WhereisEastAsiainSTS?1

Wen-yuanLinaandJohnLawb

aCentreforGeneralEducation,NationalTsing-huaUniversity,No.101,Kuang-fuRd.Sec.2,Hsin-chu300,Taiwan,wylin1@mx.nthu.edu.twbDepartmentofSociology,TheOpenUniversity,WaltonHall,MiltonKeynesMK76AA,UK,John.law@open.ac.uk.CentreforScienceStudies,Sociology,LancasterUniversity,Bailrigg,Lancaster,UKLA14YWLinLaw2017WhereIsEastAsiaInSTS.docxwww.heterogeneities.net/publications/LinLaw2017WhereIsEastAsiaInSTS(29thApril2017)

1WewouldliketothankChi-lingWu,DaiwieFu,andRur-BinYangfordiscussionandadvice.Wen-yuanLinwouldliketothankTaiwaneseMinistryofScienceandTechnologythatfundedtheresearchproject‘MedicalGovernanceandPublicUnderstandingofScienceandTechnology.’

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Introduction

ThoughitstartedinEuroAmerica,theinterveningfiftyyearshasseentheglobalspreadofSTSandthecreationofthrivingnationalandregionalcommunitiesincludingthelargeanddiverseareacoveredbytheEastAsiaScience,TechnologyandSociety:AnInternationalJournal.Itsinternationalspreadhasreshapedthedisciplineinmanyways,pushingitfromitsoriginalcorefocusontechnoscienceinEuroAmericatoembracenewandwideragendas.Theseincludecolonialandpostcolonialasymmetries,thecharacterofregional,nationalandlocaltechnoscientificpractices,andanenhancedconcernwiththeimportanceofspaceandplaceintheorderingofscienceandtechnology.DespitethefactthatitisarguablyimpossibletowriteAsiangroundedtheory(Dutton2002),theauthorswhopublishinEASTShaveneverthelessexploredthepossiblecharacterofanEastAsianSTS,askinghowitmightbedistinctive,consideringtherelationsbetweenEastAsianSTSandEastAsianStudies,andcriticallyexamininghowSTSinEastAsiamightbestrelatetheoreticallyandsubstantivelytoEuroAmericanSTS(Fan2007,Fu2007,Chen2008,Anderson2009b,Tsukahara2009,Chen2012,Fan2012).

Inconsideringhowtoput‘knowledgeinitsplace’(Livingstone2004,Seth2009)somehavetracedhowempiresorotherformsofasymmetricalglobalconnectionimposespatialandtemporalframestogeneratedistinctionsbetweenthe‘local’andtheglobal(Redfield2002,793).Inaddition,manyhavewarnedagainstessentialisingspatialandculturaldifference,andstressedtheimportanceofcontingencyandtheneedtoexploreepistemicviolencebyrevealingwhatWarwickAnderson(2009a)describesas‘theheterogeneous,haunted,uneventerrainofcontemporarypowerrelations’.SandraHardinghassimilarlyarguedtheneedtoproblematise‘northernsciencestudies’andthepowerrelationswithintechnoscienceasshehaspressedformulticulturalismandtheimportanceofstudiesfromtheperiphery(Harding2008).

Sothecomplexrelationsbetweengeographyandformsofknowledgeintechnosciencearefirmlyontheagenda,thepractitionersofSTSincludingthoseworkinginEastAsiaconceptualisethosecomplexitiesinarangeofdifferentandsometimescontradictoryways,andthatmultiplicityisalsorefractedindifferentassumptionsaboutthecharacterandlocationofEastAsiantechnoscience(Abraham2006).Atthesametime,itissometimesdifficulttoconceptualisethisclearlybecausetheissuesarealsoreflexive.HowwethinkabouttheplaceoftechnoscienceintheworldcannotbecompletelydisentangledfromhowweinstitutionallyandepistemologicallyconceiveoftherelationsbetweendifferentformsofSTS.Toillustratethepointstarkly(wewillnuancethisbelow)thosewhoimaginescienceandtechnologytobeputativelyuniversaltendtobesimilarlycommittedtotheideathatasingleSTSisappropriatetoboth(say)Taipeiand

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Toronto,whereasthosewhoemphasisetheimportanceofculturaldifferenceintechnosciencearealsolikelytoarguethatSTS,too,bothisandshouldbeculturallymultiple.

SohowwepractiseSTSisreflexivelyrelatedtohowweimagineourobjectsofstudyandtheirknowledgepractices,andbothinturnaretiedtowhataretakentobeappropriateinstitutionalarrangements.Buttheargumentcanbefurtherextendedtowhatthereisintheworld–thatistotheontological.Herethesuggestionisthatdifferentknowledgepractices(helpto)generatedifferentobjectsorrealitiesbecausepracticesareperformative(Mol2002,Law2011).Theargumentisthusthatpracticesgenerateworlds,sodifferentpracticesgeneratedifferentworlds,asuggestionthatalsohasimportantpotentialimplicationsforEastAsiaanditsSTS.Toillustrate,anSTScommittedtoscientific,technicalandsocialscienceuniversalismwillbothemphasisetheputativegeneralityofscienceandtechnology,andenactthatuniversalityinitsownSTSpractices.Itwillworkinandhelptogeneratewhatwemightthinkofasa‘one-worldworld’(Law2015).Bycontrast,anSTScommittedtoepistemologicalandontologicaldifferencewillbothtendtodiscoverthisintheknowingpracticesitexploresandenactthisinitsSTS.Oursuggestionisthusthatwhatevertheirvirtues,theseepistemic,institutionalandontologicalcommitmentsalsogeneratedifferentversionsofspace,andlocateEastAsiantechnoscienceindifferentwayswithindifferentversionsoftheworld.InwhatfollowsweexploresixwaysinwhichthisisdoneinEastAsia,modesofknowingthatwecalldiffusion,distortion,circulation,localising,translation,andsoftening.

Nowthehealthwarnings.First,totalkofan‘EastAsian’STSisalreadytotaketoomuchforgrantedbothconceptuallyandgeographically.However,theuseofaggregatinggeographicalandconceptualtermscannotbeavoided,andweareuneasilyawarethattheiruseisoftenunsatisfactory,anissuethatwehaveexploredinsomedetailelsewhere(LawandLin2017a,b).Second,asisobvioustherearemanyalternativewaysofclassifyingEastAsianSTSpractices.Accordingly,wemakenospecialclaimsforwhatfollows.ThisissimplyonewayofdistinguishingbetweendifferentversionsofSTSthatworksbyattendingtotheirepistemic,ontological,institutionalandpoliticalarrangements.Third,EastAsianSTScasesoften,perhapsusually,combineseveralofthestrategiesthatwedetailbelow,sowhatweareofferingisbestunderstoodasasetofidealtypesratherthanadirectcharacterisationofparticularinterventions.Andfourth,wehavesoughtsofaraspossibletobeeven-handed.Ourconcernhasbeentomapdifferentmodesofpracticeratherthantorecommendanyparticularapproach.Indeed,wetakeitthatdiversityorbalanceisdesirable.Atthesametime,wenecessarilycome

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tothetopicwithourownconceptualbagandbaggage.ThisisnotandcouldnotbeaneutralsurveyofthespacesofEastAsianSTS.

Diffusion

‘OnJuly8,1853,AmericanCommodoreMatthewPerryledhisfourshipsintotheharboratTokyoBay,seekingtore-establishforthefirsttimeinover200yearsregulartradeanddiscoursebetweenJapanandthewesternworld…..AlthoughJapanopeneditsportstomoderntradeonlyreluctantly,onceitdid,ittookadvantageofthenewaccesstomoderntechnologicaldevelopments.Japan’sopeningtotheWestenabledittomodernizeitsmilitary,andtorisequicklytothepositionofthemostformidableAsianpowerinthePacific.(OfficeoftheHistorian2015)

ThiscomesfromtheU.S.DepartmentofState’swebpageundertheheading‘MILESTONES:1830–1860’,anditisoneofmanythatappearonthosewebpages.Thesearelinearhistoriesaboutprogress,centres,peripheries,leadersandlaggards.Suchstoriestakemanyforms,butinonevarianttheyarguethatmodernindustrialisationstartedinBritainwhichsubsequentlycededitspremierplacetotheUnitedStates.ThenJapanturneditselfintoanindustrialsuperpower,whileperhapsChinawillbethenext.ItaddsthatsmallercountriessuchasTaiwanandKoreasimilarlystruggletomoveforward.

Linearand/orprogressivehistoriesarecommon.GeorgeBasalla(1967)famouslyarguedthatmodernsciencediffusedfroma‘Westerncore’tothe‘non-Westernperiphery’inthreeoverlappingstagesinwhichcolonieswerefirstaresourceforEuropeanscientificexpeditionsbeforeadoptingWesterninstitutionsandtraditions,andfinallycreatinglocalindependentnationalscience.AndhistorianMorrisLow(1989,323)carefullyrevealshowthedominantdiscoursesofJapanesenationalandtechnosciencesimilarlyreproducelineartimetogetherwithitscentresandperipheries.Examplesincludea‘butterfliesandfrigates’narrativeinwhichJapanwasregeneratedafterPerry’svisit,rapidlytransformingitselfintoathreateningmilitarypower,anarrativethatexoticisesJapan,a‘teacherandpupil’storyinwhichJapancontinuestoneedtolearnfromtheWest,andanarrativeaboutJapanas‘uniqueimitator’inwhichtheJapanesearetakentolackoriginalcreativity.

Linearhistoriescomeinmanymoreorlesssophisticatedforms,buttheysharetheassumptionthatnationsarelocatedinasingleglobalspaceandarrayedonasingleprogressiveeconomicandtechnoscientifictemporalcontinuum.JapanorKoreamaybe

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laggardsinthechaseafterdevelopmentormodernisationorprogressorindeedcivilisation,ortheymaybecatchingup.Aswenotedabove,perhapsinduecourseChinawilltakethelead.Buttheyallbuildontheassumptionthatweliveina‘one-worldworld’(Chakrabarty2011,Law2015),andatleastupuntilthepresentithasusuallybeenEuroAmericathatsetsthetargetandactsasyardstickforthatworld.Intheracefordevelopment,themoralisclear:ifyouworkharderandlearnmorequicklyyoumaybecomethenextAsiantiger(Amsden2001)orgiant(Amsden1989,BergerandLester2005).Ifyoudon’tyouwilllagbehind(瞿宛文and安士敦2003,王振寰2010).AndthoughfewSTSscholarswouldadoptasimpleversionofthisdiffusionmodel,somehavecriticallynotedthepatternofEuro-AmericaninfluenceonEastAsianSTSasa(new)formofthatsubordinatediscipline,areastudies(Nakajima2007,Anderson2009b,Fu2013).Morespecifically,Chen(2015a)makesanimportantargumentabouttheperformativeimplicationsforSTSinthecontextofTaiwaneseindustrialstudies.Hiswarningisthatresearchpracticesthatfocusondiffusion,followingandcatchingup,generatenormativediffusionistrealitiesandagendas,overlooklocalstrengthsandspecificitiesanddiscourageindustrialandresearchinnovation.WewillreturntoChen’ssuggestionlater.Themessagefornowisclear:ifpracticesgenerateworlds,thendiffusionistknowingpracticesgenerateaone-worldworldinwhichEastAsiancountriesthataresaidtobelaggingbehindaresupposedtocatchup.ThisisanargumentthathasimportantpotentialimplicationsforEastAsiaanditsSTS.

Diffusion.Heretheworldisunderstoodandenactedasasinglespace.Knowledges,competencesandinstitutionalformsspreadoutfromthecentre,sothereareglobalandhistoricalleadersandlaggards,whiletheEastAsianproblemhashistoricallybeen:howtocatchup.Thediagnosisofleadersandlaggards,andstrategicconcernsabouthowtomoveforwardthusdefineacrucialcontextforSTSwork,butthisprogressnarrativeisalsoenactedinSTSitself.SinceitsownscholarshipispartofasingleSTSworld,heretheissuesare:canEastAsianSTScatchupthepresumptiveEuroAmericanleaders?Howmightitdoso?DoesitneedtomoderniseitsacademicstructuressothatitsscholarsareabletocompetewithEuroAmerica?And/orhasthisalreadyhappened?

Distortion

Ifdiffusionisthefirstexplanatorypattern,distortioncountsasasecond.Consider,forinstance,thestoryofRCAinTaiwan(AsiaMonitorResourceCentre2015).Thiscompanywasaccusedofdumpingcarcinogenictoxicchemicalsintogroundwaterstartinginthe1970s.Afterlongdelayscourtproceedingswereinitiatedin1994buttheverdictwas

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onlyreachedin2015,twolongdecadesduringwhichhundredsdiedfromcancer(陳信行2016).

‘MywifestartedtoworkintheRCAfactorysoonaftershegraduatedfromhighschool(for11years)…ItwasduringtheperiodthatwewitnessedthetakeoffofTaiwan’seconomicmiracle….Shesacrificedhermostprecioustimeofyouthtoasocietythatexploitedherwhenshewasstillcapableofcontributing,butthentotallyforgotheranddeemedheruseless.RCAdenyanynegligenceorwrongdoing,andsaidithasnevermadeitsworkersusegroundwater.TheCouncilofLabourAffairswasreluctanttoidentifythewholesituationasavocationaldisaster….Nobodywouldrecognizemywife’scontributiontoTaiwan’seconomy.Mywifeanddaughter’ssacrificesaretotallyirrelevantintoday’sworld.’(Ku2006,181-182)

Inthissecondpicturetechnosciencealsooperateswithinasingleglobalspace–butitisexploitative,distortingthelivesthosewholiveandworkontheperiphery(Harding2008).2Thecompaniesarelookingforcheapbutcapableworkforces,laxenvironmentalandhealthregulations(Smith,Sonnenfeld,andPellow2006),andcolludewithoftentechnocraticand/orcorruptgovernmentsthatwanttotakeadvantageofcompressedmodernization(Abraham2006,Greene2008,Amir2013,Bak2014,Chang2014,QuetandNoel2014)Theresultofthisinterweavingofglobalandlocalpowerisexploitation,suffering,andadivisionoflabourinwhichinnovationanddesigncomefromEuroAmerica,manufactureandassemblingaredoneinLatinAmericaandEastAsia,ande-WastegoestoAfrica(Smith,Sonnenfeld,andPellow2006,BASELConvention2015).

SuchaccountsofdistortionmaybeMarxist-inspired,distinguishingbetweencore,semi-periphery,andperiphery,betweenthedeveloped,developingandunderdevelopedworlds,orbetweenthefirstandthirdworlds(CardosoandFaletto1979,Galeano1997,Wallerstein2004).Butdistortionisalsoepistemic.HeretheargumentisthatthediffusionofhomogeneousEurocentricknowledgeisitselfaformofhegemonicdominationthatneedstoberesisted.ThisargumenthasbeenvigorouslymadeinLatinAmerica,forinstancebyArturoEscobar,whoshiftstheoriginsofmodernityfromtheEuropeanEnlightenmenttotheconquestofAmerica,arguingthatitwascolonialismandthecapitalistworldsystemthatconstitutedmodernity,andthatthelatterworksinpartbysubordinatingnon-Europeanknowledges.InthiswayofthinkingEurocentrismismodernity/colonialityinepistemicform,ahegemonicmodeofknowingthatclaims

2Thereisafurtherunseengenderpoliticsinestablishingthescientificlinksbetweenthefemaleworks’cancerandthecompany’spollution(林宜平2006).

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universalitybyconfusing‘abstractuniversality…[with]theconcreteworldhegemonyderivedfromEurope’spositionascenter.’(Escobar2008,167-168)

AsCheah(2001)notes,oneversionofthisdistortiontakestheformofanirreducibleAsiathatisrenderedparticularbytheassumeduniversalismofWesternconceptualandmethodologicalstructures.Morespecifically,manyhaveexploredEastAsia’ssubordinationintermsofdominatoryglobaldynamics,thoughtheregionalsohaslocalspecificitiesincludingJapaneseimperialism,atopicinneedoffurtherSTSexploration(Clancey2007,Fu2013).Itis,however,clearthatthedynamicsofJapaneseimperialismhelpedtoshapemodernscientificnetworksinEastAsia(Kim2007a,Setoguchi2007,Tsukahara2007,ZaikiandTsukahara2007,Liu2008).Appliedtoourowndiscipline,epistemicdistortionimpliestheneedtoresisthegemonicformsof(EuroAmerican)STSinfavourofformsofknowledgethatgrowfromunderprivilegedstandpoints(Harding2016).Inthiswayofthinkingtheoriesofdiffusionarethuspower-saturatedmisunderstandingsofreality,thoughanytheoreticalapproachoriginatinginEuroAmericaisinneedofcriticalscrutiny.AnEastAsianSTSinspiredbydistortionwouldthusbesensitivetothepolitical,economicandepistemicagendasthatcomewithahegemonicone-worldworld,anditstaskwouldbetodetect,characteriseandresistthisexploitation,andtoarticulatecounter-hegemonicformsofanalysis.

Distortion.Aswithdiffusion,theworldisasinglespace,aone-worldworld,withacentreandaperiphery,butdistortionattendstothedarksideofthisdivide,treatingtheglobalasaspaceofexploitation.Technoscienceinflictsdamagetotheeconomic,ecologicaland/orpersonalwellbeingofthoseattheperiphery,whilstprofitingtheEuroAmericancentre.Italsoseekstomonopoliseconceptualspace,insistingthatitsformsofknowingaregeneral.AnEastAsianSTSwouldthusexplorethisexploitationbothintechnoscienceandinitsownwaysofknowing.

Circulation

Diffusionanddistortionassumethatweliveinasingleworldwithacentreandaperiphery,thoughhowtheyimaginetherelationsbetweentheseisquitedifferent.Athirdapproachwhichwewillcallcirculationsimilarlythinksintermsofaone-worldworld,butexploresthisintermsofrelationsofmutualdependence.Latour(1988,140)tellsusthat‘tofollowthetransformationofasocietybyscience,wemustlooknotinthehomecountrybutinthecolonies’,andLivingstone(2004)similarlynotesthattechnoscienceisnotsimplyEuroAmerican,butdistributedandrelational,while

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Anderson(2006,2008)talksofinter-localconfigurations.Theseareallcharacterisationsofcirculation.Asanexample,considerPatrickManson’sworkonparasitology.3

OriginallyapractisingphysicianinTaiwan,Mansonstartedtoworkontropicalmedicine,movedtoXiamen,China,andstartedtoworkonfilarialresearch.Treatingelephantiasis,hehypothesisedthatmosquitoeswerediseasevectors,andwiththehelpoflocalChineseassistantswentontodemonstratethisbydrawingonlocalclinical,social,textualandmaterialresourcesandusinghisassistants’skillstodissectmosquitos.ReturningtoEngland,heproposedmosquitoesasthevectorformalaria,buthadnowayofdemonstratingthisuntil1894whenhemetRonaldRoss.Atfirsttheencounterwasawkward.Mansonhadthelaboratorytechniquesneededtotestthetheory butnoaccesstoclinicalcases.Conversely,thoughRosshadaccesstoclinicalmaterialsinIndiahedidnothavethenecessarytechniques,andhealsohadhisownrivaltheory.However,alongdistancecollaborationevolved.RosslearnedtheappropriatetechniquesfromMansonandgatheredclinicalmaterialsandobservations,sendingfindingsandspecimenstoMansonfromIndianruralhospitals.MansoninreturnofferedRosstheoreticaladvice,senthimthelatestpublications,helpedtopromotethelatter’sfindings,andorganizedEnglishresearchsupport.Finallytheircollaborationwastoverifythemosquitovectortheory.

Despitetheproblematicdivisionoflabourbetweennon-WesterndatacollectionandWesterntheorization(Heryanto2016),circulationtakesplacewithinaglobalone-worldworld,butitisformedinthemulti-sitedandsituatedcraftingofpracticesandlinksbetweenthosepractices(Blok2013)inwhichall,includingso-called‘latecomers’,arenecessaryandactiveparticipants.Weareinaworldoftradingzones(Galison1997),networks,associations,giftexchangesorassemblages,inwhichtechnoscienceisbeinggeneratedindistributedwebs(Strathern1991,Latour2005,OngandCollier2005,Anderson2008).TheSTSfocusisthereforeonmulti-sitedhistoriesofscienceasittracksthetrafficinobjects,people,valueandresourceswithinandbetweenlocations.Andersonobservesthat:

Ifweareespeciallyfortunate,thesehistorieswillcreativelycomplicateconventionaldistinctionsbetweencenterandperiphery,modernandtraditional,dominantandsubordinate,civilizedandprimitive,globalandlocal.(Anderson2000,736)

3WedrawouraccountfromShang-JenLi(李尚仁2012).

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Itis,therefore,amisunderstandingtosaythattropical(malarial)medicinestartedinEngland,whileIndiaandTaiwanwereitsbeneficiaries.Insteaditwasdifferentlocalarrangementsandlongdistancebutreciprocalformsofcirculationbetweensitesinthesedifferentcountriesthatledtosuccess.

SowhatdoesthisimplyforEastAsia?OneansweristhatEastAsiaasawholeisunlikelytobetheappropriateunitofanalysis.Insteadtheneedistotracespecifictechnoscientifictrajectoriescasebycasebyexploringlocalsettingsandthewebsthatlinkthesetogether(傅大為2005,Setoguchi2007,Liu2008,MohácsiandMorita2013).Theobjectistorevealthegeopoliticsofinternationallycontingentmicro-physics(Lin2015a,SabharwalandVarma2015),andthecontingenciesthatgeneratelocaldifferences(Chen2015b,KimandPark2015,Lin2015b).Thefocusisthusonco-constitution,andtherearemanyinstancesofsuchstudiesintheliteratures.ForinstancesomehavearguedthatthedramaticpaceofEuroAmericanandJapaneselaboratoryinnovationisrelatedtoEastAsianmanufacturingcapability(Amsden1989,BergerandLester2005),andsimilarargumentshavebeenmadeabouttheimportanceoftheflowsofknowledge,peopleandcapitalwithinEastAsiafortheincreasingstandardofhigh-techindustries(Tabata2015).

Inthiswayofthinking,circulation,technoscienceanditsinstitutionsbecomeanintersectingandco-constitutingpatchwork,butsotoodoesSTS.ParticularEastAsianandEuroAmericanSTSpracticesworktogetherwithinaone-worldworld,butEastAsianSTSdoesnotlagbehindbecausetherearenocentresorperipheries.Insteadtherearerelationsofmutualdependenceinwhichdifferentsitesworkindifferentwaysandspecificmaterials,peopleandfindingscirculatebetweenequallyspecificlocations.ForscholarsinEastAsianSTSitthusbecomesimportanttoexplorewhattheyhavetooffertopractitionersinotherlocations,andhowtheymightinnovateaspartofaprocessofanintellectualdivisionofinternationallabour.This,then,isanSTSthatcomestovalueitsinternalheterogeneity.

Circulation.Hereagainweareinaone-wordworld,buttheemphasisisonanintellectualdivisionoflabourwhicherodescentre-peripherydistinctionsinfavourofspecificrelationsofreciprocity.TheroleofSTSisthustounderstandthisdivisionoflabourintechnoscience,toarticulatetheformsofcirculationthatthisimplies,andtoexplorepossiblymoreproductiveconnections.Appliedtoitself,particularsitesofpracticeinEastAsianSTSbecomepartofaproductiveglobaldivisionoflabour.EastAsianSTSpracticeshavetheirownimportantanddistinctiveplacewithinthenetworksofSTS,anditisimportanttoidentifyandcraftthese.

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Localising

Diffusion,distortionandcirculationareverydifferentbuttheyallworkwithina‘one-worldworld’.Thatis,theyassumeacommonworld,andexplorethetechnoscientificproblemsandpossiblesolutionsrelevanttothatworld.Asapartofthis,theyassumethatgoodknowledge(whetherintechnoscienceorSTS)islocation-independent:thatwhatcountsasvaliditydoesnotvarybetweenplaces.IntheremainingthreeapproachestoSTStheseassumptionsareprogressivelyeroded.Epistemological,institutional,andontologicaldifferencesstarttoappearwhilea‘one-worldworld’disappears.Westartwithlocalising,whichinsistsonepistemologicalandinstitutionaldifference.

ThiswayofthinkingredefinesWesternuniversalityasaparticularcaseofthelocal.Eachlocalisdifferent,andthoughthisdoesnotnecessarilyfollow,itcanalsobearguedthateachcountsasapartoftheuniversal(Cheah2001).ExampleswithinSTSincludeAnderson’s(2008)accountofkuru.Thisshowshowitsscientistsbecameinextricablyentangledwithlocalideasaboutreciprocity,menstruation,propitiation,andidentity,whilesomeobjectsofscientificinterestwereinalienablylocalandcouldnotbemovedbeyondtheFore(Anderson2000).OthershavearguedthatEastAsianbioethicsisuntransportablebecauseitisConfucian(Fan2002,Tsai2005,Rasmussen2010),afactorwhichsomehavealsoclaimedtobeimportantinshapingEastAsianindustrialandtechnoscientificdevelopment(Berger1992).AndLinsuKim(1997)hasinsistedontheimportanceofthehanpsycheformotivatingSouthKoreatoshiftfromimitationtoinnovationintechnoscience.Kim’saccountcombinesaneo-ConfucianinfluencedcontextofrepressionwiththeKoreanexperienceofJapaneseinvasionandoccupation:

TheKoreanwordhan,…means‘resentmentorgrudge,’…Culturally,…children…,employees…,andpeoplein…societyarerequirednotonlytorepressfeelingsofangerandfrustrationtowardtheirfathers,superiors,andrulers,butalsotomaintainaproperlyrespectfulattitudetowardthemregardlessofprovocation.

Ontheotherhand,…Koreanswithhanpsychehaveanintenseneedtoexcelinallaspectsoflifetowinapprovalfromtheirsuperiors.Thatis,hanisasourceofenergythatdrivesKoreanstoworkwithakindoffrenzy,tobetenacious,tosacrificethemselvesforthebettermentoftheirfamiliesandcountry(Kim1997,70).4

4Othersmakesimilararguments.See,forinstance(Kim2008,Nakayama2012,Kim2014).

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Itisimportanttoavoidorientalism(Fu2013),butwhatintriguesushereisnottheroleofcultureperse,butrathertheclaimthatculturescannotbetranslated.AfamouscaseisthecreationofJapanesenessinRuthBenedict’sTheChrysanthemumandtheSword(Benedict1974).InthisbookBenedictcollapsedmaterialsfrompastandpresenttodistinguishbetweenthe‘chrysanthemum’andthe‘sword’,treatingtheseastimelessJapaneseculturalvalues(Robertson2007).PopularinAmerica,herworkalsohadahugeimpactinJapananditsnationalreinventionofitsethnicandculturaldistinctivenessinversionsofNihonjinron(theoriesofJapaneseness)andexoticism(Doak1996,Morris-Suzuki1998),andherinfluenceremainsimportantinthecontemporarytransnationalHumanGenomeProject(Fujimura2000,83-84).Thushavingarguedthat‘essentialJapaneseness’anditsanaloguesareculturalinventionsin‘specificpracticeslocatedinspecificspaceandtime’,JoanFujimuraaddsthatingenomicscience,‘scientificobjects,technologies,andpracticesarebothproducersofsocietyandcultureandproductsofcultureandsociety’(Fujimura2000,83-84).AndWen-huaKuomakesasimilarargumentabouttheinternationalharmonizationofpharmaceuticalregulations,notingthatwhiletheissueofraceishotlydebated,whatis:

‘atstakeisnotracepersebutitssocialrepresentations,culturaltransformations,andglobalcirculation.Science,inthissense,isnottheultimatemeansforracialintegrationbutanarenainwhichracialtropestravelandinteract’(郭文華2016,theauthor'stranslationfororiginalJapanesepublication)

Whatisatstakeislocalisedexplanatoryvalidity.Inthiswayofthinking,thoughthereareexchangesbetweencultures,nooverallsharedviewispossible.Thismeansthatdifferentlocationsareirreduciblydifferentbothgeographicallyandepistemologically–apositionsymbolisedbyso-called‘reassembledcars’whichchangeshapeastheyadaptthemselvestoawiderangeofworkingsituationsfrommountaintrailstousesoffshore(Lin2009).Heretheepistemicone-worldworldhasdisappeared.AndthesameisthecaseforSTS,wherelocallypractisedculturalframeworksbecomeessentiallydifferentandmutuallyirreducible.TheimplicationisthatdifferentversionsofSTSanddifferentcriteriaofSTSvalidityareappropriatetodifferentlocations.5InthiswayofthinkingEastAsiathereforebecomesaheterogeneouspatchworkofirreduciblydifferentandlocallyvalidformsofframing.ItalsobecomesaspaceofcontestationasitresistsformsofexplanationappropriatetoEuroAmericanSTS.Totalkof‘EastAsianSTS’isthusto

5Boundariesof‘thelocal’mightincludetheChineseempirebeforethe19thcentury,pre1945Japanesecontrol,coldwarpolitics,recentregionalcoalitions,andformsofindigeneity(黃金麟,汪宏倫,and黃崇憲2010,孫歌2011,葛兆光2011,汪暉2015).

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exploreitsnon-coherentmultidimensionalityratherthantoseekanoverallexplanatoryframework.

Localising.Heretheone-worldworldisbeingerodedandisnolongerasingleepistemologicalspace.Insteadthereisinsistenceontheepistemologicalandinstitutionalspecificityoflocalwaysofknowing.Theworldisdividedintoseparatecultures,practices,andinstitutionalforms,eachwithitsowncriteriaofvalidity,andcriteriaappropriatetoonelocationarenotrelevanttoothers.ThissuggeststhattheroleforSTSistoarticulateandperhapstochampionlocalformsofvalidity.Byimplication,andappliedtoitself,STSstartstofragmentbecausewhatbecomesimportantistheexplorationandarticulationofappropriatelocalformsofvalidityfordifferentSTSpractices.

Translation

Butaredifferencesreallyirreconcilable?Doestheworldnecessarilydissolveintoasetofepistemologicallydifferentpatches?ThelasttwoSTSapproachesrecogniseandwrestlewithdifferencebynotingthatpracticesinbothtechnoscienceandSTSreachouttointersectwithoneanother.Thistheyhaveincommonwithcirculation,butunlikethelattertheyassumenotonlyepistemologicalandinstitutional,butalsoontological,difference.

InSTSthefirstofthese,translation,ismostcloselyassociatedwithactor-networktheory.DrawingontheworkofMichelSerres(1974)ANTarguesthatactorsprecariouslyincorporateotheractorsbytranslatingthelatter.IneverydayEnglish,translationimpliesequivalence:awordinonelanguagemeansthesameasawordinanother.However,thereisnevertotalequivalence,andinANTtranslationbecomesametaphorforincorporatingsomething(aword,anobject,asubject,afinding,aversionofreality)intheattempttobuildadifferentword,object,subject,findingorreality.Butsuchincorporationonlyworksbecauseitmisunderstands,ignores,ordistortswhateveritistranslating.Andthisisalsoawayofemphasisinginsecurity,sincewhateveristranslatedmayrebelandresumeitsoriginalform.Translation,then,isaboutprecariouslymisrecognisingandsupressingdifferenceforthepurposeofstrategicassimilation(Callon1986).

EarlyANTexcelledatstudiesofstrategicgrowthinvolvingEuropeanlongdistance(andsometimesimperialist)control(Law1986,Latour1988)inwhichtechnologies,naturalforces,peopleandtextswereall(mis)translatedforEuropeanstrategicends.ButtherearealsomanyinstancesofEastAsiantranslation.

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In2003clinicalguidelinesfordiagnosingchronickidneydisease(CKD)andmeasuringthedeteriorationofkidneyfunctionwereintroducedinTaiwan(林文源2012).PressedbytheTaiwaneseSocietyofNephrology(Hwang,Yang,andDialysisSurveillanceCommittee)theresultwasa2011claimthatat11.93%theincidenceofchronickidneydiseasewashigherinTaiwanthaninanyothercountry.Theexperienceof‘advanced’countriesand‘world-leading’scholarshipwasmobilizedtosupportthisclaim.Forinstance,itwassuggestedthatthefigurederivedfroman‘advanced’U.S.formulausedinaTaiwaneseepidemiologicalsurveypublishedbytheLancet,an‘internationallyleading’journal.However,whatwasnotnotedwasthattheformulaanditsvariablesweredevelopedforAmericanpopulations.Internationalphysiologicaldifferencesmeantthattheglobalcommunityofnephrologistswasindebateabouttheutilityoftheformula,andtheUSteamthatcreateditwasindeedstilltinkeringwiththemeasure.NeitherdiditslocalproponentsmentionthattheguidelineshadnotbeenadoptedasUSnationalpolicy,thatothercountrieshadadaptedtheguidelinesusinglocaldata,andthatthewidelycitedLancetpaperwascontroversial.Indeed,thoughclinicalguidelinesareoftentransferredbetweencountries,differencesbetweenareas,standards,andformsofknowledgeareusuallyexploredintheprocess.6

Thisisaparticularlyinstrumentalversionoftranslation:themisleadingclaimthatevents,processesandobjectsinoneplaceareequivalenttothoseinanother.Chen(2015a)undoesdiffusionistSTSTaiwaneseindustrialstudiesinthecasementionedearlierusingsimilartactics.Localpracticesarespecific,hesays.HerehedrawsonLin’sreworkingofANTandmedicalisationtheory.Aswehaveseen,LinarguesthatTaiwanisnota‘latecomer’,butthatitsmedicalandpolicyentrepreneursusethisstatustomanipulatelocaldebates.UsingLin’sargument,ChensuggeststhatifwemakeuseofWesterndominatedSTSapproaches,then‘local’(forinstanceTaiwanese)casesbecomespecialandexceptional.Here,then,areflexiveuseofknowingastranslationrevealsthehiddenandperformativeontologicalimplicationsofepistemologicalcirculationandlocalizing.

Suchcasestudiesof(mis)translationarecommoninEastAsianSTS.Ru-binYang(楊儒賓2014)showshow‘things’inthetraditionalChineseworldwereturnedinphysicsintomodern‘materials’,whiletheWesterndisciplinaryname‘physics’wastranslatedby6InTaiwan,forchilddevelopmentalrisksee(曾凡慈2008,2015),forharmreductionindrugusagesee(Chen2009)andforembryoimplantationinin-vitrofertilizationsee(Wu2012).Foranassessmentofthemanipulationofstandardsasglobalandlocalarebroughttogethersee(OngandCollier2005),andonthemodificationofWesternpharmaceuticalregulationsandclinicaltrialsforJapanesepopulationssee(Kuo2008).

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JapaneseintotheChinesecharacters‘物理’(wùlǐ;Principlesofthings,hereafterwuli)inthenineteenthcenturybeforebeingadoptedbytheChinesethemselves.Andanalogousargumentshavebeenmadeaboutthetranslationoftermssuchas‘ethics’intoChinese倫理(lúnlǐ;Principlesofhumanorder),andthetranslationofthepsydisciplinesintoChinesewhichwasentangledwiththedesiretoemulatethenationalsuccessoftheJapaneseMeijirestoration(Platt2007,劉紀蕙2011).And,afinalexample,MichaelKeevak(2011)probesthehistoricalconstructionoftheideathatEastAsiansareyellow.OriginallyclassifiedaswhitebyWesterners(thosewhocouldbeconvertedtoChristianityqualifiedaswhite)Asiansbecameyellowinthe18thcenturywiththescientifictaxonomiesofCarlLinnaeusandJohannFriedrichBlumenbachwhichwerestandardizedintheemergingmedicalandanthropologicalmeasurementsofhumanskincolourand‘Mongolism’ofthe19thcentury,andsubsequentlypopularizedin‘yellowperil’discoursesoftheearly20thcentury.

Thusinthiswayofthinkingtechnosciencebecomesaprecariousandlessthanperfectprocessofliteralandmetaphoricaltranslation.Termsandobjectsarebothbetrayedbybeingpartiallyshornoftheirsignificanceastheyaremovedfromtheirplaceoforigin,reshaped,andincorporatedintootherpractices.Thismeansthattheychange,butsincetranslationsmaynotworktheymayalsobeundone.Indeed,morethanisoftenrecognised,ANTinsistsontheuncertaintyoftranslation.Italsonotesthattranslationsworkindifferentwaysindifferentlocations.Allthisimpliesthatepistemologies,institutionsandontologies(orrealities)aredifferentindifferentpractices.Afocusontranslationthusdissolvestheone-worldworldofdiffusion,distortion,circulationandthemodifiedexpressionofthisinlocalising.Themoveisperformativebecausewhatthereisinthewordisalsobeingenacted.Thismeansthatitdiffersfromcirculation,bothbecauseitassumesontologicaldifference(thereisnoone-worldworld),butalsobecauseintranslationpracticesoverlapinaweaveastheyborrowfromoneanother.

WhatdoesthisimplyforEastAsianSTS?Oneresponseisthatthelatterneedstobeexploredpracticebypractice.EastAsianSTSwillnotbeonething.AsecondisthattheworldsofEastAsianSTS,itsdisciplinarythinking,itssensibilitiesandidentities,andtherealitiesthatgowiththesearebeingconstantlymadeandre-made.Thereisnostability.Andathirdisthatsincepracticesareperformative–theyhelptogeneraterealities–EastAsianSTSpracticesarealsostrugglestoenactwhatthereisintheworld,amovewithpotentialpostcolonialimplications.

Translation.Aswithlocalising,theideathattheworldisasinglespaceiswashedawaytobereplacedbyaworld–orworlds–ofirreducibledifference.However,since

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translationisabouttheattemptedincorporationofotherobjectsandmeaningsthesealsooverlap.Totranslateandassembleisalsotobetray–tomistranslate–whateverisbeingassembledasitenactsmoreorlessprecariousrealities.Differenceisthusepistemological,institutional,andontological.Whatisrealisalsoatstake.Inthisway,EastAsiantechnosciencepracticesbecomeattemptstoassemblefragilebutworkablepracticesandprojectsthatwillholdtogetherforpracticalpurposes.OneofthetasksofEastAsianSTSisthustocraftpracticesthatreflectandenactEastAsian-relevantrealitiesastheserelatetoandincorporatepartialandcontingentmistranslationsfromother(forinstanceEuro-American)STSassemblages.

Softening

Inlocationformsofknowledgearesituatedandspecific,andintranslationasknowledgesandobjectsmovetheyoverwriteandreworkwhatevertheytranslate.Wehavemovedfarfromtheone-worldworldofdiffusion,distortionandcirculation.Intranslationformsofknowledge,institutionsandrealitiesareallenacteddifferentlyindifferentpractices,andthestruggleistoincorporatedifferenceby(mis)translatingandsosubduingit.Buttranslationcanbeworkeddifferently,andthishappensinwhatwewillcallpracticesofsoftening.Theseworkbymakingmistranslationsexplicitandponderingthemeritsorotherwiseofparticularmistranslations.Whatisatstakehereiswhetherweshouldmistranslatewhateverwemightwanttoincorporate,andsotoassimilateittoourreality.Thatisonepossibility,anditisthelogicoftranslation.Butthereisanalternative.Thisisthatwemightinsteadmistranslateourownpracticesandallowthesetochangeastheyintersectwithotherpractices.Itisthissecondapproachthatcatchesthelogicofsoftening.

ConsiderSeanHsiang-linLei’s(2014)analysisoftheencounterbetweenofChineseMedicineandbiomedicine.

Chinesemedicine(CM)andbiomedicinecoexistedfromthelatenineteenthcenturyintheQingdynastywithoutdirectlycompetingwithoneother.However,inthesearchfornationalsurvivalintheearly20thcenturyRepublicanChinaembracedwesternscienceandtechnology.In1929thegovernmentsoughttoabolishCM.CMpractitionersrespondedbycreatingtheNationalMedicineMovement.ThispressedprofessionalCMinterestsanditsinstitutionalinfrastructure,andsoughtgovernmentrecognitionthathadpreviouslybeengrantedonlytoWesternmedicine.AspartofthisCMpractitionerstriedtoallythemselveswiththestateinanattempttoturnCMintoa‘nationalmedicine’andstartedtoembracethediscoursesofmodernityandthestandardsofbiomedicine.

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ThisledtoaradicaltransformationinCMtheory,practice,pedagogyandsocialnetworks.CMwassubsequentlycriticizedforbecomingamongrelthatwas‘neitherhorsenordonkey’,butitwasthehistoricalcontingencyofthesestrugglesthatpavedthewayforthelaterfull-scalecreationofstandardizedTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)in1950s’CommunistChina.7

Lei’sstudysuggeststhatthemodernizationandscientizationofCMneitherdiscardedtraditionnorreducedCMtobiomedicine,butproductivelyre-inventedCMasahybridsetofpractices.ItisalsoreflexivebecauseLeiframesthestoryinsimilarterms,drawingonacontingentandmixoftraditionalintellectualpracticesandmodernacademiccategories(汪暉2015)suchthat,liketheCMthatitdescribes,hisaccountishybridtoo.OthersinorclosetoSTS(Lei1999,Scheid2002,Kim2006,2007b,Zhan2009,MaandLynch2014),likethepractitionerswhomobilized‘nationalmedicine’whileadaptingtobiomedicalstandards,havealsomadeexplicituseofmistranslation(LawandLin2017a).Theissue,then,is:whattomistranslate?Whattobetray?Whatkindofframingtoassemble?Andwhichkindsofrealitiestoenact?8

Therearelargeanthropologicalliteratureson(mis)translation.Forinstance,EduardoVivierosdeCastrotalksoftranslationasequivocation.(Toequivocateistouseasingleterm,ahomonym,todescribedifferentobjects).Hedescribes‘controlledequivocation’astheattempttomakeexplicitwhateverisbeinglostintranslation.Athishandsagoodtranslationbecomesamistranslationthatbetraysthedestinationlanguageratherthanthesourcelanguage.Thepracticalsolutionistodecidewhatandhowto(mis)describeand(mis)theorizesuchthat:

‘alienconcepts…deformandsubvertthetranslator’sconceptualtoolboxsothattheintentiooftheoriginallanguagecanbeexpressedwithinthenewone’(ViveirosdeCastro2004,4).

Thisisaradicalposition,butthesofteningofexplicitmistranslationhasalsobeenexploredinEastAsiancontextsincludingCM.ThusVolkerScheid(2002)usesSTSlanguage(Pickering1995)tothinkaboutCMpractices,notingthatbinarydistinctionsbetweenhumanandnonhuman,natureandculture,andontologyandepistemologyare

7Thoughwecannotdojusticetothishere,Lei’sstoryisbothempiricallysophisticatedandtheoreticallychallenging.OneofhismajorpointsisthattheentangledtrajectoryofCM’smodernizationconvergeswithLatourian(1993)‘non-modern’hybridity.8Seeoncontrolledmistranslationsbetweenformsofgeneralizinginthe‘postcolonialmoment’ofencounters(Verran2002,Jensenetal.2011,MohácsiandMorita2013,Jensen2014,Mol2014).Thisisalsoafeatureof‘theoreticalcreolization’inEastAsianSTS(Chen2012,Fan2012,Fu2013,陳瑞麟2014)

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absentinCM,andthatthelatterdiffersfrombiomedicinebecauseitsclinicalpracticetakestheformofsubtlemanipulationbyreadingthedirectionofmovementofdiseasepropensitiesratherthanattendingtothediseaseitself(Scheid2008).

MeiZhan(2009)alsosoftensanthropologyandSTS,arguingthatCMworksbyhybridizingratherthanpurifying,andthatexperimentalscienceandbiomedicaltheoriesundermineCM’sscientizedformsbyturningtheseinto‘experientialmedicine.’ShefurthersuggeststhatifCMcannotbefullyaccountedforbybioscience,STSandanthropology,thenthistellsusthatrelativismhasnotgonefarenough.Thus,experientialCMunsettlestherelationsbetweenempiricalandconceptual,concreteandabstract,andcontingentanduniversal,butif(assheputsit)wetreat‘experientialCMasconceptual’thenitbecomespossibletoanalysethespecific,thecontingent,andtheexperientialinwaysthatworkbymetaphorandanalogyratherthandeductionandinduction(Zhan2014).Here,then,anthropologyandSTSarebeingsoftenedbytranslationintothecategoriesofCM.AndthepresentauthorshavesimilarlyexploredCM’scorrelativemodetoreimagineanSTSofCM(LinandLaw2014),andusedthenotionofshitorethinkSTStheorythroughaEuroAmericancase(LawandLin2016,Lin2016).

Wecitetheseinstancesofsofteningtoofferaflavouroftheverydifferentwaysinwhichexplicitattentiontotranslationandmistranslationmightwork.For,asisobvious,anSTSthatstartstosoftenitselfwillbecomeanSTSthatisconceptuallyandempiricallydiverse.ItwilllookdifferentinEuro-AmericaandEastAsia.Butitprobablywilllookdifferentwithineachofthesetoo.Thatsaid,inEastAsiaitislikelythattheSTSsofsofteningwilloftenhavea‘post-colonial’flavour,foritwillnolongerbeaprioritytosustainEuro-Americanpracticesofknowing,institutionalforms,orrealities.AnditwillnolongerbeimportanttodistinguishbetweenSTSandotherwaysofknowingandbeing.

Softening.Aswithsituatingandtranslating,thereisnoone-worldworldinsoftening.Insteadthereis(mis)translationbetweendifferenceandafocusonmakingthecharacterofparticularmistranslationsexplicitandexploringtheirrelativemerits.Thepossibleimplicationisthatknowledgepracticessoftenastheyhybridisewiththeirobjectsofstudy,sotransformingthemselvesinwaysthatcannotbepredicted.AnSTSofsofteningisthereforeanSTSthatmaydissolveitself,buthowitdoessowilldependuponthepracticesandtherealitiesthatitencounters.Thoughthisissimplyanillustrativelist,versionsofsoftenedSTSrelevanttoEastAsianpracticesmightinclude

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non-binary,experientialandpropensity-inflectedwaysofknowing,andtheymightbeexpectedtohaveapost-colonialflavour.

Conclusion

OverseveraldecadestheEastAsianSTScommunityhasusedawiderangeoftheoreticalapproachestoexploretechnosciencebothwithinandbeyondtheregion.IndialoguewithcognatedisciplinesinEastAsia,andwithSTSinotherregionsincludingEuroAmerica,ithasdevelopednationalandinternationalSTSassociations,arangeofEastAsianlanguagejournalsandtheEnglishlanguageEASTS.Atthesametime,manyofitsscholarshaveexploredthedistinctivenessofEastAsiantechnoscience,andtheappropriatecharacterofEastAsianSTS,askingwhetherandhowthesemightdifferfromthoseof(say)EuroAmericaorLatinAmerica.ThisreviewisanattempttoexplorethevarietiesofEastAsianSTS,andsimplifyitsself-evidentcomplexitiesbycharacterisingavarietyofspatialstrategies.Soourdoublequestionhasbeen:howdoscholarsimaginethelocationofEastAsiantechnoscience?AndhowdotheyimaginethelocationofSTS?Thisheuristic,whichsuggeststhatatleastsixdifferentversionsofspatialityareatwork,drawsupontwoanalyticalterms:thenotionofaone-worldworld,andperformativity(Law2015).

ManySTSpractitionersassumethathumanactivitiesincludingthoseoftechnoscience,takeplacewithinasingleworld.Theassumptionisthatsocial,technological,scientific,economic,cultural,political,andnaturaleventsandprocessesalltakeplacewithinsomethinglikeasinglespace-timebox,a‘one-worldworld’.Butthisspatialwayofthinkingisalsoepistemological.Thisisbecauseinaone-worldworlditisalsoassumedthateventsandprocessesareproducedbygeneralmechanismsofcauseandeffectthatworkthroughoutthespace-timebox:thatwhatistrueinTokyoisalsothecaseinToronto.Sophysicallaws(asopposedtoparticularevents)areinvariant,butsotooaretheexplanatorymechanismsofinteresttoSTSscholar.ForthesocialsciencesincludingSTSthispicturethatalsoneedstobenuancedbytheworkingsofcultureandsocialstructure.Thisisbecause,asisobvious,dailypractices,beliefs,andworld-viewsdifferfromplacetoplace.Howtothinkaboutthiscrucialqualificationhasbeenamatterfordiscussionsincetheinventionofsocialscience,butmany,perhapsmost,socialscientistsassumethatatleastsomegeneralmechanismsareatwork.SoinSTSwemaysay,forinstance,thatworkabletechnologiesareshapedbyeconomicinterestsandbyculture,orthatscientificrepresentationsareconstructedinlaboratories,eventhoughthesubstanceofthetechnologiesandformsofknowledgeinspecificlocationsmaybedifferent.

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Wehavearguedthatatleastthree,andperhapsfourofthestylesofanalysisdescribedabovearecommittedtoaone-worldworld.Aswehaveseen,diffusionexploresthespreadoftechnoscienceacrosstheglobe,identifiesleadersandlaggards,worriesaboutunderdevelopment,andinbothtechnoscienceandSTSlooksforwaysinwhichthosethatarelaggingbehindmightmatchthecentre.Distortionsimilarlyimaginesaone-worldworldasitexploresthepropensityoftechnoscienceinthecurrentworldordertooutsourceitshuman,economic,andenvironmentalcoststotheperipherywhilstimposinghegemonicformsofknowledgethatconcealthatexploitationbyclaiminguniversality.HerethetaskforSTSistoarticulatethosecostsandcreatealternativeandbetterwaysofknowingthisworldofexploitation.Andcirculationassumesaone-worldworldbothmateriallyandepistemologicallytocharacterisethelong-distancedivisionsoflabourthatfostertechnoscience,afocusthatcanequallybeappliedtoourowndisciplinewhereitimpliestheimportanceofdevelopingspecialistformsofEastAsianSTS.Finally,localisingalsoassumes,thoughmuchmoreambiguously,aone-worldworld.Herethenaturalworldisaunity,butwithinthatworldthereareirreduciblesocialandculturaldifferencessothattechnoscienceandSTSbecomelocation-bound,whilewhatcountsasvalidknowledgecannotbemovedelsewhere.TheimplicationisthatformsofSTSareirreduciblycontextspecific.

Butwhatoftranslationandsoftening?Aswenoted,inthinkingabouttheseitisusefultoattendtoperformativity,oursecondmajoranalyticalterm.ExtendedfromphilosophyintoSTS,performativityisthesuggestionthatwords,actionsandpracticesmayalsoperformcorrespondingrealitiesintobeing:that,forinstance,laboratoriesgenerateexperimentalrealitiesthatmatchtherepresentationofthoserealities.MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthisclaiminanthropologyandSTSandwecannotexplorethosedebateshere.9However,ithascrucialimplicationsforourargument,becauseifitiscorrectthenitfollowsthatdifferentpracticesenactnotsimplydifferentsocialbutalsodifferentnaturalrealities.Butifdifferentrealitiesarebeingdoneindifferentlocations,thenwearenolongerlivinginaone-worldworld.Insteadtherearemultiplethoughoverlappingworlds.10And,touseatermwementionedearlier,therearemultipleontologiesorversionsofthereal.Andthisiswherewefindthestrategiesoftranslationandsoftening.

Translation,aswesaw,isaboutincorporatingbyignoringormisunderstandingdifference.Itisperformativebecauseitworkstobuildonerealityandtherepresentations,thesubjectivities,theobjects,andthetimesandtheplacesthatgo

9SeeHacking(1992),Mol(2002)andLaw(2004).10ForsimilarargumentsseeBlaser(2009)anddelaCadena(2010).

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withthatrealitybysqueezingtheotherrealitiesthatitincorporates:bymistranslatingthem.Fortranslationthisishowtechnoscienceworks,butitisalsohowSTSworks.Thequestionis:whatwillbereal-ised,maderealinanyparticularSTSlocation,andwhatwillnot?ThequestionsforEastAsianSTSthenbecome:towhatextentcananddoesitwantitenactitsownrealities,epistemological,institutionalandnatural?ortowhatextentwillitorshoulditbeincorporatedinalternativeSTSreals?Butsofteninghasitsownmatchingquestion.Lessimperial,moreconcernedwithOtherness,thisquestionistowhatextentandhowitshouldallowitselftobemistranslatedandsoabsorbedintotherealitiesandpracticesthatitencounters,suchasthoseofCM?Theissueisnotdomination.Ratheritishowitmightbestsoftenitself.

AswenotedintheIntroduction,ourattempttounderstandthestrategiesofEastAsianSTSisscarcelyneutral.Readerswillappreciatethatourownworkislocatedsomewherebetweentranslationandsoftening.However,ourobjecthasnotbeentopersuadethereadershipofEASTSofthemeritsofthesetwostrategies.RatherithasbeentocharacterisethevariousstrategiesavailableinEastAsianSTSasitthinksaboutitsowndistinctivenessanditsplaceintheworld.

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