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Who
We
Are
Who
We
Are
An
inte
rnat
iona
l not
An
inte
rnat
iona
l not
-- forfor --
prof
it, sc
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ific
soci
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prof
it, sc
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soci
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of m
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than
of
mor
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an 88
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logy
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chem
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scie
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and
tech
nolo
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The
miss
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of E
CS is
to d
issem
inat
e sc
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ific
The
miss
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of E
CS is
to d
issem
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know
ledg
e in
ord
er to
adv
ance
the
theo
ry a
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know
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ord
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adv
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the
theo
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prac
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roch
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nd a
llied
subj
ects
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actic
e of
ele
ctro
chem
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and
alli
ed su
bjec
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EC
S M
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p by
Sec
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S M
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p by
Sec
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Ariz
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117
Japa
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Braz
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50K
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193
Cana
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286
Mex
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Chic
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206
Nat
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182
Clev
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Det
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101
Pitts
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Eur
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23Sa
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Geo
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161
Texa
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Euro
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Fran
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8Cana
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286
Geor
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161
Natio
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2
Chica
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206
New
Engl
and—
319
10 L
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91H
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1
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an
d Te
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350
Lum
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s11
0
Elec
trode
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517
Org
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and
Bio
logi
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Elec
troch
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7
Elec
troni
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nd P
hoto
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752
Phys
ical
and
Ana
lytic
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lectro
chem
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627
Ene
rgy
Tech
nolo
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8Se
nsor
240
Fulle
rene
s, N
anot
ubes
, and
Ca
rbon
Nan
ostru
ctur
es19
8
1902
EC
S f
ou
nd
ed
1921
Ele
ctro
dep
osi
tio
nEle
ctro
therm
ics
1932
Ele
ctro
nic
s
1936
Gen
era
l &
Th
eo
reti
cal
1940
Org
an
ic &
Bio
log
ical
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
y
1942
Co
rro
sio
n
(form
erly
Corr
osi
on T
echnic
al C
om
mitte
e)
1943
Ind
ust
rial Ele
ctro
lyti
c
1945
Ele
ctri
c In
sula
tio
n
1947
Batt
ery
1954
Ele
ctro
therm
ics
&
Meta
llu
rgy (
form
erly
Ele
ctro
ther
mic
s)
1965
Die
lect
rics
& I
nsu
lati
on
(f
orm
erly
Ele
ctric
Insu
lation)
1969
New
Tech
no
log
y
1971
Ph
ysi
cal &
An
aly
tica
l Ele
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chem
istr
y (
form
erly
G
ener
al &
Theo
retica
l)
1982
Lu
min
esc
en
ce &
D
isp
lay
Mate
rials
1983
En
erg
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no
log
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1984
SO
TA
PO
CS
1988
Sen
sors
1990
Die
lect
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Tech
no
log
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orm
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Die
lect
rics
& I
nsu
lation)
Ind
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lysi
s &
Ele
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chem
ical
En
gin
eeri
ng
(form
erly
Die
lect
rics
& I
nsu
lation)
1993
Fu
llere
nes,
Nan
otu
bes
& C
arb
on
Nan
ost
ruct
ure
s
2002
Nan
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chn
olo
gy
2004
Fu
el
Cell
s
2005
Ph
ysi
cal &
An
aly
tica
l Ele
ctro
chem
istr
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(form
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Phys
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Ele
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chem
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y)
Ele
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nic
s &
Ph
oto
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s (f
orm
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Ele
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nic
s)
HIS
TO
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Hig
h T
em
pera
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ate
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1982
2006
Ind
ust
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chem
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& E
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roch
em
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(form
erly
Indust
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Ele
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lysi
s &
Ele
ctro
chem
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Engin
eering)
Whe
re W
e Are
Goi
ng…
•Sci
ence
is
incr
easi
ngly
in
tern
atio
nal
and E
CS h
as
resp
onded
by
expan
din
g its
in
tern
atio
nal
pre
sence
.
Sec
tion
Gro
wth
Sec
tion
Gro
wth
050
010
0015
0020
0025
0030
0035
00
Nor
th A
mer
ica
Eur
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8596
3
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Number of Members
Ho
no
lulu
, S
pri
ng
1
99
3Att
endan
ce:
2470
Paper
s:
2189
Sym
posi
a:
50
Ho
no
lulu
, Fall
19
99
Att
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ce:
2906
Paper
s:
2410
Sym
posi
a:
43
Reac
hing
acro
ss th
e Pac
ific
Ho
no
lulu
, Fall
20
04
Att
endan
ce:
2667
Paper
s:
2643
Sym
posi
a:
46Hon
olul
u –
Fall
2008
PR
iME 2
00
8Jo
intly
sponso
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Th
e E
lect
roch
em
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So
ciety
of
Jap
an
Tech
nic
all
y s
po
nso
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by:
Jap
an
So
ciety
of
Ap
pli
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Ph
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csK
ore
an
Ele
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chem
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So
ciety
Ele
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chem
istr
y D
iv.
of
the R
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Au
stra
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Ch
em
ical
Inst
itu
teC
hin
ese
So
ciety
of
Ele
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chem
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Ho
no
lulu
, Fall 1
98
7Att
endan
ce:
2537
Paper
s:
1703
Sym
posi
a:
57
Reac
hing
acro
ss th
e Atla
ntic
21
6th
EC
S M
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Oct
ob
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4-9
, 2
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57
19
97
Att
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24
CSZ1
Whe
re W
e Are
Goi
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•Sci
ence
is
incr
easi
ngly
in
tern
atio
nal
and E
CS h
as
resp
onded
by
expan
din
g its
in
tern
atio
nal
pre
sence
.
•In
form
ati
on
wil
l alw
ays
be o
ur
core
pro
du
ct.
See
our
web
site
at:
ww
w.e
lect
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CSZ
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this
lang
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revi
ousl
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peat
edCS
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/19/
2004
•Jo
urn
al o
f The
Ele
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chem
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Soci
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Ele
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chem
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and S
olid
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te
Lett
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nte
rfac
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ting A
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cont
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in o
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ll EC
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mm
unity
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• •I
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CSZ2
Info
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Will
Alwa
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Cor
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The
ECS journ
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publis
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n “
e-firs
t”bas
is,
with a
rtic
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post
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to t
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Web
as s
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Month
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aper
and a
nnual
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editio
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w.
Th
e J
ou
rnal o
f Th
e
Ele
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chem
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So
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he m
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hig
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jo
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Try
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CS h
as
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expan
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form
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lway
s be
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pro
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•S
tud
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Stud
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Soc
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Cas
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Goa
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uppo
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up
po
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CS
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Furth
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xpan
sion
of th
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CS D
igita
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and
onl
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arch
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Furth
er e
xpan
sion
of th
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CS D
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onl
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Org
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hapt
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cutti
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dge
of th
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dust
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Kee
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our
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cutti
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To e
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oppo
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ties.
oppo
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Uni
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Exp
eri
men
tal
AIC
Larg
e G
rain
Gro
wth
AIC
Larg
e G
rain
Gro
wth
Ep
itaxia
l G
row
thEp
itaxia
l G
row
thR
esu
lts
an
d D
iscu
ssio
nR
esu
lts
an
d D
iscu
ssio
nS
um
mary
an
d C
on
clu
sio
nS
um
mary
an
d C
on
clu
sio
nA
ckn
ow
led
gem
en
tsA
ckn
ow
led
gem
en
ts
Pow
erin
g th
e U
S
nsu
mption for
a
ng 2
.5 p
erce
nt
of th
is r
adia
tion
●Sunlig
ht
striki
ng t
he
eart
h for
40 m
inute
s is
eq
uiv
alen
t to
glo
bal
ener
gy
coye
ar.
●250,0
00 s
quar
e m
iles
of la
nd in t
he
South
wes
t U
S a
re s
uitab
le for
const
ruct
ing s
ola
r pow
er
pla
nts
. T
his
are
a is
slig
htly
larg
er t
han
the
com
bin
ed a
reas
of Arizo
na
and N
ew M
exic
o.
●This
are
a of
land r
ecei
ves
4,5
00 q
uad
rilli
on
British
ther
mal
units
(Btu
) of so
lar
radia
tion p
er
year
. C
onve
rti
into
ele
ctrici
ty w
ould
mat
ch t
he
nat
ion’s
tota
l en
ergy
consu
mption in 2
006.
25
25
Pow
erin
g th
e U
STota
l co
st t
o im
ple
men
t =
$400 b
illio
n o
ver
Plan
would
req
uire
14%
effic
iency
and a
n
Sev
eral
met
hods
of pro
vidin
g e
lect
rici
ty
: I
s $1.0
0/w
att
inst
alle
d s
till
a
● the
nex
t 40 y
ears
.
● inst
alla
tion c
ost
of $1.2
0 p
er w
att
of ca
pac
ity.
● during n
on-e
lect
rici
ty p
roduci
ng t
imes
hav
e bee
n p
ropose
d.
QU
ES
TIO
Nre
alis
tic
num
ber
consi
der
ing t
hat
the
cost
of oil
has
incr
ease
d b
y a
fact
or
of
5 s
ince
the
$1.0
0/w
att
targ
et w
as e
stab
lished
.Sci
entific
Am
eric
an,
pag
e 63,
January
2008
26
26
Wor
ld P
V Pr
oduc
tion
●PV
pro
duct
ion h
as b
een
doublin
g e
very
2 y
ears
sin
ce
2002 m
akin
g it
the
fast
est
gro
win
g e
ner
gy
sourc
e.
●Exi
stin
g g
rid-c
onnec
ted
sola
r PV
cap
acity
is 7
.8 G
W
27
27
PV P
rodu
ctio
n by
Sel
ecte
d C
ount
ries
Chin
a:●
trip
led P
V p
roduct
ion in 2
006
●double
d P
V p
roduct
ion in 2
007
●m
arke
t sh
are
in 2
003 w
as 1
%
●m
arke
t sh
are
today
is
18%
●400 P
V c
om
panie
s
28
28
29
29
Thin
Film
PV
Prod
uctio
n
Thin
film
pro
duct
ion g
rew
fr
om
4 t
o 7
% o
f th
e PV
mar
ket
from
2003 t
o 2
007
PV M
arke
t Sha
re
30
30
Mar
ket
shar
e of so
lar
cell
types
sold
during
2006.
(Sourc
e: M
ater
ials
Today
, Volu
me
10,
Issu
e 11,
pag
e 21,
Nove
mber
2007)
PV N
eeds
and
Con
cern
s●
World u
ses
about
13 T
W o
f pow
2050
●Conve
ntional
multic
ryst
allin
e si
licon s
ola
r ce
ll m
odule
s of
today
hav
e an
effic
iency
of
about
12%
and p
rovi
de
elec
tric
ity
at a
cost
of $0.2
7/k
Wh c
om
par
ed t
o t
oday
’s g
rid e
lect
rici
ty
cost
of
$0.0
6/k
Wh
●In
additio
n t
o t
he
sola
r ce
ll co
st,
the
inst
alla
tion c
ost
s ar
e al
so h
igh
.
er –
will
ris
e to
30 T
W b
y
●Any
new
sola
r ce
ll m
ust
hav
e an
effic
iency
of at
lea
st 1
0
per
cent
to b
e ec
onom
ical
ly v
iable
.
●Sca
labili
ty is
also
an iss
ue,
as
are
relia
bili
ty a
nd lifet
ime
(Sourc
e: P
hoto
nic
s Spec
tra,
pag
e 70,
Nove
mber
2007)
31
31
EFFIC
IEN
CY
(%
)A
REA
(cm
2
24.7
4.0
20.3
1.0
ryst
allin
e Si)
10.1
1.2
µc-
Si/αSi:
H
11.7
14.2
(Bes
t to
Dat
e)P
V C
ell E
ffici
enci
es
TY
PE O
F C
ELL
)
Cry
stal
line
Si
Multic
ryst
allin
e Si
Am
orp
hous
(and
nan
oc
mic
ro-m
orp
h c
ell
32
32
PV C
ost a
nd P
roje
cted
Cos
t
33
33
Eff
icie
ncy
and c
ost
pro
ject
ions
for
firs
t-(I
), s
econd-
(II)
, an
d t
hird-
gen
erat
ion (
III)
PV t
echnolo
gie
s (w
afer
-bas
ed,
thin
film
s, a
nd
adva
nce
d t
hin
film
s, r
espec
tive
ly)
●CU
RREN
T =
$2-3
PER W
ATT
(1ST
GEN
ERATIO
N C
ELL
S)
●BY 2
009 =
$1 P
ER W
ATT
(2N
DG
EN
ERATIO
N C
ELL
S)
●BY 2
010 =
$0.7
0 P
ER W
ATT
(3RD
GEN
ERATIO
N C
ELL
S)
-PO
SSIB
LY T
O 0
.20 P
ER W
ATT
EVEN
TU
ALL
Y
[Sourc
e: M
ater
ials
Today
, Volu
me
10,
No.
11,
pag
e 42,
Nove
mber
2007].
PV M
odul
e C
ost p
er W
att
34
34
35
35
Pho
tovo
ltaic
Pow
er G
ener
atio
nP
hoto
volta
ic P
ower
Gen
erat
ion
Ph
oto
vo
ltaic
Mark
et
Gro
wth
~ 2
5%
/y
Ph
oto
vo
ltaic
Mark
et
Gro
wth
~ 2
5%
/y
Pro
du
ctio
n r
each
ed
~ 1
.6 G
W/
yP
rod
uct
ion
reach
ed
~ 1
.6 G
W/
yIn
tern
ati
on
al
PV
Ro
ad
map
Inte
rnati
on
al
PV
Ro
ad
map
––1
00
GW
/y b
y 2
03
0 (
10
%)
10
0 G
W/
y b
y 2
03
0 (
10
%)
––5
0%
fro
m r
en
ew
ab
les
by 2
05
05
0%
fro
m r
en
ew
ab
les
by 2
05
0––
2/
3 S
ola
r (P
V/
therm
al)
by 2
10
02
/3
So
lar
(PV
/th
erm
al)
by 2
10
0M
eth
od
s fo
r S
ucc
ess
Meth
od
s fo
r S
ucc
ess
––M
od
ule
Co
st R
ed
uct
ion
M
od
ule
Co
st R
ed
uct
ion
––
Avail
ab
ilit
y o
f S
ilic
on
Avail
ab
ilit
y o
f S
ilic
on
––H
igh
er
Eff
icie
ncy
Hig
her
Eff
icie
ncy
––In
crease
d M
od
ule
Lif
eti
me
Incr
ease
d M
od
ule
Lif
eti
me
36
36
Pla
nned
Sol
ar C
ell
Pla
nned
Sol
ar C
ell
Pro
duct
ion
Cap
acity
by
2010
Pro
duct
ion
Cap
acity
by
2010
Exp
ecte
d m
arke
tExp
ecte
d m
arke
t1000 M
W1000 M
WCap
acitie
s Announce
dCap
acitie
s Announce
d2200 M
W2200 M
WThin
Film
Shar
eThin
Film
Shar
e328 M
W328 M
WCry
stal
line
Shar
eCry
stal
line
Shar
e1872 M
W1872 M
W
Thin
Film
Silic
on S
olar
Cel
lsTh
in F
ilm S
ilicon
Sol
ar C
ells
A V
iabl
e O
ptio
nA
Via
ble
Opt
ion
C C-- S
i Sola
r Cel
ls
Si Sola
r Cel
ls
--ce
ll pro
cess
ing;
40%
module
)ce
ll pro
cess
ing;
40%
module
)
g f
or
Incr
ease
d A
bso
rption
g f
or
Incr
ease
d A
bso
rption
Subst
rate
Cost
is
~40%
in
Subst
rate
Cost
is
~40%
in
(20%
(20%
Thin
Si Fi
lms
on L
ow
Cost
Subst
rate
s O
ffer
Thin
Si Fi
lms
on L
ow
Cost
Subst
rate
s O
ffer
G
reat
Pote
ntial
Gre
at P
ote
ntial
Hyd
rogen
ated
Am
orp
hous
Sili
con T
hin
Film
H
ydro
gen
ated
Am
orp
hous
Sili
con T
hin
Film
Tec
hnolo
gy
is M
ature
Tec
hnolo
gy
is M
ature
Dev
elopm
ent
of
Mic
rocr
ysta
lline,
D
evel
opm
ent
of
Mic
rocr
ysta
lline,
Poly
crys
talli
ne
and E
pitax
ial Sili
con
Poly
crys
talli
ne
and E
pitax
ial Sili
con
Light
Tra
ppin
Light
Tra
ppin
Surf
ace
Pas
siva
tion f
or
Low
Rec
om
bin
atio
n
Surf
ace
Pas
siva
tion f
or
Low
Rec
om
bin
atio
n
Vel
oci
tyVel
oci
ty37
37
Exp
erim
enta
lE
xper
imen
tal
Hyd
rogen
ated
Am
orp
hous
Sili
con
Hyd
rogen
ated
Am
orp
hous
Sili
con
Dep
osi
ted b
y Pl
asm
a Enhan
ced C
hem
ical
D
eposi
ted b
y Pl
asm
a Enhan
ced C
hem
ical
Vap
or
Dep
osi
tion (
PECVD
) as
wel
l as
rf
Vap
or
Dep
osi
tion (
PECVD
) as
wel
l as
rf
Mag
net
ron S
putt
erin
gM
agnet
ron S
putt
erin
gAlu
min
um
Film
Dep
osi
ted b
y rf
Mag
net
ron
Alu
min
um
Film
Dep
osi
ted b
y rf
Mag
net
ron
Sputt
erin
gSputt
erin
gAnnea
ling f
or
Cry
stal
lizat
ion b
y Annea
ling f
or
Cry
stal
lizat
ion b
y Conve
ntional
Furn
ace,
Optica
l, a
nd L
aser
Conve
ntional
Furn
ace,
Optica
l, a
nd L
aser
Bea
m S
yste
ms
Bea
m S
yste
ms
Char
acte
riza
tion b
y XRD
, SEM
, TEM
, H
RChar
acte
riza
tion b
y XRD
, SEM
, TEM
, H
R--
TEM
, AES,
etc.
TEM
, AES,
etc.
38
38
U o
f A (S
putte
ring/
PE
CV
D) C
lust
er T
ool
U o
f A (S
putte
ring/
PE
CV
D) C
lust
er T
ool
39
39
40
40
ITZ
Rob
otic
A
rm
MPZ5
Silic
on
Spu
tter
An
nea
ling
Ch
ambe
r
MPZ1
MPZ2
MPZ4
MPZ3
Subs
trat
e Load
ing
stat
ion
a-Si
:H/a
-SiN
:H
PEC
VD
Alu
min
um
Spu
tter
Dop
ed a
-Si:
H
PEC
VD
41
41
Larg
e G
rain
Sili
con
Thin
Film
s by
M
etal
-Indu
ced
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
Larg
e G
rain
Nee
ded
for
Red
uci
ng E
HP
Larg
e G
rain
Nee
ded
for
Red
uci
ng E
HP
Rec
om
bin
atio
n a
t th
e G
rain
Boundar
ies
Rec
om
bin
atio
n a
t th
e G
rain
Boundar
ies
Vs
Gla
ss
Subs
trat
e
Cry
stal
lized
Si
Gla
ss
Subs
trat
e
42
42
Fabr
icat
ion
Pro
cess
Gla
ss
Alu
min
uma-
Si:H
Pol
y-Si
oxid
e
Ann
ealin
g at
< 4
50 C
/ 20
min
Res
ults
(con
t..)
Res
ults
(con
t..)
SEM
Imag
es
43
43
44
44
Gra
in S
ize
Con
trol
Gra
in S
ize
Con
trol
Am
orp
hous
Si m
icro
stru
cture
can
Am
orp
hous
Si m
icro
stru
cture
can
in
fluen
ce g
rain
siz
e of
crys
talli
zed
influen
ce g
rain
siz
e of
crys
talli
zed
silic
on.
Hyd
rogen
and d
opin
g c
an
silic
on.
Hyd
rogen
and d
opin
g c
an
also
influen
ce g
rain
siz
e an
d
also
influen
ce g
rain
siz
e an
d
crys
talli
zation r
ates
.cr
ysta
lliza
tion r
ates
.In
troduci
ng a
n inte
rfac
e la
yer
(of
Intr
oduci
ng a
n inte
rfac
e la
yer
(of
silc
on o
xide,
alu
min
um
oxi
de,
or
silc
on o
xide,
alu
min
um
oxi
de,
or
even
oth
er t
ypes
of
laye
rs)
can
even
oth
er t
ypes
of
laye
rs)
can
influen
ce g
rain
siz
ein
fluen
ce g
rain
siz
e
Res
ults
Res
ults
SE
M i
mag
e of
a ‘
zero
min
ute
oxid
e la
yer)
cry
stal
lized
at 4
00et
ched
aw
ay fr
om th
e sa
mpl
e.
SEM
Im
age
’sa
mpl
e (n
o °C
. A
l has
bee
n
45
45
Res
ults
(con
t.) Oxi
de
SEM
Imag
es
Res
ults
(con
t.)
No
oxid
e46
46
Res
ults
(con
t..)
Res
ults
(con
t..)
AFM
Imag
es
No
oxid
eO
xide
47
47
XR
D R
esul
ts
2628
3032
3436
380
200
400
600
800
Alum
inum
Silic
on (1
11)
CPS(arb.)
2θ (0 )
a
acuu
m
, Cur
ve II
is a
1
0 m
inut
e am
bien
t , a
nd C
urve
two
days
(tw
o-.
Oxi
de la
yer
alliz
atio
n
XRD
spe
ctra
of t
hree
sa
mpl
es. C
urve
I is
for
sam
ple
kept
in v
(zer
o-m
inut
e am
bien
t ex
posu
re ti
me)
(111
)sa
mpl
e ke
pt o
utsi
de fo
rm
inut
es (1
0-
48
48
4042
IIIIII
expo
sure
tim
e)III
is fo
r one
kep
t in
the
ambi
ent f
orda
y am
bien
t exp
osur
e tim
e)Th
e cu
rves
are
shi
fted
verti
cally
to c
ompa
re th
e pe
ak h
eigh
ts.
incr
ease
s cr
yst
tem
pera
ture
.
Nan
oN
ano --
Alu
min
umA
lum
inum
-- Indu
ced
Indu
ced
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
Subst
rate
was
oxi
de
coat
ed s
ilico
n w
afer
Subst
rate
was
oxi
de
coat
ed s
ilico
n w
afer
PECVD
aPECVD
a-- S
i th
ickn
ess
was
100 n
mSi th
ickn
ess
was
100 n
mAlu
min
um
thic
knes
s w
as 4
0 n
mAlu
min
um
thic
knes
s w
as 4
0 n
mAnnea
ling t
emper
ature
: 300
Annea
ling t
emper
ature
: 300-- 4
50
450˚̊CC
Annea
ling t
emper
ature
ram
pAnnea
ling t
emper
ature
ram
p-- u
p t
ime
up t
ime
was
var
ied t
o influen
ce n
ucl
eation
was
var
ied t
o influen
ce n
ucl
eation
den
sity
den
sity
Exc
ess
alum
inum
was
rem
ove
d b
y Exc
ess
alum
inum
was
rem
ove
d b
y et
chin
get
chin
g
49
49
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-
aled
for
0102030405060
300
Largest Grain Size (µm)
Ann
e30
min
utes
350
400
450
Ann
ealin
g Te
mpe
ratu
re (o C
)
Induce
d C
ryst
alliz
atio
n
Cry
stal
lite
size
ver
sus
annea
ling t
emper
ature
50
50
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-Induce
d C
ryst
alliz
atio
n
00
510
15
Ann
ealin
g R
amp
Up
Tim
e (H
our)
nano
-AIC
trad
ition
al A
IC
A
B
306090120
Grain Size (um)
20
51
51
Rel
atio
nsh
ip b
etw
een g
rain
siz
e an
d r
amp u
p t
ime
of
annea
ling
tem
per
ature
. I
t sh
ow
s th
at g
rain
siz
e si
gnific
antly
incr
ease
d w
ith
ram
p u
p t
ime
for
nan
o-A
IC o
f a-
Si:
H,
but
chan
ges
little
for
trad
itio
nal
AIC
of a-
Si:
H.
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-Indu
ced
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
50 µ
m
Mic
rosc
opy
imag
e of
sam
ple
an
nea
led a
t 300
oC f
or
30 m
inute
s
52
52
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-Induce
d C
ryst
alliz
atio
n
53
53
20 µ
m
ages
of
the
gra
ins
on t
he
sam
ple
s w
ith 2
0 h
our
p t
ime.
The
larg
est
gra
in s
ize
is a
bout
93 m
mM
icro
scopy
iman
nea
ling r
am.
a-S
200
nm A
l
30 n
m A
lSi
(220
)Si
(311
)
0
300
600
900 Intensity (arbitrary unit)
Si (1
11)
i:H
2535
4555
6575
2 θ (d
egre
e)
XRD
spec
tra
of
(a)
a-Si:
H,
(b)
nan
o-A
IC o
f a-
Si:
H,
and (
c)
trad
itio
nal
AIC
of
a-Si:
H.
The
larg
e pea
ks a
round 2θ=
28.5
deg
ree
are
Si (1
11),
indic
atin
g c
ryst
alliz
atio
n o
ccurr
ed f
or
both
(b)
and
(c).
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-Induce
d C
ryst
alliz
atio
n
54
54
aphy
of
ooth
er
b
55
55
3-D
SPM
im
ages
show
ing
the
surf
ace
topogr
(a)
a-Si:
H;
and
poly
crys
talli
ne
silic
on f
ilms
pro
duce
d b
y (b
) nan
o-A
IC,
and (
c) t
raditio
nal
AIC
. I
t sh
ow
s th
at n
ano-A
IC
crea
tes
much
sm
a
surf
aces
than
tra
ditio
nal
AIC
.
c
Nan
o-A
lum
inum
-Induce
d C
ryst
alliz
atio
n
Are
a in
mic
rogr
aph
is 1
.275
mm
wid
e by
0.9
5 m
m h
igh.
Cry
stal
lite
size
var
ies f
rom
0.1
to 1
.0 m
m.
56
56
57
57
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ark
ansa
s P
aten
ted
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ark
ansa
s P
aten
ted
Sol
ar C
ell P
roce
ss U
sing
MIC
Sol
ar C
ell P
roce
ss U
sing
MIC
HF
Cle
an T
hin
SX o
r M
C S
iH
F Cle
an T
hin
SX o
r M
C S
iD
eposi
t a
Dep
osi
t a-- S
i:H
on F
ront
by
Si:
H o
n F
ront
by
PECVD
/Sputt
erin
gPE
CVD
/Sputt
erin
gD
eposi
t n
Dep
osi
t n
++(5
% P
) doped
(5
% P
) doped
aa-- S
i:H
on B
ack
Si:
H o
n B
ack
Dep
osi
t Al on F
ront
and
Dep
osi
t Al on F
ront
and
Bac
kBac
kAnnea
l to
Cry
stal
lize
and
Annea
l to
Cry
stal
lize
and
Tex
ture
(200
Tex
ture
(200-- 3
00
300°° C
)C)
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
i
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
i
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
i
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
i
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
i
Thin
N-T
ype
X-S
iEtc
h G
rid a
nd D
eposi
t AR
Etc
h G
rid a
nd D
eposi
t AR
58
58
Com
paris
on o
f Sta
ndar
d V
s U
of A
C
ompa
rison
of S
tand
ard
Vs
U o
f A
Tech
nolo
gies
Tech
nolo
gies
at 1
000°C
Hig
h
Tem
p
Labor
Inte
nsi
ve
Sputt
/PECVD
a-S
i:H
Bac
ksid
e n
+ a-
Si:
H
Sputt
er A
l
Phosp
h D
iff
Proce
ssSta
rt w
ith P
-Typ
e X-S
i
Sta
ndar
d T
echnolo
gy
Sta
rt w
ith N
-Typ
e X-S
i
Annea
l 200-3
00°C
a-SiN
:H A
R C
oat
ing
New
Pat
ente
d T
ech
Bat
ch
Bac
k an
d S
ide
Lappin
g
Scr
een P
rinting C
onta
cts
Sin
tering a
t >
600°C
Bow
ing
AR C
oat
ing
Hig
h
Sur.
Rec
.
Sili
con
Thin
Film
Sol
ar C
ell
Sili
con
Thin
Film
Sol
ar C
ell
With C
orr
ugat
ed S
ubst
rate
for
Effic
ient
With C
orr
ugat
ed S
ubst
rate
for
Effic
ient
Light
Tra
ppin
gLi
ght
Tra
ppin
gpp-- ii
-- n T
ype
Sola
r Cel
ln T
ype
Sola
r Cel
lLi
ght
Ray
Tra
vers
es h
undre
ds
of
mic
rons
Light
Ray
Tra
vers
es h
undre
ds
of
mic
rons
late
rally
though M
ultip
le I
nte
rnal
la
tera
lly t
hough M
ultip
le I
nte
rnal
Ref
lect
ion
Ref
lect
ion
Thin
Film
Sol
ar C
ell o
n Lo
w C
ost G
lass
or P
last
ic S
ubst
rate
59
59
60
60
Gro
wth
of E
pita
xial
sili
con
Alu
min
um
a-Si:
HAlu
min
um
Epitax
ial Si ac
tive
lay
er
Annea
l at
500°C
Met
allu
rgic
al G
rade
(100)
Cry
stal
line
Si
SEM
Im
age
b
No
cPr
otru
sion
s
Si fi
lm. T
he im
age
scal
e is
a
ryst
alliz
atio
n
SEM
imag
e of
the
300
nm th
ick
at: a
) 20
µm b
) 2 µ
m.
Ann
eale
d at
525
ºC fo
r 60
min
utes
61
61
Hig
h R
esol
utio
n X
-Sec
tiona
l TE
M
Subs
trat
e
Epita
xial
film
inte
rfac
e
a
The
inte
rfac
e be
twee
n th
e ep
itaxi
al fi
lm
and
the
(100
) sili
con
subs
trat
e
62
62
Hig
h R
esol
utio
n X
-Sec
tiona
l TE
M
b The
cent
er o
f the
epi
taxi
al fi
lm
63
63
Hig
h R
esol
utio
n X
-Sec
tiona
l TE
M
64
64
c
Epita
xial
film
the
epita
xial
sili
con
film
and
the
alum
inum
fil
m s
how
ing
the
epita
xial
cry
stal
pl
anes
of t
he fi
lm
The
inte
rfac
e be
twee
n
Al f
ilmth
ickn
ess.
thro
ugh
its e
ntire
Aug
er D
epth
Pro
files
65
65
Prof
ile T
ime=
0Pr
ofile
- Ti
me=
10m
in12
0(b
)
020406080
Atomic %100
120
020
040
060
080
010
0012
0014
00
Dept
h (n
m)
C O Al
Si
(a)
Dep
th (n
m)
20406080
Atomic %
020
040
060
080
010
0012
0014
00
Dep
th (n
m)
O Al
Atomic %
Dep
th (n
m)
Prof
ile -
Tim
e=15
min
020406080100
120
020
040
060
080
010
0012
0014
00
Dep
th (n
m)
Atomic %
O Al
Si
(c)
Prof
ile -
Tim
e=30
min
020406080100
120
020
040
060
080
010
0012
0014
00
Dep
th (n
m)
Atomic %O A
lS
i
(d)
Atomic %
100 0
Si
Alu
min
um In
duce
d A
lum
inum
Indu
ced
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
of a
Cry
stal
lizat
ion
of a
-- Si:H
Si:H
66
66
aa-- S
i:H
cry
stal
lized
to c
ontinuous
poly
Si:
H c
ryst
alliz
ed t
o c
ontinuous
poly
-- Si
Si
film
s at
150
film
s at
150-- 3
00
300°° C
; G
rain
Siz
e ~
0.5
C;
Gra
in S
ize
~ 0
.5 µµ
mmG
rain
Siz
e Ach
ieve
d ~
20
Gra
in S
ize
Ach
ieve
d ~
20-- 3
0
30 µµ
m a
t 300
m a
t 300--
450
450°° C
usi
ng a
1C u
sing a
1-- 3
nm
oxi
de
bar
rier
lay
er3 n
m o
xide
bar
rier
lay
erEpitax
ial Si film
is
pro
duce
d o
n (
100)
SX
Epitax
ial Si film
is
pro
duce
d o
n (
100)
SX
--Si at
400
Si at
400-- 5
50
550°° C
C
Annea
l 300-4
50°C
Annea
l 150-3
00°C
Annea
l 450-5
50°C
67
67
Sum
mar
y an
d C
oncl
usio
nsS
umm
ary
and
Con
clus
ions
Ener
gy
Nee
ds
of
the
World a
re I
ncr
easi
ng
Ener
gy
Nee
ds
of
the
World a
re I
ncr
easi
ng
Exp
onen
tial
lyExp
onen
tial
lySust
ainab
le E
ner
gy
Str
ongly
Sugges
t Sola
r Sust
ainab
le E
ner
gy
Str
ongly
Sugges
t Sola
r Ener
gy
to D
om
inat
e by
2100
Ener
gy
to D
om
inat
e by
2100
Sili
con is
the
Mat
eria
l of Choic
e in
Sola
r PV
Sili
con is
the
Mat
eria
l of Choic
e in
Sola
r PV
Thin
sili
con S
ola
r Cel
ls,
Low
Tem
per
ature
Thin
sili
con S
ola
r Cel
ls,
Low
Tem
per
ature
InIn
-- Lin
e Fa
brica
tion,
Low
Cost
Subst
rate
sLi
ne
Fabrica
tion,
Low
Cost
Subst
rate
sLo
w T
emper
ature
Cry
stal
lizat
ion o
f a
Low
Tem
per
ature
Cry
stal
lizat
ion o
f a-- S
i:H
Si:
H
has
Gre
at P
ote
ntial
has
Gre
at P
ote
ntial
Larg
e G
rain
Poly
Larg
e G
rain
Poly
-- Si an
d E
pitax
ial Si at
Low
Si an
d E
pitax
ial Si at
Low
Tem
per
ature
s hav
e bee
n D
emonst
rate
dTem
per
ature
s hav
e bee
n D
emonst
rate
d
68
68
Ack
now
ledg
emen
tA
ckno
wle
dgem
ent
We
ackn
ow
ledge
the
finan
cial
support
of th
e W
e ac
know
ledge
the
finan
cial
support
of th
e fo
llow
ing a
gen
cies
:fo
llow
ing a
gen
cies
:––
NASA (
HQ
)/Ark
ansa
s EPS
CoR
NASA (
HQ
)/Ark
ansa
s EPS
CoR
––N
ASA G
oddar
d/A
rkan
sas
Spac
e an
d P
lanet
ary
NASA G
oddar
d/A
rkan
sas
Spac
e an
d P
lanet
ary
Cen
ter
Cen
ter
––D
OE/A
rkan
sas
EPS
CoR
DO
E/A
rkan
sas
EPS
CoR
––N
atio
nal
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Lab (
NREL)
Nat
ional
Ren
ewab
le E
ner
gy
Lab (
NREL)
––O
ak R
idge
Nat
ional
Lab
(O
RN
L)O
ak R
idge
Nat
ional
Lab
(O
RN
L)––
South
ern U
niv
ersi
ties
Res
earc
h A
ssoci
atio
n
South
ern U
niv
ersi
ties
Res
earc
h A
ssoci
atio
n
(SU
RA)
(SU
RA)
––N
atio
nal
Cen
ter
for
Ele
ctro
n M
icro
scopy
(NCEM
)N
atio
nal
Cen
ter
for
Ele
ctro
n M
icro
scopy
(NCEM
)––
NSF
(USA)/
DST (
IND
IA)
NSF
(USA)/
DST (
IND
IA)
––Fu
lbri
ght
Inst
itute
Fulb
right
Inst
itute
