Boa Constrictor, American Alligator, Nile Crocodile, Black Mamba, Coral Snake, Green Turtle, Snapping Turtle, King Cobra, Komodo Dragon, Common Chameleon
A non-venomous snake, the boa constrictor is nevertheless one of the most feared inhabitants of the jungle. But in reality it is much
less terrifying than many people imagine.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: 3-20 ft.
Coloration: Cryptic; usually
broken patterns of brown and
cream, resembling leaf litter.
Preferred temperature: 80-90° F.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2-3 years old.
Breeding season: In rainy season.
No. of young: 20-60 born alive.
LIFESTYLE
lifespan: 20-30 years.
Habit: Solitary, except during
breeding season .
Diet: Almost any mammal or bird
small enough to be swallowed.
RELATED SPECIES
There are several snakes in the
family Boidae, including the
anaconda. Boa constrictors are also . related to pythons.
• Range of the boa constrictor.
DISTRIBUTION Principally the rainforests of southern Mexico, Colombia,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and parts of
Peru and Argentina . Also some islands, such as Trinidad.
CONSERVATION Numbers dropping because of habitat destruction . Although
protected over much of its range, many skins are still sold to
the leather trade each year.
I HOW A BOA CONSTRICTO~ KillS PREY
I A boa constrictor cannot chase and catch fast- suffocation. This is called killing by constriction and is moving prey. Instead, it lies in wait for unsuspecting how the boa constrictor gets its name. animals. When the prey is dead , the snake swallows it whole,
Once a victim is caught, the snake wraps its tail usually headfirst. It takes many days for the prey to be around its victim's body and tightens its grip until completely digested in the boa's stomach ; it gradually the prey can no longer breathe and dies of dissolves and passes through to the intestine.
The boa constrictor kills its prey by constriction.
Once it catches its victim, the snake wraps its body
around the prey in coils, tightening its grip
each time the victim breathes out. Eventually
no longer able to breathe, the prey
dies by suffocation.
~ FOOD & HUNTING The boa constrictor eats a wide variety of food. Young snakes eat mice, small birds, lizards, and frogs. As the snake grows, the size of its prey increases. Adults w ill eat monkeys, capybaras, agoutis, caimans, and wild pigs.
The boa is a good swimmer and spends a lot of time near and in rivers. It waits for any prey which
may come near the water to drink. Once a victim has been overpowered, it is swallowed whole.
Since the boa is coldblooded and slow moving, it does not require a great amount of food. After eating large prey, such as a wild pig, the snake will not need to eat for a week or more.
Below: Prey is swallowed headfirst and whole.
~ BOA CONSTRICTOR & MAN Man is the adult boa con- sidered a pest and is killed by strictor's only enemy. farmers because it kills their However, young boa chickens. It is believed that the constrictors are preyed snake kills other types of upon by a large variety of livestock as well. forest-dwelling animals such Boa constrictors are also as coatis, hawks, caimans, hunted for their skins, which and wild pigs. are sold at high prices. They
In many parts of its range, are killed for food, and also the boa constrictor is con- simply out of fear of them.
~ HABITAT The boa constrictor's preferred habitat is rainforest, but it is also found in semiarid savannah. Because its range covers such a large area, the boa constrictor varies considerably in color, marking, and size. On Hog Island, off Central Amer-
BREEDING The boa constrictor has appendages resembling claws on each side of its vent (genital opening). They are the remnants, or vestiges, of the hind limbs inherited from the boa's lizard-like ancestors. The appendages are generally larger in males than females and are thought to be used by the male to stimulate the female to mate.
After fertilization, the eggs remain in the female's body, where they develop over several months inside thin membranes. Unlike its close relative, the python, the boa constrictor gives birth to live, fully formed young. The protective membranes rupture as the young are released. As many as sixty
ica, the boa constrictor is seldom longer than 3 feet; in most of Central America, it reaches 10 feet, while in Trinidad and Venezuela, it can grow to 20 feet.
In the warmer areas, the boa constrictor is active
Right: Female with her newborn young.
Far right: A boa constrictor uses its prehensile (capabJeof grasping) tail to anchor itself to a branch.
snakes are born at one time, each measuring 1 7-20 inches.
The young boa constrictor begins feeding within a week or two after its birth and grows quickly, usually reaching a yard in length after several months. It is sexually mature at 2-3 years when it reaches 6-1 0 feet.
throughout the year. However, in the cooler climes, it may spend long periods of time inactive.
Below: It is usually the more active young snakes that climb trees. Adults are slow-moving and prefer the forest floor.
DID YOU KNOW? • Boa constrictors and pythons are among the most primitive of living snakes, as evidenced by the presence of its vestigial hind limbs.
• When threatened, boa constrictors will hiss so loudly that they can be heard 1 00 feet away. • The boa constrictor has a short tail, accounting for less than 20 inches of its length. In many snakes, the tail makes up 50 percent of the overall length .
• A hungry boa constrictor can squeeze through the holes in chicken wire to get to chickens. However, after eating one or more of the birds, its body becomes too wide to escape back through the wire.
AMERICAN ALLIGATOR GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
CLASS Reptilia
ORDER Crocodilia
FAMILY Alligatoridae Alligator mississipiensis
The large American alligator, with its menacing-looking grin and huge teeth, is as feared as any animal in the wild. Sluggish by nature,
however, it cannot move quickly on land.
KEY FACTS SIZES Length: About 13ft.; up to 18 ft.
Tail accounts for half of its length.
Weight: 450-500 lb.
BREEDING Mating season: April to May.
No. of eggs: 25-60.
Hatching time: 2-3 months.
LIFESTYLE Habit: Usually solitary.
Diet: Insects, shrimp, tadpoles, and
frogs when young; fish and small
mammals when adult.
lifespan: Up to 50 years.
RELATED SPECIES The only other species of alligator is
the much smaller Chinese alligator,
Alligator sinensis.
- ____ J
Range of the American alligator.
DISTRIBUTION Warm wetlands and swamps of the southeastern United States: Florida, Georgia, and Alabama.
CONSERVATION Concerted conservation efforts have saved the American alligator from the brink of extinction, and it is no longer an endangered species.
ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES
Over some of its territory, the American alligator shares its habitat with the American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus, which is far more rare. The two are very similar in appearance, although the crocodile is slightly smaller and less bulky and has a larger, narrower snout. The best way to tell the two apart. however, is by comparing the heads.
<0MCMXCIIMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
The alligator (below) has a broad snout and all the teeth in its upper jaw overlap with those in the lower.
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The crocodile (left) has a pair of enlarged teeth in the lower jaw which fit into a "notch" on each side of its snout. They can be seen even when the crocodile's mouth is shut.
WF OM NC 18
The American alligator is the largest of all
members of the crocodile family in North America.
It has a large, somewhat rounded body,
with thick limbs, a broad head, and an extremely
muscular tail with which it propels itself
powerfully through the water.
~ HABITAT The American alligator spends all of its time in and around the swamps and rivers of its watery
home. In some areas, where the water level fluctuates, the alligator will dig itself a hollow in the mud which becomes filled with water. This guaran
tees its access to water at all times and also provides other animals with water.
Sometimes these underground hollows are as long as 65 feet. The temperature
there remains fairly stable, so the alligator can retreat there to avoid extremes of wi nter cold and summer heat.
Below: An alligator lies very still and almost hidden in a muddy swamp in Florida.
~ ALLIGATOR &: MAr~
DID YOU KNOW?
• Together with crocodiles, alligators are descended from reptiles that lived between
225 and 65 million years ago.
• The name alligator comes from the Spanish ellagarto
which means "the lizard."
• There are over 20 species of
crocodile worldwide.
Once widely hunted for its skin, so well that it is now con-the American alligator came trolled by organized hunting. close to extinction earlier this Alligator "farms" are popular
century. A conservation tourist attractions in the program set up in the 1950s southeastern United States.
banned hunting and saved the alligator from extinction. Its
numbers have since recovered
~ FOOD &: HUNTING Alligators eat a wide variety of food. Youngsters feed on insects, shrimp, tadpoles, and frogs. As they mature, they eat small fish and snakes; when they are almost fully grown, their diet is made up almost entirely of fish.
Adult alligators, however, will
eat almost anything. Racoons and muskrats are quickly
Below: Alligators bask in the sun in a special farm where they are bred.
snapped up, along with birds, freshwater turtles and snakes.
Alligators hunt most of their
prey in water. They snap up small prey and swallow it whole. Larger mammals are generally seized and then dragged underwater and drowned before the alligator tears them into large pieces and swallows them.
~BREEDING The American alligator's court-
ship and mating take place at night in shallow water during April and May. Bulls roar loudly to attract females and to warn off other males. The bull. is generally much larger than the
female . He will swim in circles around her, finally coming alongside to grip her in his jaws and place his limbs over her
body. The female lays her eggs in a
nest made of damp, rotting vegetation and mud. After she deposits the eggs, she covers the nest with more vegetation. As the vegetable matter in the nest rots, it gives off heat, which helps to incubate the eggs. They are very vulnerable
Right: Alligators eat almost anything that strays close to them. Small mammals, such as raccoons, fall prey to hungry alligators when they come down to the water's edge to drink.
at this stage; a rise in water level could flood the nest, drowning the young reptiles while they are still inside their
shells. The young alligators hatch
two to three months later. During this time, the female remains close to the nest,driving off any intruders. As they hatch, the baby alligators emit a highpitched croak, which serves as a signal to the female to open the nest. Only eight inches long, the hatchlings are completely
independent at birth and quickly take to the water. The youngsters grow at a rate of about 12 inches a year. They do not reach maturity until they are over six years old.
Left: Perfect replicas of their parents, baby alligators hatch from eggs laid on a rotting mound of vegetation. Within minutes of hatching, they begin making their way down to the water.
NILE CROCODILE '\'--------
CLASS Reptilia
ORDER Crocodylidae
"" CARD 3
GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS~ GENUS &- SPECIES Crocodylus niloticus
The Nile crocodile is the largest crocodile in Africa, and one of the largest in the world. Up to 20 feet and over 1,500 pounds, it is a
deadly predator of both animals and people.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 20 ft. (from head to
tip of tail) .
Weight: Up to 1,650 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 6-7 years.
Breeding season: Often July. No. of eggs: 30-70.
Incubation: 3 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, or in small groups
of similar-sized animals to avoid
being preyed on by larger crocodiles.
Diet: Mammals, reptiles (including
other crocodiles), birds, fish, and carrion .
Lifespan: Estimated 70-100 years.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 22 species of crocodile
found throughout the tropical and
subtropical areas of Asia, Australia, and North America .
Range of the Nile crocodile.
DISTRIBUTION
The Nile crocodile is found throughout most of Africa, from Egypt in the north to South Africa . It is absent from the
cooler parts of North Africa and the dry Sahara desert.
CONSERVATION
The Nile crocodile is still quite numerous throughout most of
its range, but most of the other crocodile species are severely threatened due to overhuntin for their skins and meat.
UNDERWATER LIFE OF THE NILE CROCODILE
The Nile crocodile 's eyes, nostrils, and ears all lie along the top of its head so that it can see, hear, smell, and breathe when submerged. Its stomach is full of stones, which stabilize its body underwater.
The eye has a The long snout third eyelid which is armed with gives protection when diving.
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Special muscles enable the nostrils to close when diving.
0160200081 PACKET 8
left: Crocodiles are coldblooded and must avoid extremes of temperature. They bask on the bank at cooler times of the day and then move into the shade or water to escape the heat of the
As such, it provides a fascinating opportunity for study,
and may provide new information 'about the
habits of extinct animals.
~ BREEDING During the spring, the female digs out a nest in the riverbank where she will lay
her eggs. The location of the nest is important; it must be close enough to the river so that the female can keep watch, but not so near that it floods.
Crocodiles mate in shallow water, sometimes after thrashing wildly about. The thirty to seventy white, hard-shelled eggs are covered with sand and guarded by the mother until the young inside begin making chirping noises. The mother then digs the young
~ HABITAT Within its range, the Nile crocodile lives alongside rivers, lakes, and water holes. During the wet season, when the waterways flood, the crocodiles migrate long distances, returning to their old territories when the water level falls.
out, cracks open the eggs if necessary, and carries them to the water.
The female remains close to her young for many weeks until they disperse along the river. Only a small part of her brood will reach adulthood. Most fall prey to predators.
Far left: The eggs hatch 90 days after being laid. Young crocodiles are 12 inches long at hatching and grow about 10 inches a year.
left: After hatching, the ~ female picks up W
~ the young in co
her mouth and ~ carries them to the water.
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Cf)
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FOOD & HUNTING The Nile crocodile preys on animals that come to the water to drink. It hunts wildebeest, gazelle, buffalo,
wild dog, and lion. The crocodile uses its strong
jaws and teeth to seize the animal and drag it under the water until it drowns. The crocodile cannot chew, so prey is not eaten immediately, but is wedged underwater beneath a tree trunk until it
rots. It eats all its prey, including bones, hooves, and antlers. Strong juices in its stomach, and pebbles which it deliberately swallows, help it to digest its food.
DID YOU KNOW? • The sex of crocodiles is determined by their incubation temperature. Eggs incubated at temperatures below 85° F hatch into females, while those incubated above 95° F become males . • The largest of all crocodiles reaches 25 feet, while the smallest rarely exceeds 5 feet.
• Crocodiles are the closest
living relatives to birds. • In Africa, the Nile crocodile accounts for more human deaths each year than any other meat-eating animal.
• Crocodiles have teeth in their lower jaw that fit into notches on either side of the upper jaw; in alligators, all the teeth in the upper jaw overlap those in the lower jaw.
Above: A Nile crocodile attacks a wildebeest and prepares to drag it under the water to drown it.
left: The Nile crocodile swims rapidly, propelled by its long, muscular, flattened tail.
'" CARD 4 J BLACK MAMBA ~ _______________________ G_R_O_U_P_3_:_R_EP_T_IL_E_S_& __ A_M_P_H_IB_IA __ N_S~ .. ORDER
'11IIIIIIII Squamata .. FAMILY
'11IIIIIIII Elapidae
GENUS &: SPECIES Oendroaspis polylepis
The black mamba is the fastest snake in the world, able to reach speeds of almost 15 miles per hour. Its deadly venom makes it feared by both humans and animals in its African homeland.
KEY FACTS
SIZES Length: Maximum, 13ft.
Average, about 10ft.
Weight: Up to 3~ lb.
BREEDING Sexual maturity: Unknown.
Breeding season: Spring to early summer.
No. of eggs: 6-15; white with
leathery, supple shell.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary.
Diet: Rodents, bats, other small
mammals, birds, and lizards.
Venom: Nerve poison causing death by suffocation.
Lifespan: Up to 12 years in
captivity. Probably much less in the wild.
RELATED SPECIES
Related to the green mamba,
Oendroaspis angusticeps, which is
smaller and less poisonous.
Range of the black mamba.
DISTRIBUTION
The black mamba is found in eastern and southern Africa. Its
closest relative, the green mamba, is found in eastern and central Africa.
CONSERVATION
The black mamba is in no danger of extinction within its
range as long as its habitat is not disturbed.
FEATURES OF THE BLACK MAMBA
Jaws: The lower jaw can be temporarily dislocated so the snake can swallow prey that is larger than its own head.
Posture: Even when moving quickly, the black mamba can hold its head about 20 inches off the ground.
Speed: Over long distances it travels at about 7 mph, but it can exceed 14 mph in short bursts.
Smaller, shyer, and less poisonous than the black mamba. It lives in eastern and central Africa.
The black mamba is long and powerful. It can lift the front of its body 3 feet from the ground when striking .
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Coloring: Gray-brown on top with a pale
gray underbelly.
0160200391 PACKET 39
The black mamba is a long and dangerous snake from
eastern and southern Africa. It can move faster than
any other snake through thick undergrowth
or over open ground. It also takes readily to trees.
This snake strikes its prey quickly and accurately,
even when it is moving fast.
~ HABITS The black mamba spends its day basking in the sun or hunting. When hunting, the snake travels quickly over the ground or along tree branches. Strong and muscular, it can hold its head 20 inches off the ground even when moving.
At night the black mamba returns to a discarded burrow in the ground or to a deep hiding place among rocks or fallen trees. When frightened, it rushes to this hole, attacking whatever blocks its path.
The black mamba needs warmth to activate its body and lies on flat rocks or low branches during the day to soak up the sun's heat. During the hottest months, it may return to its hole ,at midday.
The black mamba periodic;ally sheds the outer layer of its skin as it grows. This sloughing occurs every two months or so, beginning shortly after hatching. Young snakes grow more quickly and slough more often than older ones.
Left: Its ability to strike quick-ly and its highly toxic venom make the black mamba Afri-ca's deadliest snake. For this reason it in-spires fear and respect in those who share its habitat.
Right: Long, lithe, and museula" the black mamba climbs quickly and easily through low branches. It is occasionally mistaken for a tree snake.
DID YOU KNOW? • The black mamba is the fastest snake in the world, reaching over 14 miles per hour over short distances.
• The black mamba can digest an animal the size of a large rat within nine hours.
• The black mamba is dark-
~ FOOD & HUNTING
The black mamba feeds fre-quently. It hunts rodents, bats, other small mammals, birds, and lizards. Using its fangs, it strikes accurately and with lightning speed. It has excel-lent eyesight and can lift its head and front over three feet off the ground when striking.
The snake injects its deadly venom through two hollow fangs at the front of its mouth. The venom attacks the nervous system and quickly suffocates the victim. Enzymes in the snake's saliva and venom begin to digest the prey before it has reached the stomach. Within a few hours, the prey is com-
pletely digested.
skinned to absorb the sun's heat. Desert-dwelling snakes are paler to reflect heat and
prevent overheating. • The venom of both the black and the green mamba is "milked" from their fangs and used in medical research.
~ BREEDING Breeding occurs in spring and early summer. A male may travel far to find a mate, but after mating each snake returns to its own hole.
The female lays from 6 to 15 white eggs in decaying vegetation or a rotting tree stump. The decomposing nest gives off heat, which warms the eggs and speeds up the hatching time. Each egg has a pliable shell that allows water
Left: A hatchling emerges from its egg ready to catch its own prey.
Left: The black mamba is really graybrown. Its relative, the green mamba, is shorter and less aggressive but still deadly.
and oxygen to reach the developing embryo.
The hatchlings are about 20 inches long and gray-green in color, but they darken with age. They are born independent and can catch prey about the size of a mouse. The young grow quickly, reaching more than six feet in their first year.
Young black mambas are preyed upon by the mongoose and the snake-eating snake. Adults fall victim to the secretary bird and large eagles.
~RD5 =:J CORAL SNAKE
" ORDER
GROUP 3: REPTILES &: AMPHIBIANS
... GENUS &: SPECIES ~ Henophidia
FAMILY Elapidae ~ Micrurius fulvius
The coral snake has a toxic venom that attacks the nervous system and kills prey fast. This enables
~HABITAT The coral snake avoids open ground in favor of woodlands and forest floors carpeted with leaves and decaying logs. It also lives in rocky areas with plenty of crevices. The coral snake needs cover for camouflage, for hiding its young and for providing the best surroundings to hunt its prey.
Although rarely seen, the coral snake sometimes appears in some areas of Texas in backyard gardens, where it forages on sunny mornings around rock walls and pond or garden paving.
~ FOOD &: HUNTING
The coral snake mainly eats other smaller snakes, but it sometimes preys on its own species and even on snakes that are larger than itself. It also preys on lizards, young birds, frogs, and insects.
The coral snake feeds heavily during two periods in the year-from September to November and from April to May.
A coral snake has very short fangs so it bites its prey repeatedly, twisting its head from side to side to squeeze venom into the wound.
~ BREEDING The coral snake breeds from late spring to early summer and from late summer to early autumn. The male produces sperm all year except during the female's gestation period from May to july.
This ability to mate throughout most of the year is important. Coral snakes seldom meet each other since their home ranges and populations are small, and a male's weak sensory perception makes it hard for him to locate a female. Because coral snakes tend to be aggressive toward each other, if a male and fefTlale do meet they may attack one another instead of mate.
During courtship the male flicks his tongue at the female and then strokes the length of her back with his nose before mating. The female lays three to five eggs in june or july.
Left: The eastern coral snake is at home on loose ground cover where it can burrow.
The young hatch about size of large earthworms and two months later. They are the already show the typical colors.
DID YOU KNOW? • The coral snake is also called the "minute snake" because some people believe that any animal it bites will be dead within one minute. This is only true of the
coral snake's smallest prey. • If disturbed, this snake raises its tail tip and swings it in the air to mimic its head. It keeps its real head tucked safely under its coiled body.
Below: The colorful hatchling glides from its leathery egg.
..... CORAL SNAKE &: ~ MAN
Although the venom from a coral snake bite is deadly, this shy snake rarely bites people. Most of those bitten have made the first move by trying to handle the snake. Even so, some people have been known to carry coral snakes without being bitten.
Children are the most common victims of the coral snake because they are attracted by its bright rings. An antivenin (a substance that neutralizes the poison) is now available and has reduced the number of deaths.
Make plenty of noise when walking in coral snake country to alert the snake so that it can slip away without a confrontation.
Left: In defense, the snake may lift its tail to mimic its head. This deflects an attack to another part of the body.
"" CARD 6 GREEN TURTLE " GROUP 3: REPTILES fit AMPHIBIAN S ~--------------------------------------~
CLASS Reptilia
_ . ;;' .. Io~ .... .:.
......
ORDER Testudines
FAMILY Chelonidae
.. -"- .. -~
... GENUS &: SPECIES ~ Chelonia mydas
One of the largest of the seven species of sea turtle, the green turtle used to be common throughout the warmer seas of the world. Today its numbers are a fraction of what they once were.
KEY FACTS
SIZES Length: Up to 5 ft Weight: Up to 400 lb .
BREEDING Sexual maturity: 1 0-1 5 years.
Breeding season: October to February. Gestation period: 7-10 weeks.
No. of eggs: Approximately 100 each batch. Several batches laid over a few weeks.
Hatching time: 2-3 months.
LIFESTYLE Habit: Usually solitary, except for nesting females and their young . Diet: Crustaceans and fish when young. Adults eat plants only. lifespan: 40-50 years.
RELATED SPECIES There are seven species of sea turtle, the largest being the leatherback, which grows to over 6 ft. in length.
Range of the green turtle.
DISTRIBUTION Found throughout the warmer oceans and the Mediterranean. Most important rookeries or nesting beaches are Tortuguero in Costa Rica, Aves Island in the Caribbean, and Ascension Island in the mid-Atlantic.
CONSERVATION Despite legal protection, green turtles are still hunted and are missing from much of their former range.
FEATURES OF THE GREEN TURTLE
The green turtle has a thick, heavy, bony shell covered in platelike scales. In the adult, it is usually olive green or dark brown, marbled, or spotted with yellow. The green turtle gets its name from its green-colored flesh .
The turtle gets rid of excess salt water through a sp~cial gland near the eyes.
I -~
The feet and legs of the tortoise (below) are designed for walking. The turtle 's feet and legs (below left) have been modified into powerful flippers that propel it through the water. The turtle's shell is thinner than that of the tortoise. Its head is too big to be withdrawn into the shell.
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Like most turtles, the green turtle has
been hunted to the brink of extinction by man
for its flesh, eggs, and shell. It spends almost
its entire life in the sea. The females leave
the water for only a short time every other year
to lay their eggs.
~ HABITAT The green turtle likes warm, shallow waters which allow for an abundant growth of sea grass-its favorite food. Those turtles found far out to sea, where the water is very deep, are on their way to or
DID YOU KNOW? • The nesting beaches, called rookeries, on Ascension Island are so popular with green turtles that the entire island is covered with them during the breeding season .
• The sex of hatchling sea
from their nesting beaches. The turtle can swim at great
speeds underwater. It must surface to breathe, but an adult can stay submerged for five hours. Young turtles surface more frequently.
turtles is determined by their incubation temperature. At 82° F, hatchlings are all male; at 90° F they are all female .
• Just one or two out of 100 turtles born will survive their first year.
~ BREEDING Mating takes place on the water's surface. Several nights later, the female hauls herself onto the beach and digs a large hole with her front flippers, where she lays approximately 100 hard-shelled eggs, each the size of a ping-pong ball. She then pushes the sand back into the hole to cover the eggs and returns to the sea.
Over the next few weeks, the female will lay several batches of eggs. They hatch during the night two to three months later. The tiny turtles dig their way to the surface. They then make their way to the sea.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING Fully grown turtles eat only plant matter. Their favorite food is sea grass, sometimes called eel grass, as well as algae. In the Galapagos Islands, green turtles are known to feed on mangrove leaves overhanging the water. Turtles have very sharp jaws that cut through tough, fibrous vegetation.
Green turtle hatchlings have a more varied diet; they feed on fish, crustaceans, jellyfish, and algae. During their first few months, the young turtles are poor swimmers, so they tend to float along on beds of sargassum weed. Tiny crabs and shrimp provide a primary food source for the young.
As they grow, the turtles become increasingly planteating. They locate vegetation with the use of their excellent underwater eyesight.
Male and female turtles migrate to the same beaches every season to lay their eggs. They often return to the very beach where they were hatched themselves.
The migration may be short
in duration, although many of the turtles feeding along the Brazilian coast swim a distance of 2,800 miles against the current to Ascension Island in the mid-Atlantic.
On the island, the eggs are
Left: A lone baby turtle makes its way to the sea.
Right: Newborn turtles head for deep water.
Right: On their long migrations, turtles can swim long distances underwater, staying submerged for periods of up to five hours.
Far left: Although awkward on land, the green turtle is a graceful swimmer.
Left: Even mating takes place at sea.
Far left: The eggs are laid at night in a hole dug out above the high-tide mark.
Left: Hatching takes place at night.
relatively well protected. On the Brazilian mainland, many animals dig up and eat turtle eggs, but the only predators on Ascension Island are frigate birds, which eat a small proportion of the hatchlings.
The snapping turtle, or snapper, is well named, for it will attack anything that comes within range of its powerful jaws,
including baby alligators.
KEY FACTS
SIZES Length: Shell, up to 16 in., overall length up to 32 in. Males are slightly smaller. Weight: Up to 50 lb.
BREEDING Sexual maturity: Males, 3-5 years. Females, 4-6 years. Breeding season: Summer. No. of eggs: About 24. Incubation: 2-3 months. Eggs laid late may not hatch until spring.
LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary. Diet: Fish, small birds and mammals, frogs, salamanders, water snakes, baby turtles.
lifespan: Up to 60 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The alligator snapper, Macroche/ys temmincki and the Florida snapper are close relatives.
Range of the snapping turtle.
DISTRIBUTION Shallow feshwater lakes, ponds, and rivers along the eastern side of North America from southern Canada down into Central America and northwestern South America .
CONSERVATION Man is the snapping turtle's main enemy, killing it for food and sport. Still, their numbers remain fairly constant.
FEATURES OF THE SNAPPING TURTLE
Shell: The snapping turtle's shell is small and does not cover its head , limbs, and tail.
Front limbs: Strong , sharp claws on the front limbs rip prey into pieces when it is too large to be swallowed whole.
Head: Covered with thick, horny scales, the turtle 's head cannot be
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Mouth: Instead of teeth, the snapper's powerful jaws are equipped with a hooked , razor-sharp beak for slicing easily through flesh and bones of fish , water birds, amphibians, and reptiles.
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The snapping turtle is much different from
the aquarium turtles kept as pets.
Powerfully built, the snapper has strong claws
and a hooked beak so sharp it can bite
through a man's hand.
~ HABITS Snapping turtles spend most of their time underwater, lying at the bottom of shallow freshwater lakes, ponds, and slow-moving rivers. In the northern part of their range, snappers hibernate underwater during
cold weather. Snappers become extremely
aggressive when confronted on land, and attack is their best method of defense. When threatened, they raise their bodies and lunge fiercely at the intruder.
Left: Awkward creatures on land, snapping turtles spend almost all their time in water. They even mate there.
~ BREEDING Mating usually takes place in the water. In early summer 25-50 eggs are laid and covered in a hole dug on land. Hatching usually takes 2-3 months, but eggs laid late in the season may not hatch until the weather warms the following spring.
As soon as they have hatched, baby snappers make their way down to the water where they will spend their first few years. They grow quickly and often reach 6 inches in shell length within their first year. Males are fully grown and ready to breed at 3-5 years; females take longer to mature.
Right: A snapper stands guard over its newly laid eggs before covering them with soil.
~ FOOD & HUNTING Snappers prey on almost anything they can catch and overpower. They eat fish, frogs, salamanders, smaller turtles, water snakes, baby alligators, and small aquatic mammals.
Large prey is seized in the snapper's jaws and then torn
to pieces. Smaller prey is swallowed whole. Snappers also scavenge for food and will feed on the carcass of any dead animal found in the water. Young snappers feed on small fish, tadpoles, and aquatic insects.
Left: A snapper eating a sun-fish. The turtles catch what they can, but will also take the remains of another animal's kill if they come across it.
Right: The fearsome jaws and hooked beak of the snapper.
DID YOU KNOW? • Snappers were once used to find dead bodies in lakes. Tethered to a rope, the snapper was released into the water. When the reptile stopped moving, the trackers knew that it must have found a body and begun to feed . • The alligator snapper has a small, worm-shaped appendage at the base of its mouth which it can move at will. It sits, open-mouthed, at the bottom of a lake waiting for small fish which are attracted to the "worm."
• In some areas of Thailand, turtles are covered in gold leaf and kept in temples.
KING COBRA
ORDER Squamata
GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
.,. GENUS &: SPECIES ~ Ophiophagus hannah
Every year thousands of people in southern Asia die from poisonous snake bites. Both people and other poisonous snakes live in fear of
the king cobra, one of the most deadly snakes of all.
black mamba Oendroaspis po/y/epis, and the Australian death adder
Acanthopis antarcticus.
Range of the king cobra.
DISTRIBUTION
Throughout mainland India, southern China, and southeastern Asia.
CONSERVATION
Although its numbers may have been reduced by the loss of
its habitat in some parts of its range, the king cobra is not an endangered animal.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE KING COBRA
Specialized is].~~~~~--ss;alivary glands:
Height: Under threat, the king cobra can raise itself up to onethird of its length . In some cases, this can make it taller than an average man.
(i)MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Located behind eyes. Secrete venom. When the snake bites, venom is forced through the fangs and into the
Hood: If the
neck into a hood, and emit a highpitched hiss.
Eyespot pattern: Found only on the Indian cobra. Acts as a warning to predators.
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The king cobra is the longest of all the venomous
snakes, and its bite is lethal. It has been known
to kill a person in 75 minutes, but despite
this, the king cobra is really a shy, secretive animal
and will avoid a fight if it can.
~ BREEDING The king cobra sheds its skin at the beginning of breeding season, and in the female, molting triggers the release of a scent called a pheromone that attracts the male to her. The male entwines his body around the female while they mate, and the pair may stay locked together for hours.
Male and female cobras are thought to pair for life, which is unusual in snakes. They cooperate to find a nest site. The female lays twenty to fifty white eggs in a hollow in the center of the nest, while the male guards against predators.
A newly hatched king cobra is glossy black with pale yellow stripes, and measures approximately 20 inches in length. It is able to hunt for food almost i m med iately.
Above left: All cobra species, including the Indian cobra shown here, have highly poisonous venom.
~ HABITS The king cobra is numerous in the dense highland forests of southern Asia and has been found living at 6,500 feet above sea level in the mountains of India. It is active by day and night, but it is rarely seen .
The king cobra seems to prefer living near water, and if disturbed it will often make its escape by slipping into a nearby stream and swimming away. It is also a good climber and can pursue its prey into the trees if necessary.
Left: The king cobra lives in forest areas, gliding silently through the undergrowth.
~ FOOD & HUNTING The king cobra is a dangerous adversary. It will even attack pythons and highly venomous snake species like the krait and other cobras, as well as large lizards. It smells with its forked tongue, which it uses for tracking the scent of its prey through the dense forest undergrowth . When the cobra gets close to its prey, it relies on its eyesight to spot its victim before striking it and subduing it with a massive dose of venom.
Having poisoned its victim, the cobra swallows it while it is still struggling-this can be a lengthy process. To make swallowing prey easier, the cobra's lower jaws are composed of two independent bones that are loosely attached to its skull; this allows the snake to swallow an animal that is thicker than its own head.
[. DID YOU KNOW?
• A king cobra can inject enough venom to kill a fully grown Indian elephant within 3 hours, provided it bites a sensitive spot such as the tip of the trunk. • Because of its slow metabolic rate, the king cobra can survive for months without eating . • Snakes are deaf to most sounds, but they are sensitive to vibrations transmitted through the ground and are easily frightened away by heavy footsteps . • In Burma, king cobras are used in snake charming acts .
The prey is slowly drawn into the cobra's stomach by alternate movements of the snake's two lower jawbones, while the snake's skin stretches to accommodate the bulk. Swallowing large prey can take many hours, but the
~ KING COBRA & MAN
The king cobra's half-inchlong fangs are capable of delivering more venom than those of any other snake except the gaboon viper.
The king cobra is most aggressive when it is guarding its eggs. In India, if a nest
Above: The king cobra is one of the few snakes that kills other snakes. It swallows its prey whole.
cobra will not eat again for several weeks.
Interestingly, the king cobra will often share its sleeping quarters with potential prey.
is found near a village, the area will often be evacuated.
Nevertheless, stories of enraged king cobras are probably exaggerated. A king cobra with no eggs to defend will usually disappear into the undergrowth if approached .
Left: The king cobra 's venom attacks the nervous system. The victim suffers pain, blurred vision, and dizziness. In 15 minutes, a victim can die.
The largest member of the monitor lizard family, the Komodo dragon can exceed 10ft. in length-longer than a compact car. Wild dogs and pigs occasionally dig up and eat Komodo dragon eggs, while the young hatchlings are prey to birds and larger lizards. However, once these reptiles reach 3 ft. in length, they outgrow all their enemies. As the islands' top predators, they fear nothing except larger Komodo dragons.
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Armed with the sharp claws and
powerful tail of its mythical namesake,
the Komodo dragon may not actually breathe fire,
but when it is aroused, it will hiss and flick its forked
tongue menacingly. The dragon's thick,
scaly skin is greenish brown and marked
all over with red circles.
~BEHAVIOR Komodo dragons, like most cold-blooded reptiles, sleep during the night. As the sun rises and warms their blood, they become active, awaking from their resting places among tree roots and rocks and set out in search of food.
Despite their great size, Komodo dragons are quickmoving and agile on the ground. They, occasionally climb trees, gripping them with their large, powerful claws. They are also good swimmers, taking long, powerful strokes with their tails.
When the usually solitary Komodo dragons meet, they establish a clear pecking order based on size.
~BREEDING Komodo dragons mate in late June or July. During this period, males may come into conflict with each other as they defend their territories.
Five weeks after mating, the female digs a hole in the
~ HABITAT The small Indonesian islands on which the Komodo dragon lives are hilly and sparsely covered with rainforest. The lowland areas consist mainly of open grassland and palm trees. Despite their small size, these islands support a wide range of subtropical plants
and animals.
warm, moist earth and lays an average of a dozen eggs. The exact number and size of the eggs she lays vary depending on the age and size of the female. She then covers them and leaves them to incubate
~ FOOD & HUNTING Komodo dragons will eat anything they can catch and overpower, including other Komodo dragons. Favorite prey include wild pigs, deer, and monkeys.
Though Komodos can move
unattended, relying on the sun to keep them at the proper temperature.
The young dragons hatch eight months later. Barely eight inches long, they are in danger of being eaten by almost every predator on the islands, from snakes and birds of prey to larger Komodo dragons. Those that survive grow quickly, and after five years, they will have reached six feet in length. Both males and females are mature enough to breed at around six years of age.
Left: After mating, the female lays oval, white eggs in a hole excavated in the earth.
quickly, they can do so only over short distances. So they hunt by ambush, waiting for prey to wander into range, then seizing it in their jaws.
Younger Komodos are more mobile than adults, and they
will actively hunt small mammals, nestling birds, and insects. Once prey is caught, the Komodo holds it in its claws and rips off chunks of flesh with its teeth.
Komodos also eat carrion.
Komodo uses its tongue to "taste" the air.
Komodos meet 'i:~;~!l at a kill, a clear
pecking order t:~:~~~~is:"'~ exists, with the
i:;~~~:~~~~~~~:~~;.i~~m~ larger Komo-dos getting the
~~:::.:!!!:.!.!:!:..-..:.-"":::::::11~::!!i~:"""""'~~~~:..J best pickings.
DID YOU KNOW?
• The Komodo dragon was only discovered in 1912. • An adult Komodo w ill eat an entire deer at one time-and then sleep for a week while digesting it. • Young Komodo dragons
hatch from their leathery, goose-sized eggs fully formed . • Unlike other large monitor lizards which have long, whiplike tails, the tail of the heavybodied Komodo dragon only accounts for half its length.
~CARD 10 I
COMMON CHAMELEON ~ GROUP 3: REPTilES &: AMPHIBI~
CLASS Reptilia
ORDER Squamata
.. FAMILY "1IIIIIIII Chamaeleonidae
GENUS &: SPECIES Chamaeleo chamaeleon
The chameleon is unique among reptiles because of its ability to change color. This adaption allows it to both
catch prey and avoid predators.
KEY FACTS
SIZES Head &: body length: 8-12 in. Tail length: As long as head and
body. Tongue length: As long as head
and body.
BREEDING Breeding season: Late summer. No. of eggs: 20-30 laid on the ground. Young emerge the
following spring.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary except during breeding season. Daytime hunters. Diet: Almost all insects and
spiders.
RELATED SPECIES
There are about 1 00 species of chameleon. The largest is about 2 ft. long, and the smallest 2 in. The larger species will catch lizards, small mammals, and birds.
Range of the common chameleon.
DISTRIBUTION
The coast of southern Spain is the most northerly point of this chameleon's range. On the southern side of the Mediterranean, it is found along the coast of North Africa, extending
into Israel.
CONSERVATION The common chameleon is not endangered. But in cold
summers, its numbers are greatly reduced.
THE CHAMELEON'S ADAPTATIONS FOR HUNTING
Hunting: The chameleon will remain immobile on a branch, searching for insects with its two roving eyes. When it spots a victim, it will use both eyes to judge position and distance correctly, and it will then shoot its tongue straight out of its mouth at the insect.
Grip: The chameleon is able to balance, perfectly still, by gripping the branch with its pincer-like claws and wrapping its long, grasping tail around the branch.
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The common chameleon lives in the forests along the
coast of North Africa extending to the Middle East
and along the coast of southern Spain. It spends most of
the day motionless in the trees, waiting for unsuspecting
insects and spiders to pass by.
The chameleon leads a solitary existence and will seek out the company of other chameleons only during the breeding season. The male guards his territory fiercely against rival males and frightens them off by inflating his lungs and puffing up his body.
Mating takes place in the trees, during which time the female's eggs are fertilized inside her body. When she is ready to lay her eggs in the late summer, the female chooses a warm spot at the
DID YOU KNOW? • The first reptiles lived on earth in the Permian period approximately 200 million years ago.
• Some chameleons sport crests on their heads.
base of a tree where she deposits up to thirty eggs. After covering them with soil, she returns to the treetops and leaves the eggs to develop unattended.
Inside its shell, each young chameleon feeds on the yolk sac, the same way in which a hen's chick does. When it is ready to hatch in the following spring, the young breaks out of its shell with the use of its egg tooth. When it is hatched, the young chameleon looks like a smaller version of its parents.
Jackson's chameleon (c. jacksonii), carries a trio of frightening horns.
• When not in use, the chameleon's tail stays coiled up.
~ FOOD & HUNTING The chameleon is a master of disguise. It can change color to blend in with its surroundings and is unrecognizable to the spiders and insects it catches.
Without moving its body, the chameleon uses its eyes to locate prey. Once it spots its prey, the chameleon flicks out its sticky tongue and catches the insect. Fully extended, the chameleon's tongue is as long as its body.
The chameleon's ability to change color also helps it to stay hidden from its predators.
Left: Its remarkable swiveling eyes give the chameleon all-around vision.
~ DEFENSE The chameleon's ability to change color is its primary defense against predators. Each chameleon has a basic color which broadly matches its habitat. Changes in its color are subtle and correspond to changes in light and shadows.
Beneath its transparent skin, the chameleon has red and yellow color cells that reflect the blue and white layers below them. Under these layers is yet another layer of brown pigment. Color changes occur when the color
cells become larger or smaller, regulating the amount of multicolored reflection each layer produces.
Below: The chameleon's skin color adopts the subtle green hues of the bush.
Above: This chameleon is poised to strike prey with its long, sticky tongue.
rt~ 1 SPECIAL ~ ADAPTATIONS
The ability to change color is not the chameleon's only special feature . Its eyes can focus together, like human eyes, or separately, to observe two different objects simultaneously.
Because of the narrow structure of the chameleon's lungs and ribs, its body is very thin . This, and the fact that its color is almost identical to its surroundings, makes the chameleon almost invisible.
Its long tail is prehensile -that is, it can be used as a fifth limb for gripping and balancing . Its tongue is also specially adapted to catch prey (see back cover).
