Who Gets Time Off? Predicting Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility

8/18/2019 Who Gets Time Off? Predicting Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility

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Who Gets Time Off?

Predicting Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility

By Sarah Jane Glynn, Heather Boushey, and Peter Berg April 2016

WWW.AMERICANPROGRESS.O


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Who Gets Time Off?

Predicting Access to Paid Leave

and Workplace Flexibility

By Sarah Jane Glynn, Heather Boushey, and Peter Berg April 2016


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1 Introduction and summary

4 Current landscape

10 Data and findings

23 Recommendations

26 Conclusion

28 Appendix A: Methodology

29 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Who Gets Time Off?

Introduction and summary

In mos amilies odaywheher headed by a married couple or a single adul and

wih or wihou childrenall o he aduls are employed.1 As a resul, virually

all amilies experience days when hey have a conflic beween work and home

responsibiliies. Wheher i is waiing a home or a repair person o fix he rerig-

eraor, picking up a child when afer-school arrangemens all hrough, or simply

being oo sick o make i o work, nearly all workers will a some poin need ime

away rom work. Bu while he need may be universal, access o suppors ha

address hese conflicssuch as paid leave and workplace flexibiliyis no.

I is common or proessionals in higher-paying jobs o have benefis such as paid

leave and workplace flexibiliy, bu lower- and middle-income workers are ofen

lef wihou he same opions. Because here are no ederal policies ensuring he

righ o access paid leave or flexibiliy, workers are lucky i heir employer offers

paid sick leave or he abiliy o work flexible hours. Tose who are no as orunae

can lose wages or poenially be fired rom heir job when hey need o care or a

sick child or ake an elderly paren o he docor. Tese basic workplace sandards

should no be lef up o good orune or o individual employers.

Tere is growing recogniion among policymakers and he voing public ha he

playing field needs o be leveled: Te righ o earn paid ime off and o reques

workplace flexibiliy or a predicable schedule are no simply nice hings o have

bu are necessary or working amilies o achieve economic securiy. Tere is

growing momenum or work-lie policies. Every year, new pieces o legislaion

are inroduced, more policies are passed ino law, and voer suppor or hese

policies remains high across poliical ideologies.2 Since 2002, hree saes have

passed laws o provide workers wih access o paid amily leave;3 23 ciies and

five saes have guaraneed workers he righ o earned sick leave;4

and one ciyand one sae have implemened policies o ensure ha workers have he righ

o reques flexibiliy and predicabiliy and ha heir employers can deny hese

requess only or valid business reasons.5


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Te progress made in hose saes and ciies, however, is sill oo slow and uneven

o affec he majoriy o working amilies: Nearly 40 million workers39 percen

o all employeessill lack access o even a single paid sick day.6 Undersanding

which groups o workers are mos likely o have paid ime off and workplace flex-

ibiliy can help inorm wheher policy inervenions are necessary and, i so, which

would bes help o suppor workers and heir amilies.

Tanks o he effors o he Obama adminisraion and advocaes, daa on

workplace benefis ha can help address his issue are now available.7 Te U.S.

Deparmen o Labor collecs annual inormaion on how people spend heir

ime as par o he American ime Use Survey. In 2011, i included an addiional

supplemen ha asked quesions abou workers’ access o differen orms o paid

and unpaid leave and workplace flexibiliy.8 Tis marks he firs ime since 2004

ha he U.S. Deparmen o Labor has colleced daa rom workers on heir access

o workplace flexibiliy and he firs ime ha daa abou boh paid leave and flex-

ibiliy have been colleced in he same survey.9

Tis repor uses daa rom he American ime Use Survey o explore he charac-

erisics ha predic access o paid leave and flexibiliy. Te goal is o answer he

ollowing quesions:

• Who has access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy benefis?• Is access equiable, or are cerain ypes o workers more likely han ohers o

have he benefis?• Wha, i any, policy inervenions are necessary?

Te findings clearly demonsrae ha some workers have access o good benefis,

while ohers have none:

• Surprisingly, parens and workers who have elder care responsibiliies are no

more likely o have paid sick days or flexibiliy han idenical workers who are

no caring or children or elders, highlighing ha he need or hese benefis is

no associaed wih having access o hem.• Hourly workers, workers wih jobs in he service indusry, and Laino workers

are all significanly less likely o have access o paid sick days han oherwisesimilar individuals.

• Older workers, ull-ime workers, and workers wih higher earnings are all more

likely o have access o employer provided paid sick days han oherwise ideni-

cal workers.


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Current landscape

Te Unied Saes has a long hisory o esablishing legal regulaions o ensure

ha workers have access o basic righshe righ o orm a union i hey choose,

he righ o work under sae condiions, he righ o a minimum wage, and so on.

However, unlike in oher counries and some saes, here are no ederal policies

in he Unied Saes ha guaranee workers he righ o accrue any orm o paid

leave or he righ o reques flexible work. As a resul, access o paid leave and flex-

ibiliy is lef enirely o he discreion o employers in mos insances. Te noable

excepions are he ciies and saes ha have passed heir own more-generousregulaions, as well as he workplaces where unions have collecively bargained or

benefis. Bu 77.8 percen o he labor orce lives in jurisdicions wihou paid sick

days laws,10 and only 11.1 percen o workers are union members.11

A he same ime, here is a growing movemen around hese issues ha has

resuled in concree changes a he sae and local levels. Connecicu, Caliornia,

and Massachusets, as well as 20 localiiesSan Francisco, San Diego, and

Oakland, Caliornia; Washingon, D.C.; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Seatle and

acoma, Washingon; Porland and Eugene, Oregon; Newark, Jersey Ciy, Passaic,

Eas Orange, Paterson, Irvingon, Monclair, renon, and Bloomfield, New

Jersey; New York Ciy; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvaniahave all passed legisla-

ion o guaranee workers he righ o earn paid sick days.12 And mos recenly,

Vermon and he ciy o San Francisco passed legislaion ha allows workers he

righ o reques workplace flexibiliy or predicable scheduling.13 Employers are

no orced o gran hese arrangemens bu mus consider hem seriously and

provide a legiimae business reason in wriing i hey deny he reques.

Te majoriy o research on access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy indicaes

ha income and educaion are highly correlaed wih hese benefis.14

Proessional workers in managemen-level posiions and hose wih higher wages are dispropor-

ionaely likely o have benefis such as paid leave and flexibiliy.15 Because here are

no ederal policies guaraneeing his access o all workers, employers in mos U.S.

jurisdicions can legally choose o offer hese so-called perks o recrui and reain

some workers while denying hem o ohers, even wihin he same organizaion.


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Benefits of short-term paid sick leave

Shor-erm paid sick leave ha workers can use when hey experience a shor-erm

illness or need o ake care o a sick amily member also has demonsrable benefis

o individuals and sociey. Workers who can ake ime off wihou losing wages are

less likely o come o work sick, reducing he spread o inecion beween co-workersand o he public.20 Tey also recover more quickly and ulimaely require less ime

away rom work.21 Paid sick leave also resuls in greaer access o recommended pre-

venive care such as colonoscopies and mammograms, leading o earlier deecion

o diseases and overall beter healh.22 Because workers wih access o paid sick leave

are beter able o visi docors’ offices during normal business hours, hey make less

use o emergency rooms or rouine care, resuling in poenial cos savings o up o

$1.1 billion per year i he benefi were exended o all workers.23

Polling by he Kaiser Family Foundaion ound ha roughly one in our women

23 percensaed hey could no obain medical care because hey did no havehe ime; one in five19 percendelayed accessing medical care because hey

did no have paid leave rom heir job, suggesing ha access o paid sick leave

could have a significan impac on heir abiliy o access appropriae medical care

when needed.24 And equally imporanly, hose wih paid sick leave are more likely

o remain employed; paid sick days make workers 25 percen less likely o separae

rom heir jobsan effec ha is even sronger or mohers.25

Bu sick leave is no jus imporan or workers when hey all ill, i is also a vial

benefi or hose who provide care o amily members when hey are sick. Te

majoriy o parens work ouside he home, and children who are in child care

arrangemens wih oher children are more likely o experience rouine illnesses

such as colds.26 A 2012 naional poll conduced by he C.S. Mot Children’s

Hospial ound more han 6 in 10 parens wih a child in child care62 percen

repored a leas one ime in he pas year when heir child could no atend due o

illness.27 And nearly one in our23 percenrepored ha heir child had been

sen home sick rom child care a leas once in he pas year. In addiion, hal said

ha finding a child care alernaive or a sick kid was difficul, while one-hird o

parens said ha hey were concerned abou losing pay or even heir job because

hey had o miss work o care or heir sick child. Nearly one-hird o parens31percenrepored ha hey did no have enough paid leave o cover he ime off

hey needed o care or heir children when hey were ill.


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Paid leave is no he only benefi ha can help workers manage he compeing

responsibiliies o work and home. Tere are imes when, insead o aking a day

off, workers would be beter served by changing heir sar or sop imes or work-

ing remoely. Tis has he added benefi o mainaining produciviy because work

can sill be compleed insead o posponed or reassigned. Considerable evidence

exiss o demonsrae ha flexible working arrangemens can have muliple benefis or businesses, such as higher worker reenion, reduced abseneeism,

and healhier, less sressed employees.28 Moreover, workplace flexibiliy does no

decrease produciviy bu can, along wih oher acors such as good managemen,

increase i.29 And imporanly, many o hese pracices do no cos businesses any-

hing o implemen and are less cosly han replacing employees who are pushed

ou when heir lack o work-lie fi proves unenable.30

Benefits discrepancies

Regardless o occupaionwhie or blue collar, enry level or highly skilledall

workers ace similar challenges. Everyone ges sick or needs o ake care o an

elderly paren, a parner, or a child. Ye while nearly all employers repor ha

hey offer flexibiliy o heir workers,31 almos hal o workers repor ha hey do

no have access o any orm o flexibiliy in erms o he hours, days, or locaion

where hey mus complee heir work.32 Tis discrepancy in worker and employer

response across surveys raises he possibiliy ha workers are no made ully aware

o he benefis provided by heir employers or ha employers are offering he ben-

efi only o a selec group o workers. And even more-privileged workers who do

have access o flexible work arrangemens ofen do no use hem or ear o negaive

job repercussions, ranging rom losing ou on promoions o being fired.33

Americans who are employed in shif work or lower-wage, service-based jobs ace

he mos severe challenges. Te naure o heir jobs ofen precludes having access

o he kinds o flexibiliy ha can enhance work-lie fi. For example, many service

workers mus be on sie during business hours o complee heir duies and can-

no work rom home or make up or los ime on weekends or evenings. A he

same ime, hey are subjec o he flexibiliy needs o heir employers, which can

change boh he duraion and he iming o workers’ hours a will.34

Ofen, shifscheduling is unsable and unpredicable: 49 percen o employers cie a worker’s

availabiliy a odd hours or “whenever he employer needs hem” as very impor-

an in he hiring decision.35 Beginning and ending imes are rigid ye can ofen

change wih litle noicea pracice known as jus-in-ime scheduling.36 Wihou


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access o flexibiliy, shif and low-wage workers can lose heir jobs when child

care or amily healh emergencies arise. Tey also can lose heir job i employer

demands or flexibiliy make i impossible or hem o se up sable care arrange-

mens or heir children, essenially orcing hem o say home.

Workers in proessional jobs may have more opporuniies or some orms oflexibiliyor example, some parens can leave work o pick up children wih he

expecaion ha hey will work more hours laer in he evening. However, choos-

ing his opion or similar ones, such as working rom home or working par ime,

can come wih harmul repercussions relaed o caregiving. For example, mohers

earn 23 percen less han heir male counerpars, in par because women are more

likely o end up bearing he brun o amily responsibiliies and are perceived as

less dedicaed o heir work.37 Recen research by Harvard Universiy economis

Claudia Goldin illusraes ha he relaionship beween hours worked and wages

is no linearin oher words, working more hours can resul in a disproporion-

aely higher hourly wage. Goldin ound ha in many occupaions, high-earningproessionals who work very long hours exceeding 40 hours per weekreceive

a wage premium, while lower earners experience a wage penaly when hey work

ewer han 40 hours per week. Ineresingly, in mos occupaions, his penaly is

no direcly relaed o gender. Bu because women end o work ewer paid hours

han men, hey experience he negaive effecs he mos.38 For some amilies, his

may no presen an issue. However, he majoriy o amilies depend on mohers’

earnings,39 and scaling back can have long-erm repercussions in erms o uure

wages and reiremen securiy and is a major driver o he gender wage gap.40

In hese insances, i is no ha flexibiliy opions do no exis or many proessional

workers bu ha expecaions and workplace social norms require longer hours or

physical presence in an office regardless o wheher or no such ace ime is acually

more producive. Tese expecaions abou work may help explain conradicory sa-

isics abou American workplaces: Alhough 79 percen o employers say hey allow

some o heir employees o change heir work schedules rom ime o ime, only 42

percen o workers repor acually having flexibiliy in heir work schedules.41

Even when employers do offer flexibiliy o heir workers, access is no necessarily

equiable, and he repercussions o uilizing flexible arrangemens can vary acrossdifferen groups o employees. Yale Universiy Associae Proessor Vicoria Brescoll,

Universiy o exas a Ausin Proessor Jennier Glass, and Harvard Business School

Senior Researcher Alexandra Sedlovskaya ound ha managers were more likely

o give “high-saus” men in managerial jobs flexible working arrangemens or


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career advancemen opporuniiessuch as raininghan hey were o gran such

requess rom women or child care or career advancemen. However, high-saus

men were less likely o be given flexible schedules or child care han women. “Low-

saus” men working in hourly posiions were more likely o be graned flexible

schedules or child care han women in high- or low-saus jobs.42

Oher research has shed ligh on he ways ha sereoypical belies abou cerain

classes o workers can affec he implemenaionor nonimplemenaiono

workplace policies. Research ocused on he sereoypes acing low-wage mohers

wih work-amily conflics ound ha managers ofen spoke o heir employees’

need or greaer “personal responsibiliy,” suggesing ha workers’ difficulies in

balancing work and amily were no due o he sricures o heir jobssuch as

low pay, irregular shifs, inflexible hours, mandaory overime, and lack o paid

sick leavebu raher due o employees’ moral ailings.43 Boh o hese sudies

highligh how much percepion can affec work policies, especially when hese

percepions do no align wih he lived realiies o he workorce.


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Data and findings

In 2011, he Bureau o Labor Saisics colleced inormaion on workers’ access o

various orms o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy as a supplemen o he annu-

ally colleced American ime Use Survey, or AUS, marking he firs ime ha

similar daa were colleced since 2004. An addiional supplemen was colleced

during he same survey period on individuals’ elder care responsibiliies. Te

AUS sample is derived rom he Curren Populaion Survey, or CPS, allowing

he daa ses o be linked on a seleced number o variables. As a resul, or he

purposes o his sudy, he auhors were able o consruc a daa se ha included variables on access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy, elder care responsibili-

ies, and selec demographic variables colleced hrough he CPS.

We used daa on access o paid leave and flexibiliy in a probi analysis o esimae

he marginal effecs o various demographic characerisics, caregiving responsibili-

ies, and job qualiy measures. In oher words, we used hese daa o esimae he

comparaive likelihood ha a worker has access o paid leave or workplace flexibiliy

while conrolling or oher variables. For example, our model allowed us o isolae

he impac o gender on he likelihood o having access o paid sick days while

conrolling or age, educaion, ype o job, and all he oher variables deailed below.

Tis enabled us o es wheher or no workers who are likely o have he greaes

need or paid leave and flexibiliybased on approximaions we iner rom he daa

availableare he mos likely o have access o hese workplace suppors. For more

inormaion on he mehodology used, please see Appendix A.

Te independen variables in he model all ino hree groups: demographics, job

qualiy measures, and proxies or amily caregiving responsibiliies. Te sandard

demographic variables include gender, age, race and ehniciy, and educaional

atainmen. Job qualiy measures include wheher individuals are paid on an hourlyor nonhourlysuch as salaried or projec-based compensaionbasis, heir usual

weekly work hours, wheher or no hey are a governmen worker, weekly earnings

broken down by quinile, and occupaion. Te proxies or amily caregiving respon-

sibiliies include elder care responsibiliies, he presence o children and he age o

he younges child in he home, wheher workers are parneredeiher married or

cohabiaingand heir parner’s usual weekly work hours.


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Who has access to paid leave and flexibility?

Beore delving ino he resuls o he saisical modeling on he impac o each

variable, i is useul o undersand overall access o paid leave and various orms o

workplace flexibiliy. able 1 liss he repored access o paid leave and workplace

flexibiliy or currenly employed workers over he age o 18. For he purposeso his repor, he daa ocus on access o paid sick days ha can be aken or he

worker’s own illness or o care or a sick amily member and paid vacaion. While

all workers deserve equal access o paid vacaion and leisure ime, i is included in

his model o see wheher i ollows he same paterns as orms o paid leave ha

are inended o address illness and amily care.

TABLE 1

Percentage of workers ages 18 and older with access

to paid leave and workplace flexibility in 2011

Paid leave Workplace flexibility

Paid

sick days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

All 57.1% 60.8% 39.3% 48.7% 22.1%

Male 57.9% 63.8% 37.6% 48.8% 23.1%

Female 56.3% 57.3% 41.3% 48.6% 21.0%

Age 18–24 24.0% 29.7% 59.1% 57.3% 16.9%

25–34 59.9% 63.4% 41.3% 50.4% 23.7%

35–44 62.2% 66.0% 37.9% 48.9% 24.6%

45–54 66.1% 68.8% 32.0% 45.5% 22.9%

55–64 62.8% 64.6% 32.1% 44.6% 20.1%

65 and older 36.7% 47.6% 47.9% 47.0% 17.2%

White 60.4% 63.3% 40.3% 51.0% 23.8%

Black 57.4% 63.0% 37.9% 42.3% 10.0%

Hispanic 38.4% 44.3% 33.6% 39.2% 14.1%

Asian 64.7% 65.0% 47.4% 57.7% 31.8%

High school or less 44.5% 52.2% 35.0% 39.0% 13.1%

Some college 55.6% 61.0% 44.5% 52.1% 18.0%

Bachelor’s degree 69.5% 69.1% 40.7% 56.6% 33.8%

Post-graduate degree 74.3% 69.2% 37.6% 54.5% 35.3%


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Paid

sick days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

Not paid hourly 72.4% 70.9% 38.6% 54.3% 32.4%

Paid hourly 46.1% 53.4% 39.8% 44.6% 14.5%

Nongovernment worker 52.7% 59.2% 42.3% 51.4% 23.7%

Government worker 77.4% 68.2% 25.8% 36.5% 15.0%

Bottom quintile 15.2% 19.4% 59.9% 57.0% 19.8%

Second quintile 43.9% 49.2% 35.8% 39.0% 11.3%

Third quintile 67.6% 73.0% 31.9% 43.4% 14.4%

Fourth quintile 73.3% 76.0% 33.5% 47.6% 23.5%

Fifth quintile 78.5% 78.6% 38.5% 57.7% 40.3%

Low hours 20.0% 23.0% 61.5% 58.9% 19.4%

Middle hours 65.8% 69.2% 32.9% 45.8% 18.9%

High hours 63.1% 67.0% 37.9% 48.1% 28.6%

No partner 49.2% 54.3% 45.0% 50.7% 19.8%

Full-time working partner 64.7% 66.1% 36.3% 47.8% 23.5%

Part-time working partner 61.0% 64.7% 36.1% 51.5% 25.7%

Varies 77.1% 70.0% 40.0% 46.1% 22.4%

Has no children 55.1% 59.2% 40.2% 49.3% 21.0%

Youngest child under age 3 57.7% 61.4% 38.4% 47.2% 26.5%

3–5 60.7% 62.9% 42.4% 51.7% 24.4%

6–10 60.6% 63.6% 38.3% 50.1% 24.8%

11–13 60.9% 62.6% 36.7% 47.5% 22.0%

14–17 65.9% 68.5% 30.3% 39.8% 20.3%

Does not provide elder care 56.3% 60.5% 39.2% 48.4% 22.0%

Provides elder care 60.4% 61.6% 40.0% 50.0% 22.6%

In excellent health 58.9% 61.8% 43.8% 51.6% 24.6%

Very good health 61.5% 63.4% 40.3% 51.7% 24.7%

Good health 52.2% 57.3% 36.7% 45.0% 17.8%

Fair or poor health 46.8% 56.1% 28.0% 36.7% 15.8%


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Paid

sick days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

Occupation

Management, professional,

and related occupations 74.3% 71.9% 38.6% 53.9% 32.7%

Service occupations 33.5% 38.6% 48.6% 47.5% 13.0%

Sales and office occupations 54.8% 61.2% 47.8% 56.5% 20.7%

Farming, fishing, and

forestry occupations* * * * *

Construction and mainte-

nance occupations 45.3% 53.1% 22.9% 31.7% 13.1%

Production, transportation,

and material occupations 48.6% 61.1% 24.7% 31.0% 10.1%

Source: Authors’ analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey (2012), available at http://www.bls.gov/tus/.

Overall, raes o access o paid leave are relaively low across he board. Only

slighly more han hal o all workers repor access o paid sick day57.1 per-

cenand paid vacaion60.8 percen.

Wihou conrolling or he ineracions beween any o he variables, he broad

disribuion o access o paid leave and flexibiliy can be difficul o parse. Are

parens wih eenage children and workers who provide elder care o a riend or

amily member more likely o have access o paid leave because hey need i more

and hus sel-selec ino jobs ha offer he benefi? Or is i because hey end o be

older workers and age is associaed wih greaer access? Our probi model allows

us o es wha are known as he marginal effecs o each variable while holding

all oher variables consan. Tis les us isolae he impac o he differen acors

oulined in able 1, allowing us o quaniy he impac o each individual charac-

erisic on he likelihood o having access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy.

Is access to paid leave and flexibility equitable?

Our model compares differen groups o workers o each oher o deermine whais associaed wih access o paid leave by breaking he variables down ino hree

caegories: amily caregiving responsibiliies, job qualiy, and demographic charac-

erisics. By esing which variables are saisically significan, we assessed which

resuls are likely due o chance and which represen rue correlaion. All o he

resuls deailed below are significan a he 0.05 level, meaning ha here is a mos

a 5 percen chance ha hese resuls are due o random chance. While he resuls


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are presened in hree separae ables or clariy, he model was run including all

variables a once. For example, while he resuls or gender are presened in able

4, gender is also conrolled in ables 2 and 3.

Te ables below lis he marginal effecs or each variable, which measure he differ-

ence in he prediced probabiliy o he dependen variable given a one-uni changein he independen variable, holding all oher independen variables consan. In our

model, his means ha he marginal effec or a paricular variable shows he change

in he likelihood o having access o paid leave or flexibiliy compared o a differen

value or ha variable. In concree erms, his means ha he marginal effec lised

or women is he comparaive likelihood ha hey will have access compared o men

who are oherwise idenical on every oher variableage, educaion, occupaion,

ec.while he marginal effec or Hispanic workers is he likelihood ha hey will

have access o a benefi compared o oherwise idenical whie workers.

Family caregiving responsibilities

Tere was no single quesion or se o quesions in he paid leave and flexibiliy

survey supplemen ha direcly asked workers abou heir caregiving responsibili-

ies wihin he home. However, hrough a number o quesions abou individuals’

amily lives, we were able o creae a se o proxies ha could help predic which

workers were more likely o need o provide care o ohers in addiion o heir

paid employmen. While hese approximaions are no perec, hey do provide a

useul esimaion o he compeing demands workers are likely o ace.

Te firs se o variables compares workers wih a working live-in parner, wheher

married or cohabiaing, and heir parner’s work schedule o hose who do no

live wih a parner. (see able 2) We have inenionally included boh married

and cohabiaing couples, as oher research finds ha 12.7 percen o cohabiaing

parens are no married and more han hal58 perceno nonmarial birhs are

o cohabiaing parens.44 While he presence o a live-in parner can creae caregiv-

ing responsibiliiesmos noably he need o provide care or hem during illness

or injuryi also means ha here is anoher adul in he house who can help when

amilial or oher nonwork relaed responsibiliies arise. Having a parner who doesno work or who works par ime means ha here is anoher adul wihin he home

who, a leas heoreically, has ime o help wih hings such as child care or house-

hold asks. However, he presence o parners and heir work schedules are no, in

mos insances, correlaed wih access o paid leave or flexibiliy.


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TABLE 2

Access to paid time off and flexibility by caregiving responsibilities

“X’s” represent results that are not statisically signicant

Paid sick

days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

Family caregiving responsibilities

Partner’s work hours:

Comparison is no partner

Partner works full time x x x x x

Partner works part time x x x x 5.4%

Partner’s schedule varies 10.8% x x x x

Partner does not work x x x x x

Age of youngest child: Compari-

son is no children under age 18

Youngest child: 2 or younger x x -4.7% x x

Youngest child: 3–5 x x x x x



Youngest child: 14–17 x x -5.4% -7.2% x

Elder care: Comparison is not

providing elder care

Provides elder care x x x x x


Surprisingly, workers wih a live-in parner who has a variable work schedule are

10.8 percen more likely o have access o paid sick days han workers wihou

a parner, while workers whose parner works par ime are 5.4 percen more

likely han heir single counerpars o have flexibiliy in he locaion where hey

complee heir work. Te reasons or his are unclear, and urher research may be

warraned o deermine he meaning o his resul.

Workers wih children are poenially more likely o need access o paid sick days

o care or a sick child in addiion o addressing heir own illnesses. However, workers wih children are no more likely o have paid sick days han similar work-

ers wihou children.


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Finally, workers whose younges child is under age 3 and hose wih eenagers

ages 14 o 17 are less likely o have schedules ha permi hem o change he days

hey work, and parens whose younges is in he older eens are also less likely o

have flexible work hours compared o workers wihou children. Te presence o

children has no impac on he likelihood o having paid vacaion ime or o hav-

ing flexibiliy in he locaion where work akes place. And noably, workers whoprovide elder care o an aging loved one are no more or less likely o have access o

any orm o paid leave han hose who do no have elder care responsibiliies.

Overall he presence o a parner, children, or elder care responsibiliies is no cor-

relaed wih access o paid leave or workplace flexibiliy. And recall ha he groups

compared here are assumed o be he same on every oher variable excep or he

one in quesion.

Job quality

Nex, he model also ess wheher measures o job qualiy make workers more

or less likely o have access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy. (see able 3)

While virually none o he amily caregiving responsibiliy variables had a signifi-

can correlaion o paid leave and flexibiliy, nearly all o he job qualiy variables

are saisically significan a he 0.05 level.


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TABLE 3

Access to paid time off and flexibility by job characteristics


Paid sick

days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

Job quality

Hourly vs. nonhourly:

Comparison is nonhourly

Paid hourly -5.7% x x -6.8% -10.1%

Private vs. public sector:

Comparison is

nongovernmental worker

Government worker 12.6% x -16.9% -19.4% -14.0%

Weekly earnings quintile:

Comparison is bottom quintileSecond weekly earnings quintile 20.4% 20.9% -6.2% -7.2% -6.5%

Third weekly earnings quintile 36.5% 37.7% -7.7% x -7.6%

Fourth weekly earnings quintile 38.7% 40.7% -5.4% x x

Fifth weekly earnings quintile 42.3% 45.5% x 6.7% 8.3%

Work hours at main job:

Comparison is 1–34 hours

Usual weekly hours: 35–44 21.8% 22.0% -16.2% -7.8% x

Usual weekly hours: 45 and

more 14.3% 15.0% -14.9% -9.1% x

Occupation*: Comparison is

management, professional,

and related occupations

Service occupations -10.6% -5.9% x x -5.9%

Sales and office occupations x x x 4.1% -3.6%

Construction and maintenance

occupations -19.8% -18.0% -13.0% -14.6% -8.8%

Production, transportation, and

material occupations -9.8% x -12.4% -14.5% -10.0%

* The category for farming, fishing, and forestry occupations has been omitted from the table due to its limited sample size.



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Hourly workers are significanly less likely o have access o paid sick days (5.7

percen), flexible hours (6.8 percen), and flexible working locaions (10.1

percen) han similar workers who are no paid on an hourly basis. In conras,

public-secor governmen workers are much more likely o have access o paid sick

days (12.6 percen) han comparable privae-secor workers. Ineresingly, public-

secor workers are less likely o repor access o flexible days (16.9 percen),flexible hours (19.4 percen), and flexible working locaions (14.0 percen), which

is perhaps because many public-secor workers do no have he ypes o jobs ha

lend hemselves o working rom home or during nonradiional hours.

Te higher workers’ weekly income, he more likely hey are o have access o all

orms o paid leave. Tis suppors he noion ha paid leave is more likely o be

offered as a perk o highly compensaed employees as a recruimen and reenion

sraegy. And while workers in he second, hird, and ourh income quiniles are

more likely o have access o workplace flexibiliy han hose in he botom quin-

ile, he highes earning workers are more likely o have access o flexible hours(6.7 percen) and locaions (8.3 percen). Tis may reflec wo differen bu over-

lapping processes. Workers wih very low wages may be reporing flexibiliy ha is

conrolled by employers raher han by he workers. I is possible, i no likely, ha

wha is being repored as flexible days and hours acually reflecs variable schedul-

ing in which employers can change an individual’s schedule wih litle advance

warning. Previous sudies sugges ha high-wage workers, on he oher hand, are

likely reporing scheduling auonomy and have a greaer abiliy o se heir own

hours and work locaion.45

Working ull ime is correlaed wih a greaer likelihood o access o paid leave o

all orms compared wih workers who pu in less han 34 hours in an average week,

alhough he effec is less srong or hose working 45 hours or more per week han

hose whose usual weekly schedules are rom 35 hours o 44 hours. Tere are no

saisically significan differences relaed o work hours and having a flexible work

locaion. However, working more hours makes individuals less likely o have access

o flexible days or hours. Tis may be due o he ac ha when work mus be com-

pleed during relaively narrow windows o ime, employees who are scheduled or

ewer hours overall have more opporuniies o shif heir sar and sop imes. For

example, a salesperson can complee heir duies only when he sore is open. Eveni all employees o he sore have he abiliy o change heir schedules, workers on a

par-ime schedule would have a greaer abiliy o change heir work days and hours

han someone who works more han 40 hours per week.


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Finally, occupaion is saisically significanly correlaed wih access o paid leave

and workplace flexibiliy in mos cases. Compared wih workers in managemen,

proessional, and relaed occupaions, individuals who are employed in service

work, consrucion/mainenance, and producion/ransporaion/maerial

occupaions are all less likely o have access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy.

Sales and office occupaions do no differ significanly in mos insances, alhoughemployees in hese ypes o jobs are slighly more likely o have access o flexible

hours (4.1 percen) and slighly less likely o have access o flexible working loca-

ions (3.6 percen) compared wih managemen.

On a whole, he characerisics ha are associaed wih job ype are much more

likely o be associaed wih access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy han an

individual’s poenial amily caregiving responsibiliies.

Demographics

Finally, our model ess wheher demographic characerisics are correlaed wih

access o paid leave and flexibiliy. Wih he excepion o educaion, hese are ac-

ors ha individual workers have no conrol over, such as race and ehniciy. Many

demographic characerisics are significanly associaed wih access o paid leave

and workplace flexibiliy, indicaing a highly unequal playing field or workers.

(see able 4)


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TABLE 4

Access to paid time off and flexibility by demographic characteristics


Paid sick

days

Paid

vacation

Flexible

days

Flexible

hours

Flexible

location

Demographics

Gender: Comparison is male

Female 4.1% x -3.0% -3.8% x

Age of worker: Comparison is those ages 18–24

25–34 8.3% 10.0% -9.7% 8.1% x

35–44 9.3% 10.2% -11.9% -10.1% x

45–54 11.9% 13.7% -15.7% -11.4% x

55–64 11.4% 12.4% -18.8% -16.5% x

65 and older x x -11.3% -14.7% x

Race/ethnicity of worker: Comparison is white

Black x x -5.3% -7.2% x

Hispanic -11.5% -12.4% -6.7% -6.3% x

Asian x x x x x

Education of worker: Comparison is high school or less

Some college 2.9% 3.1% 5.2% 6.0% x

Bachelor’s degree x x x 7.3% 8.0%

Post-graduate degree x -6.3% x 5.7% 7.3%


Women are 4.1 percen more likely o have access o paid sick days compared wih

oherwise comparable men. While previous research has shown ha women are

more likely o have access o maerniy leave han men are o have paerniy leave,

he finding ha women are more likely o have sick ime comes as a surprise and is

no consisen wih previous sudies.46 Because hese daa rely on individual’s sel-

reporing wheher hey have access o various orms o paid leave, i is possible ha women are more likely o know when heir employer offers paid sick leave because

hey are more likely han men o uilize his benefi o care or sick children.47

Furher invesigaion ino his finding is warraned o deermine wheher women are

more likely o have paid sick days or i hey simply have higher levels o awareness.


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Age was also a significan predicorolder workers were progressively more

likely han younger workers o have paid sick days, wih he noable excepion o

workers who are age 65 or older. Because all oher acors are held consan when

examining each variable wihin our model, his canno simply be atribued o he

ac ha older workers are more likely o be in cerain ypes o jobs ha offer be-

er benefis. However, ha does no mean ha he resuls are enirely he resul oage discriminaion. I may be ha age is serving as a proxy or a differen acor in

he model; or example, wha may be capured here is ha older workers are more

likely o have longer job enures and more work experience, which may be he real

driver behind increased access o a benefi such as paid sick days. However, he

daa are clear ha older workers are more likely o repor access o paid leave, even

when conrolling or oher acors such as educaion and occupaion.

While increasing age is posiively associaed wih access o paid leave, i is nega-

ively linked o access o flexible work days and hours and has no saisically sig-

nifican connecion o having a flexible work locaion. Tis finding, when coupled wih age’s posiive correlaion wih access o paid leave, lends urher credence o

he heory ha some o wha may be capured by he survey as access o flexibiliy

is really unpredicable and variable scheduling pracices. More research is neces-

sary o deermine he ull relaionship beween workers’ age and heir access o

benefis such as paid leave and flexibiliy.

Arguably, he mos alarming finding is he relaionship beween race and ehnic-

iy and access o paid leave and flexibiliy. Because our model includes all o he

oher variables discussed here, race and ehniciy should have no saisically

significan relaionship wih workplace policies because he analysis conrols or

issues such as occupaional segregaion. However, race and ehniciy do have a

saisically significan correlaion wih access o paid leave and flexibiliy. Black

workers are less likely han whie workers o have access o flexible days (5.3

percen) and flexible work hours (7.2 percen). Bu he effecs were he sron-

ges or Laino workers, who are significanly less likely han whie workers o

have access o paid sick days (11.5 percen), paid vacaion (12.4 percen), flex-

ible days (6.7 percen), and flexible work hours (6.3 percen). Te only benefi

ha did no have significan relaionship wih race and ehniciy was having a

flexible work locaion.


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Finally, educaionone o he relaionships ha migh iniially seem o be

among he mos sraighorward in relaionship o posiive workplace poli-

ciesdid no have as clear an impac as originally assumed. Surprisingly, while

workers wih some college were more likely o have access o paid sick days

han hose wih only a high school educaion or less, having compleed college

or pos-graduae sudies did no have a significan impac. And a worker wiha graduae degree in our model is 6.3 percen less likely o have access o paid

vacaion compared wih an oherwise comparable worker wih no more han a

high school diploma. Compleing college was no associaed wih access o flex-

ible days, alhough i did have a significan relaionship wih access o flexible

work hours and a flexible work locaion.


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Recommendations

Te findings o our probi model indicae why policy inervenions are necessary o

address unequal access o workplace policies such as paid leave and flexibiliy. While

he need o occasionally ake ime away rom work or o rearrange a work schedule

or locaion due o caregiving demands or an illness is nearly universal, he abiliy

o do so is no. Perhaps even more imporanly, he characerisics associaed wih

access o paid leave and flexibiliy highligh he inequiy o he curren sysem.

Workers who presumably need paid leave and flexibiliy he mos, such as hose wih young children and elder care responsibiliies, are no more likely o have access

o he policies hey need han comparable workers wihou he same amily obliga-

ions. In ac, when conrolling or all he variables in our model, measuremens

o job qualiy and demographics are he overwhelmingly significan predicors o

access. Te daa indicae ha, overall, access o paid leave and flexibiliy benefis are

no raionally disribued o he workers wih he highes levels o need bu raher

are concenraed among whie, highly compensaed workers in managerial posiions.

Te noable differences beween access o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy

indicae ha he wo issues need o be careully considered on heir own erms.

Job qualiy is more srongly posiively associaed wih access o paid leave han

wih workplace flexibiliy, alhough neiher benefi shows a correlaion wih care-

giving need.

However, workplace flexibiliy presens a more complicaed picure. Whie male

managers are he workers mos likely o have flexibiliy, bu here is no clear sory

o he daa beyond ha. Tis discrepancy in access o flexibiliy is likely due o

wo acors. Firs, i is possible ha workers do no have a singular undersanding

o wha survey researchers mean when hey ask abou flexibiliy. For example,many lower-income workers have a grea deal o variabiliy and unpredicabil-

iy in heir scheduling, alhough conrol over heir work hours belongs o heir

employers raher han o he workers hemselves. Tese individuals may be


27/35


reporing flexibiliy or heir employers, raher han or hemselves. Second, di-

erences across occupaions aler wha kinds o flexibiliy are easible, as opions

such as working remoely are no possible in all ypes o work. I is possible ha

he measure used here is oo broad o capure meaningul differences in deer-

mining which ypes o workers are more or less likely o have access o flexibiliy.

Workers canno necessarily choose he ideal jobs offering he benefis hey

need bu ofen mus ake he jobs ha are available o hem. Teir choices are

consrained by acors such as educaion, geography, gender, race and ehniciy,

age, and he presence or absence o a working parner who also conribues o

household income. While i is heoreically rue ha workers who have amily

caregiving needs may sel-selec ino posiions ha offer paid leave and flexibiliy,

i is also possible ha access is driven less by need and more by he characerisics

o he worker and/or he job isel. Tis is paricularly rue in he sill-sruggling

labor marke. For example, he majoriy o jobs los during he Grea Recession

paid middle-class wages, while he majoriy o jobs creaed in he recovery pay arless.48 Tese low-wage jobs are less likely o offer benefis, such as flexibiliy and

paid leave, bu finding beter employmen is ofen difficul i no impossible or

many workers, even among hose who previously held higher-qualiy jobs.

As a resul, public policy soluions are needed o address inequiies in access o

paid leave and flexibiliy. Tese include:

• Guaranteeing all workers the right to accrue paid sick days: Federal legisla-

ion such as he Healhy Families Ac would enable workers o earn up o seven

paid sick days per year ha could be used i hey or a amily member were ill,

needed o seek prevenive care, or needed o address he afermah o sexual or

domesic violence.49

• Ensuring access to paid family and medical leave: Every worker will likely need

ime o provide care during heir working liveso care or a new baby, end o a

seriously ill or injured amily member, or recover rom heir own serious illness. A

number o viable opions or developing a naional paid amily and medical leave

program currenly exis.50 Legislaion such as he Family and Medical Insurance

Leave, or FAMILY, Ac would creae a universal, affordable naional program oprovide wage replacemen o workers who need amily and medical leave.51


28/35


• Protecting workers with the right to request workplace flexibility: Righ-o-

reques laws would allow workers o reques he ype o workplace flexibiliy

hey need while proecing hem rom employer discriminaion or realiaion.

Federal legislaion, such as he Schedules Ta Work Ac, would proec workers

while compelling employers o seriously consider flexibiliy requess and only

deny hem or valid business reasons.52

I would also require ha schedules beposed wo weeks in advance, which would allow workers o reques needed

changes and enable hem o plan hings such as child care arrangemens.


29/35


Conclusion

While he daa presened here help dispel he noion ha workers who have

caregiving needs can find jobs ha provide access o he paid leave and flexibiliy

benefis ha hey need, urher research is needed o explore hese findings. Why

do levels o workers’ sel-repored access o paid leave and flexibiliy differ rom

daa colleced rom employers? Why are demographic variables ha should have

no bearing on workplace policies so srongly correlaed wih access o paid leave

and flexibiliy? And wha exacly is being capured when workers are asked abou

workplace flexibiliy? While our research helps o shed ligh on he quesion o who has access o work-lie policies, urher sudies are necessary o more ully

answer he quesions raised here.

I is clear, however, ha cerain groups o workersnamely hourly workers, work-

ers in he service indusry, and Laino workersare less likely o have access o

paid sick days han heir oherwise idenical counerpars, while older workers,

ull-ime workers, and workers wih higher earnings are all more likely o have

access. And having elder care or child care responsibiliies has no correlaion o

access o paid leave or flexibiliy, even hough hese workers may need o use hese

suppors in order o care or ohers in addiion o hemselves.

Te need or paid leave and flexibiliy cus across all groups o workers, bu access

does no. Policy inervenions are necessary o level he playing field and ensure

ha access o basic workplace sandards and proecions are no resriced o he

mos orunae workers.


30/35


About the authors

Sarah Jane Glynn is he Direcor o Women’s Economic Policy a he Cener or

American Progress. Her work ocuses on gendered economics, work-amily issues,

and workplace policies. Her research addresses he economic issues acing work-

ing amilies oday wih an emphasis on policies ha help amilies cope wih heconflics beween wage earning and caregiving.

Heather Boushey is he Execuive Direcor and Chie Economis a he

Washingon Cener or Equiable Growh. Her research ocuses on economic

inequaliy and public policy, specifically employmen, social policy, and amily

economic well-being.

Peter Berg is a proessor o employmen relaions and associae direcor or

academic programs a he School o Human Resources and Labor Relaions a

Michigan Sae Universiy. His research ineress include work-lie flexibiliy poli-cies and pracices, he implicaions o an aging workorce or public policy and

managemen pracice, and inernaional comparisons o working ime.

Acknowledgments

Te auhors wish o sincerely hank Danielle Corley and Kailin Holmes or heir

research assisance and Mat Piszczek and Kae Bahn or reviewing code and offer-

ing echnical assisance. Te auhors also wish o hank Elaine McCrae or her

houghul commens on an earlier draf o his repor.

Te Cener or American Progress hanks he Ford Foundaion or is suppor o

our programs and o his repor. Te views and opinions expressed in his repor

are hose o he Cener or American Progress and he auhors and do no nec-

essarily reflec he posiion o he Ford Foundaion. Te Cener or American

Progress produces independen research and policy ideas driven by soluions ha

we believe will creae a more equiable and jus world.


31/35


Appendix A: Methodology

In his research, we use he 2011 American ime Use Survey’s Leave Module

microdaa53 o run a probi analysis in order o analyze a dichoomous dependen

variablenamely access o paid leave or access o workplace flexibiliy.54 Te

daa rom he Leave Module was linked o seleced variables rom he Curren

Populaion Survey and he American ime Use Survey, including age, race, ehnic-

iy, income, amily ype, and elder care responsibiliies.55

Te Leave Module asked respondens quesions abou wheher hey had access oa variey o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy opions, which we used o creae

he dependen variables or he probi model. For example, in his sudy, workers

were coded as having access o paid sick days i hey answered yes o he ollowing

quesion: “Employers offer differen ypes o paid leave plans. Does your employer

offer you separae paid sick leave?”56

o esablish which variables were mos highly correlaed wih eiher paid sick

days or workplace flexibiliy, a probi model was run ha included demographic

variables such as gender, age, race/ehniciy, and educaion; variables peraining o

job qualiy, including usual work hours, Fair Labor Sandards Ac exemp saus,

weekly earnings quinile, and occupaion; and variables ha serve as proxies or

caregiving responsibiliies, including marial saus and parner’s employmen,

he presence o children and heir ages, and elder care responsibiliies. While he

resuls are shown broken down ino separae ables, all he resuls were derived

rom he same model.


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Endnotes

1 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Characteristicsof Families (U.S. Department of Labor, 2015), table 2,available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t02.htm.

2 Make it Work, “Voters Want New Workplace Policies,”available at http://www.makeitworkcampaign.org/poll-voters-want-new-workplace-policies/#_ftn1 (lastaccessed March 2016).

3 National Partnership for Women & Families, “State PaidFamily Leave Insurance Laws” (2015), available at http://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/paid-leave/state-paid-family-leave-laws.pdf .

4 A Better Balance, “Overview of Paid Sick Time Lawsin the United States” (2016), available at http://www.abetterbalance.org/web/images/stories/Documents/sickdays/factsheet/PSDchart.pdf ; Emily Alpert Reyes, “6paid sick days for workers in L.A.? City Council says yes,”Los Angeles Times, April 19, 2016, available at http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-los-angeles-sick-days-20160419-story.html.

5 Office of Labor Standards Enforcement, “Family FriendlyWorkplace Ordinance ( FFWO),” available at http://sfgov.org/olse/family-friendly-workplace-ordinance-ffwo (last accessed March 2016); Vermont Commission onWomen, “Important Workplace Laws Vermont WorkersShould Know” (2014), available at http://women.vermont.gov/sites/women/files/pdf/Workplace%20Laws%20for%20VT%20Workers.pdf .

6 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Table 6. Selected paid leavebenefits: Access,” July 24, 2015, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ebs2.t06.htm.

7 Heather Boushey, Ann O’Leary, and Sarah Jane Glynn,“Our Working Nation in 2013: An Updated NationalAgenda for Work and Family Policies” (Washington:Center for American Progress, 2013).

8 The data in the 2011 Leave Module also include dataon usage of leave and flexibility among workers withaccess. However, due to the relatively short length of

the look-back period (respondents were only asked ifthey had taken leave or used flexibility in the previousseven days) the resulting sample sizes were too small toprovide a statistically reliable sample. As a result, thesedata were not used in the analyses for this report.

9 A supplement on flexible scheduling was included inthe 2004 Current Population Survey, but these ques-tions have not been asked of respondents in subse-quent years. While there are questions about paid leaveasked in the National Compensation Survey, these dataare collected from employers rather than the employ-ees themselves. These data do not perfectly align, andthe National Compensation Survey shows higher levelsof access to paid leave benefits than are reflected in theAmerican Time Use Survey. The underlying cause of thisdiscrepancy cannot be known, but for the purposesof this paper, we have chosen to rely on workers’knowledge and perception of their workplace benefit

policies, since access to benefits is not useful if workersare unaware of them.

10 Danielle Corley’s calculations based on Bureau of theCensus, 2010-2014 American Community Survey 5-YearEstimates (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2014), tableS2301.

11 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Union Members — 2015 (U.S.Department of Labor, 2016), available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm.

12 A Better Balance, “Milwaukee Case Legal Analysis,” avail-able at http://www.abetterbalance.org/web/ourissues/sickleave/123-casemilkwaukee (last accessed March2016). Milwaukee’s paid sick days legislation was pre-empted at the state level after a lengthy legal battlebefore it could be enacted.

13 An Act Relating to Equal Pay , Act 31, General Assemblyof the State of Vermont (May 14, 2013) , available athttp://www.leg.state.vt.us/docs/2014/Acts/ACT031.pdf ; San Francisco Family Friendly Workplace Ordinance,San Francisco Board of Supervisors (October 8, 2013),Chapter 12Z, available at http://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanf ranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chap-ter12Z.

14 Sarah Jane Glynn and Jane Farrell, “Workers DeserveEqual Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2012);Vicky Lovell, “No time to be sick: Who suffers whenworkers don’t have sick leave” (Washington: Institutefor Women’s Policy Research, 2004).

15 Peter Berg and others, “Work-life flexibility policies: Dounions affect employee access and use?”, Industrial andLabor Relations Review 67 (1) (2014).

16 Sarah Jane Glynn’s calculations using the 2011 Ameri-can Time Use Survey.

17 Ed Paisley, “A Video of an Event with Thomas Piketty,Author of ‘Capital in the 21st Century,’” WashingtonCenter for Equitable Growth, April 14, 2014, availableat http://equitablegrowth.org/video-piketty-income-inequality/.

18 Judith Warner, “To Fight Inequality, Support Women’sWork” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2015), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/28124852/WorkFamily-Inequality-report.pdf .

19 For more information, see Heather Boushey, Finding

Time: The Economics of Work-Life Conflict (Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

20 Tom Smith and Jibum Kim, “Paid Sick Days: Attitudesand Experiences” (Chicago: University of ChicagoNational Opinion Research Center, 2010), available athttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/psd/paid-sick-days-attitudes-and-experi-ences.pdf ; U.S. Department of Labor, Get the Facts onPaid Sick Time (2015), available at http://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/get-the-facts-sicktime.pdf.

21 U.S. Department of Labor, Get the Facts on Paid SickTime.

22 Liz Ben-Ishai and Alex Wang, “Paid Leave Necessaryfor an Ounce of Prevention: Paid Leave and Access toPreventive Health Care” (Washington: Center for Law &Social Policy, 2015), available at http://www.clasp.org/

resources-and-publications/publication-1/Preventive-HealthPaidLeave.pdf .

23 Kevin Miller, Claudia Williams, and Youngmin Yi, “PaidSick Days and Health: Cost Savings from ReducedEmergency Department Visits” (Washington: Institutefor Women’s Policy Research, 2 011), available at http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-depart-ment-visits.

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t02.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t02.htmhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/paid-leave/state-paid-family-leave-laws.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/paid-leave/state-paid-family-leave-laws.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/paid-leave/state-paid-family-leave-laws.pdfhttp://www.abetterbalance.org/web/images/stories/Documents/sickdays/factsheet/PSDchart.pdfhttp://www.abetterbalance.org/web/images/stories/Documents/sickdays/factsheet/PSDchart.pdfhttp://www.abetterbalance.org/web/images/stories/Documents/sickdays/factsheet/PSDchart.pdfhttp://sfgov.org/olse/family-friendly-workplace-ordinance-ffwohttp://sfgov.org/olse/family-friendly-workplace-ordinance-ffwohttp://women.vermont.gov/sites/women/files/pdf/Workplace%20Laws%20for%20VT%20Workers.pdfhttp://women.vermont.gov/sites/women/files/pdf/Workplace%20Laws%20for%20VT%20Workers.pdfhttp://women.vermont.gov/sites/women/files/pdf/Workplace%20Laws%20for%20VT%20Workers.pdfhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/ebs2.t06.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/ebs2.t06.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htmhttp://www.abetterbalance.org/web/ourissues/sickleave/123-casemilkwaukeehttp://www.abetterbalance.org/web/ourissues/sickleave/123-casemilkwaukeehttp://www.leg.state.vt.us/docs/2014/Acts/ACT031.pdfhttp://www.leg.state.vt.us/docs/2014/Acts/ACT031.pdfhttp://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanfranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chapter12Zhttp://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanfranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chapter12Zhttp://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanfranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chapter12Zhttp://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanfranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chapter12Zhttp://www.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/California/administrative/chapter12zsanfranciscofamilyfriendlywork?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:sanfrancisco_ca$anc=JD_Chapter12Zhttp://equitablegrowth.org/video-piketty-income-inequality/http://equitablegrowth.org/video-piketty-income-inequality/https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/28124852/WorkFamilyInequality-report.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/28124852/WorkFamilyInequality-report.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/28124852/WorkFamilyInequality-report.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/psd/paid-sick-days-attitudes-and-experiences.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/psd/paid-sick-days-attitudes-and-experiences.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/psd/paid-sick-days-attitudes-and-experiences.pdfhttp://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/get-the-facts-sicktime.pdfhttp://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/get-the-facts-sicktime.pdfhttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/paid-sick-days-and-health-cost-savings-from-reduced-emergency-department-visitshttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.clasp.org/resources-and-publications/publication-1/PreventiveHealthPaidLeave.pdfhttp://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/get-the-facts-sicktime.pdfhttp://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/get-the-facts-sicktime.pdfhttp://www.nationalpartnership.org/research-library/work-family/psd/paid-sick-days-attitudes-and-expe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24 Alina Salganicoff and others, “Women and Health Carein the Early Years of the ACA: Key Findings from the2013 Kaiser Women’s Health Survey” (Oakland, CA: TheHenry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014), available athttp://kff.org/womens-health-policy/report/women-and-health-care-in-the-early-years-of-the-aca-key-findings-from-the-2013-kaiser-womens-health-survey/.

25 Heather D. Hill, “Paid Sick Leave and Job Stability,” Workand Occupations 40 (2) (2013): 143–173.

26 Per Nafstad and others , “Day Care Centers and Respira-

tory Health,”Pediatrics 103 (4) (1999): 753–758, availableat https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jouni_Jaakkola/publication/13188562_Day_Care_Centers_and_Respira-tory_Health/links/0912f50cde7049cb34000000.pdf .

27 University of Michigan C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital,“National Poll on Children’s Health: Sick Kids, StrugglingParents” (2012), available at http://mottnpch.org/sites/default/files/documents/10222012ChildCareIllness.pdf .

28 Victoria Brescoll, Jennifer Glass, and AlexandraSedlovskaya, “Ask and Ye Shall Receive? The Dynamicsof Employer-Provided Flexible Work Options and theNeed for Public Policy,” Journal of Social Issues 69 (2)(2013): 367–388. See also: Nicholas Bloom and others,“Helping Firms by Helping Employees? Work-LifeBalance in America” (Washington: Center for AmericanProgress, 2015), available at https://www.american-progress.org/issues/labor/report/2015/12/18/127792/

helping-firms-by-helping-employees/.

29 Council of Economic Advisors, “Work-Life Balance andthe Economics of Workplace Flexibility” (2010).

30 Heather Boushey and Sarah Jane Glynn, “There AreSignificant Business Costs to Replacing Employees”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2012),available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-con-tent/uploads/2012/11/16084443/CostofTurnover0815.pdf.

31 Heather Boushey, “The Role of Government in Work-Family Conflict in the U.S.” In Deborah M. Figart and

Tonia L. Warnecke, eds., Handbook of Research onGender and Economic Life (Northampton, MA: EdwardElgar Publishing, 2013).

32 Glynn and Farrell, “Workers Deserve Equal Access to

Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility.”

33 Joan Williams, Mary Blair-Loy, and Jennifer L. Berdahl,“Cultural Schemas, Social Class, and the FlexibilityStigma,” Journal of Social Issues 69 (2) (2013): 209–234.

34 Julia R Henly and Susan J. Lambert, “UnpredictableWork Timing in Retail Jobs Implications for EmployeeWork–Life Conflict,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 67 (3) (2014): 986–1016.

35 Williams, Blair-Loy, and Berdahl, “Cultural Schemas,Social Class, and the Flexibility Stigma.”

36 Joan C. Williams and Heather Boushey, “The Three Facesof Work-Family Conflict: The Poor, the Professionals, andthe Missing Middle” (Washington: Center for AmericanProgress, 2010), available at https://www.american-progress.org/issues/labor/report/2010/01/25/7194/

the-three-faces-of-work-family-conflict/.

37 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel-opment, “Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now” (2012),available at https://www.oecd.org/gender/closingth-egap.htm.

38 Claudia Goldin, “Hours, Flexibility, and the Gender Gapin Pay” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2014), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/EqualPay-summary.pdf .

39 Sarah Jane Glynn, “Breadwinning Mothers, Then andNow” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2014), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2014/06/20/92355/breadwinning-mothers-then-and-now/.

40 For a more in-depth discussion of the causes of the

gender wage gap, please see Sarah Jane Glynn, “Ex-plaining the Gender Wage G ap” (Washington: Centerfor American Progress, 2014), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/WageGapBrief1.pdf .

41 Council of Economic Advisors, “Work-Life Balance andthe Economics of Workplace Flexibility.”

42 Brescoll, Glass, and Sedlovskaya, “Ask and Ye ShallReceive?”

43 Lisa Dodson, “Stereotyping Low-Wage Mothers WhoHave Work and Family Conflicts,” Journal of Social Issues 69 (2) (2013): 257–278.

44 Danielle Corley’s calculation based on U.S. CensusBureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social andEconomic Supplement, 1967 to present (U.S. Depart-

ment of Commerce, 2016); Sally C. Curtin, Stephanie J.Ventura, and Gladys M. Martinez, “Recent Declines inNonmarital Childbearing in the United States” (2014),available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db162.htm.

45 Women’s Bureau, Workplace Flexibility: Information andOptions for Small Businesses (U.S. Department of Labor,2015), available at http://www.dol.gov/wb/WB_Work-placeFlexibility_IssueBrief_v7Oct29-508.pdf .

46 National Partnership for Women & Families, “WorkingWomen Need Paid Sick Days” (2010), available at http://go.nationalpartnership.org/site/DocServer/PSD_Fact-Sheet_WorkingWomen_080926.pdf?docID=4188;Vicky Lovell, “Women and Paid Sick Days: Crucial forFamily Well-Being” (Washington: Institute for Women’sPolicy Research, 2007), available at http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/women-and-paid-sick-days-

crucial-for-family-well-being; Jane Farrell and JoannaVenator, “Fact Sheet: Paid Sick Days” (Washington:Center for American Progress, 2012), available athttps://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/news/2012/08/16/12031/fact-sheet-paid-sick-days/.

47 Kristin Smith and Andrew Schaefer, “Who Cares for SickKids? Parents’ Access to Paid Time to Care for a SickChild” (Durham, NH: Carsey Institute, 2012), availableat http://familyvaluesatwork.org/wp-content/up-loads/2011/10/Carsey2012WhoCaresForSickKids.pdf .

48 National Employment Law Project, “The Low-WageRecovery: Industry Employment and Wages Four Yearsinto the Recovery” (2014), available at http://www.nelp.org/content/uploads/2015/03/Low-Wage-Recovery-Industry-Employment-Wages-2014-Report.pdf .

49 Healthy Families Act, H.R. 1286, 113 Cong. 1 sess. (Gov-

ernment Printing Office, 2013).

50 Sarah Jane Glynn, “Administering Paid Family and Medi-cal Leave: Learning from International and DomesticExamples” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2015), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/19060022/PaidLeavePro-posal-report-11.19.15.pdf .

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