Where Did Agriculture Originate?• Origins of agriculture– Agriculture = deliberate modification of Earth’s

surface through the cultivation of plants and/or rearing of animals

– Cultivate = “to care for”– Crop = any plant cultivated by people

Where Did Agriculture Originate?• Origins of agriculture– Hunter-gatherers• Perhaps 250,000 remaining today

– Invention of agriculture• When it began = unclear• Diffused from many hearths

Crop Hearths

Figure 10-2

Animal Hearths

Figure 10-3

Where Did Agriculture Originate?

• Commercial and subsistence agriculture– Subsistence = produced mainly for the farm

family’s survival• Most common in LDCs

– Commercial = produced mainly for sale off the farm• Most common in MDCs

Agriculture and Climate

Figure 10-4

Where Did Agriculture Originate?• Commercial and subsistence agriculture– Five characteristics distinguish commercial

from subsistence agriculture• Purpose of farming• Percentage of farmers in the labor force• Use of machinery • Farm size• Relationship of farming to other businesses

Agricultural Workers

Figure 10-5

Area of Farmland Per Tractor

Figure 10-6

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

• Shifting cultivation– Most prevalent in low-latitude, A-type climates– Two features:• Land is cleared by slashing and burning debris

– Slash-and-burn agriculture

• Land is tended for only a few years at a time

– Types of crops grown vary regionally– Traditionally, land is not owned individually

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

• Pastoral nomadism (herding domesticated animals)

– Found primarily in arid and semiarid B-type climates

– Animals are seldom eaten• The size of the herd indicates power and prestige

– Type of animal depends on the region• For example, camels are favored in North Africa and

Southwest Asia

– Transhumance practiced by some pastoral nomads

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

• Intensive subsistence– Found in areas with high population and

agricultural densities• Especially in East, South, and Southeast Asia • To maximize production, little to no land is wasted

– Intensive with wet rice dominant– Intensive with wet rice not dominant

Rice Production

Figure 10-12

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

• Plantation farming– Found in Latin America, Africa, and Asia– Products are grown in LDCs but typically are

sold to MDCs– Plantations specialize in one or two cash crops• Important crops = coffee, sugarcane, cotton,

rubber, and tobacco

– A large labor force is usually needed in sparsely settled regions

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?

• Mixed crop and livestock farming– Most land = devoted to crops– Most profits = derive from the livestock

• Dairy farming– Regional distribution: the milkshed– Two primary challenges• Labor-intensive• Expense of winter feed

Corn (Maize) Production

Figure 10-15

Milk Production

Figure 10-17

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?

• Grain farming– The largest commercial producer of grain = the United

States

• Livestock ranching– Practiced in marginal environments

• Mediterranean agriculture– Based on horticulture

• Commercial gardening and fruit farming– Truck farms

Wheat Production

Figure 10-19

Meat Production

Figure 10-21

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

• Challenges for commercial farmers– Access to markets is important

• The von Thünen model (1826)– The choice of crop to grow is related to the proximity to the

market

Figure 10-24

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

• Challenges for commercial farmers– Overproduction• Agricultural efficiencies have resulted in

overproduction• Demand has remained relatively constant

– As a consequence, incomes for farmers are low

– Sustainable agriculture• Sensitive land management• Integrated crop and livestock

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

• Challenges for subsistence farmers– Population growth– International trade– Drug crops

Drug Trade

Figure 10-27

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

• Strategies to increase food supply– Expanding agricultural land• Desertification

– Increasing productivity • The green revolution

– Identifying new food sources• Cultivating oceans, developing higher-protein

cereals, and improving palatability of foods– Increasing trade

Agricultural Land and Population

Figure 10-28

Grain Imports and Exports

Figure 10-32

Where is Industry Distributed?• Origin of industry– From cottage industries to the Industrial

Revolution – Impact of the Industrial Revolution especially

great on iron, coal, transportation, textiles, chemicals, and food processing

Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution

Figure 11-2

Where is Industry Distributed?• Industrial regions– Europe• Emerged in late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries

– North America• Industry arrived later but spread faster than in

Europe

– East Asia

Industrial Regions

Figure 11-3

Industrial Areas in Europe

Figure 11-4

Industrial Areas in North America

Figure 11-5

Why Are Situation Factors Important?• Proximity to inputs– Bulk-reducing

industries– Examples:• Copper• Steel

Figure 11-8

Why Are Situation Factors Important?• Proximity to markets– Bulk-gaining industries– Examples:• Fabricated metals• Beverage production

– Single-market manufacturers

– Perishable products

Figure 11-10

Why Are Situation Factors Important?• Ship, rail, truck, or air?– The farther something is transported, the

lower the cost per km/mile– Cost decreases at different rates for each of

the four modes• Truck = most often for short-distance travel• Train = used to ship longer distances (1 day +)• Ship = slow, but very low cost per km/mile• Air = most expensive, but very fast

Why Are Site Factors Important?• Labor– The most important site factor– Labor-intensive industries• Examples: textiles

– Textile and apparel spinning – Textile and apparel weaving– Textile and apparel assembly

Cotton Yarn Production

Figure 11-16

Woven Cotton Fabric Production

Figure 11-17

Production of Women’s Blouses

Figure 11-18

Why Are Site Factors Important?• Land– Rural sites– Environmental factors

• Capital

Figure 11-20

Why Are Location Factors Changing?• Attraction of new industrial regions– Changing industrial distribution within MDCs• Interregional shift within the United States

– Right-to-work laws– Textile production

• Interregional shifts in Europe– Convergence shifts– Competitive and employment regions

Changing U.S. Manufacturing

Figure 11-21

Manufacturers of Men’s and Women’s Socks and Hosiery

Figure 11-22

European Union Structural Funds

Figure 11-23

Why Are Location Factors Changing?• Attraction of new industrial regions– International shifts in industry• East Asia• South Asia• Latin America

– Changing distributions– Outsourcing

World Steel Production

Figure 11-24

Global Production

Figure 11-25

Apparel Production and Jobs in the United States

Figure 11-26

Why Are Location Factors Changing?

• Renewed attraction of traditional industrial regions– Proximity to skilled labor• Fordist, or mass production• Post-Fordist, or lean production• Just-in-time delivery

Electronic Computing Manufacturing

Figure 11-28

Women’s and Girls’ Cut and Sew Apparel Manufacturing

Figure 11-29

Services• Service = any activity that fulfills a human

want or need• Services are located in settlements– Location of services is important for

profitability – Affluent regions tend to offer more services – Local diversity is evident in the provision of

services

Where Did Services Originate?• Three types of services– Consumer services• About 44 percent of all jobs in the United States

– Business services• About 24 percent of all jobs in the United States

– Public services• About 17 percent of all jobs in the United States

– In the United States, all employment growth has occurred in the services sector

Percentage of GDP from Services, 2005

Figure 12-1

Employment Change in the United States by Sector

Figure 12-2

Where Did Services Originate?• Services in early rural settlements– Early consumer services met societal needs• Examples = burial of the dead, religious centers,

manufacturing centers

– Early public services probably followed religious activities

– Early business services to distribute and store food

Where Did Services Originate?• Services in early urban settlements– Services in ancient cities• Earliest urban settlements (e.g., Ur), Athens, Rome

– Services in medieval cities • Largest settlements were in Asia• European cities developed with feudalism

Where Are Contemporary Services Located?

• Services in rural settlements– Half of the world’s population lives in rural

settlements– Two types

• Clustered rural settlements– Circular or linear– Clustered settlements in Colonial America

• Dispersed rural settlements– In the United States– In Great Britain

» Enclosure movement

Rural Settlement Patterns

Figure 12-10

Where Are Contemporary Services Located?

• Services in urban settlements– Differences between urban and rural

settlements• Large size• High density• Social heterogeneity

– Increasing percentage of people in cities– Increasing number of people in cities

Percentage of Population Living in Urban Settlements

Figure 12-14

Urban Settlements With Populations of at Least 3 Million

Figure 12-15

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern?

• Central place theory– First proposed by Walter Christaller (1930s)– Characteristics• A central place has a market area (or hinterland)

– Size of a market area• Range• Threshold

“Daily Urban Systems”

Figure 12-16

Central Place Theory

Figure 12-17

Market Areas, Range, and Threshold for Kroger Supermarkets

Figure 12-18

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern?

• Market-area analysis– Profitability of a location• Compute the range• Compute the threshold• Draw the market area

– Optimal location within a market• Best location in a linear settlement• Best location in a nonlinear settlement

Optimal Location for a Pizza-Delivery Service

Figure 12-20

Why Are Consumer Services Distributed in a Regular Pattern?

• Hierarchy of services and settlements– Nesting• Market areas in MDCs = a series of hexagons of

various sizes

– Rank-size distribution of settlements• Primate city rule

– Primate cities

– Periodic markets

Central Place Theory

Figure 12-21

Rank-Size Distribution in theUnited States and Indonesia

Figure 12-23

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements?

• Hierarchy of business services– Services in world cities

• Business: clustering of services is a product of the Industrial Revolution

• Consumer: retail services with extensive market areas– May include leisure services of national importance due to

large thresholds, large ranges, and the presence of wealthy patrons.

• Public: world cities are often the center of national or international political power

World Cities

Figure 12-25

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements?

• Business services in LDCs– Offshore financial services• Two functions:

– Taxes– Privacy

– Back offices• LDCs are attractive because of:

– Low wages– Ability to speak English

Why Do Business Services Cluster in Large Settlements?

• Economic base of settlements– Two types:• Basic industries• Nonbasic industries

– Specialization of cities in different services– Distribution of talent

Economic Base of U.S. Cities

Figure 12-28

Geography of Talent

Figure 12-29

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?• CBD land uses– Central business districts (CBDs)– Retail services in the CBD• Retailers with a high threshold• Retailers with a high range• Retailers serving downtown workers

– Business services in the CBD

CBD of Charlotte, NC

Figure 13-1

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?• Competition for land in the CBD– High land costs• Some of the most expensive real estate in the

world = Tokyo• Intensive land use

– Underground areas

• Skyscrapers – “Vertical geography”

Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?• Activities excluded from the CBD– Lack of industry in the CBD• Modern factories require large, one-story parcels of

land

– Lack of residents in the CBD• Push and pull factors involved

• CBDs outside North America– Less dominated by commercial considerations.

Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas?

• Models of urban structure– Are used to explain where people live in cities– Three models, all developed in the city of

Chicago• Concentric zone model• Sector model• Multiple nuclei model

Concentric Zone Model

Figure 13-4

Sector Model

Figure 13-5

Multiple Nuclei Model

Figure 13-6

Where Are People Distributedin Urban Areas?

• Geographic application of the models– Models can be used to show where different

social groups live in the cities• Census tracts• Social area analysis

– Criticism of the models• Models may be too simple• Models may be outdated

Where Are People Distributedin Urban Areas?

• Applying the models outside North America– European cities– Less developed countries• Colonial cities• Cities since independence• Squatter settlements

Income Distribution in the Paris Region

Figure 13-10

Model of a Latin American City

Figure 13-14

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Inner-city physical issues– Most significant = deteriorating housing• Filtering • Redlining

– Urban renewal– Public housing– Renovated housing• Gentrification

Racial Change in Chicago

Figure 13-16

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Inner-city social issues– The underclass• An unending cycle of social and economic issues• Homelessness

– Culture of poverty

Why Do Inner Cities Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Inner-city economic issues– Eroding tax base• Cities can either reduce services or raise taxes

– Impact of the recession• Housing market collapse

Foreclosures in Baltimore

Figure 13-18

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Urban expansion– Annexation– Defining urban settlements • The city• Urbanized areas• Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs)

– Metropolitan divisions– Micropolitan statistical areas

Annexation in Chicago

Figure 13-19

City, Urbanized Area, and MSA of St. Louis

Figure 13-20

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Urban expansion– Local government fragmentation• Council of government• Consolidations of city and county governments• Federations

– Overlapping metropolitan areas

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Peripheral model– Edge cities– Density gradient– Cost of suburban sprawl

• Suburban segregation– Residential segregation– Suburbanization of businesses

Density Gradient

Figure 13-23

Suburban Stress

Figure 13-25

Why Do Suburbs Face Distinctive Challenges?

• Transportation and suburbanization– Motor vehicles

• More than 95 percent of all trips = made by car– Public transit

• Advantages of public transit– Transit travelers take up less space– Cheaper, less pollutant, and more energy efficient than an automobile– Suited to rapidly transport large number of people to small area

• Public transit in the United States– Used primarily for rush-hour community for workers into and out of

CBD– Small cities-minimal use– Most Americans prefer to commute by automobile

Subway and Tram Lines in Brussels, Belgium

Figure 13-28

Why Are Resources Being Depleted?• Energy resources– Animate versus inanimate power– Energy supply and demand• Five-sixths of the world’s energy supply comes from

coal, natural gas, and oil– Finiteness of natural resources• Renewable versus nonrenewable resources

– Proven reserves– Potential reserves

Per Capita Energy Consumption

Figure 14-1

U.S. Energy Consumption

Figure 14-2

Outlook for World Petroleum Production

Figure 14-3

Coal Production

Figure 14-4

Proven Reserves of Fossil Fuels

Figure 14-5

Why Are Resources Being Depleted?• Energy resources– Uneven distribution of fossil fuels• Location of reserves

– Consumption of fossil fuels– Control of world petroleum• OPEC• Changing supply and demand

Why Are Resources Being Depleted?• Mineral resources– Metallic or nonmetallic• Nonmetallic = 90 percent of extraction is for

building stone• Ferrous metallic minerals = iron ore, chromium,

manganese• Nonferrous metallic minerals = aluminum, copper,

zinc– Precious metals = gold, silver, platinum

Why Are Resources Being Polluted?• Air pollution– Global scale• Global warming

– Greenhouse effect– The ozone layer and CFCs

– Regional scale• Acid precipitation and acid deposition

– Local scale• Carbon monoxide • Hydrocarbons and photochemical smog• Particulates

Global Warming

Figure 14-15

Acid Deposition in North America & Europe

Figure 14-18

Smog in Mexico City

Figure 14-19

Why Are Resources Being Polluted?• Water pollution– Sources• Agriculture• Water-using industries• Municipal uses

– Impact on aquatic life• Biochemical oxygen demand• Wastewater and disease

Why Are Resources Being Polluted?• Land pollution– Solid-waste disposal• Sanitary landfills

– Two alternatives to landfills: incineration and recycling

– Hazardous waste disposal• In 2007 = about 47 million tons disposed of in the

United States

Why Are Resources Being Polluted?• Renewing resources– Nuclear energy• Potential accidents• Radioactive wastes• Bomb material• Limited uranium reserves• High cost

Percentage of Electricity Generated from Nuclear Power

Figure 14-23

Why Are Resources Being Reused?• Renewing resources– Leading renewable energy resources

• Biomass• Hydroelectric power• Wind power• Geothermal energy• Solar energy

– Active– Passive

• Renewable energy in motor vehicles

Electricity From Hydroelectric Power

Figure 14-26

Why Are Resources Being Reused?• Recycling resources– In the United States recycling has steadily

increased since 1970– Recycling collection• Pick-up and processing

– Recyclables are collected in four ways: curbside, drop-off, buy-back, and/or deposit

• Manufacturing of recycled products

Sources of Solid Waste

Figure 14-30

Why Are Resources Being Reused?• Recycling resources– Other pollution reduction strategies• Reducing discharges• Increasing environmental capacities

– Comparing pollution reduction strategies• It seems clear that consumers must learn to

use/waste less for a safer, cleaner environment

A Coking Plant

Figure 14-32

Why Should Resources Be Conserved?

• Sustainable development– Improving quality of life while preserving

resources for future generations– Conservation

• Sustainable use and management of resources

– Preservation• Maintenance of resources in their present condition

– Impact on economic growth

Sustainable Development

Figure 14-33

Pollution Compared to a Country’s Wealth

Figure 14-34

Why Should Resources be Conserved?

• Biodiversity– Geographic biodiversity versus biological

biodiversity• Biologists = most concerned with genetic diversity• Geographers = most concerned with biogeographic

diversity

– Biodiversity in the tropics• Occupy 6 percent of Earth’s land area but contain

more than 50 percent of all species