , manufacture, and t imber management w i l l emphasize the q u a l i t y aspec t .

You c a n ' t s e l l q u a l i t y whi te p ine products un less you manufacture q u a l i t y products . You c a n ' t manufacture q u a l i t y products un less you grow q u a l i t y t imber. So i n the l a s t a n a l y s i s t h e f u t u r e of t h e whi te p ine economy r e s t s with t h e f o r e s t l a n d owner, and what he does t o manage h i s s t ands f o r qua1 i t y product ion.

We hope t h i s r epor t may be o f some he lp i n po in t ing the way t o t h i s k ind of f o r e s t-management p r a c t i c e .

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What's Known A Managing EASTERN PINE

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