WILLIAMWILLIAM JAMESJAMES ANDAND Cm'KIN*GEORGEGEORGE COTKIN* CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHORMETAPHOR

T HEHE CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHOR,METAPHOR, whichwhich figuresfigures soso prominentlyprominently inin WilliamWilliam James'sJames's writingswritings onon pragmatism,pragmatism, hashas longlong beenbeen aa sourcesource ofof contro­contro­

versyversy amongamong philosophers.philosophers. ToTo manymany thethe metaphormetaphor waswas typicaltypical ofof James'sJames's highlyhighly colloquialcolloquial stylestyle ofof exposition.exposition. WhileWhile thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphor,metaphor, re­re­markedmarked aa writerwriter inin thethe BritishBritish paperpaper thethe Spectator,Spectator, mightmight bebe usefuluseful asas aa "good"good rough-and-readyrough-and-ready testtest forfor thethe ordinaryordinary dogmasdogmas ofof thethe marketplace;'marketplace;' itit clearlyclearly hadhad nono properproper standingstanding withinwithin philosophicalphilosophical discourse.discourse. (1)(1) MarxistMarxist criticscritics wouldwould comecome toto fixatefixate uponupon thethe metaphormetaphor asas indicativeindicative ofof James'sJames's supposedsupposed celebrationcelebration ofof thethe crasscrass valuesvalues ofof thethe marketplacemarketplace oror asas proofproof positivepositive thatthat JamesianJamesian pragmatismpragmatism waswas thethe philosophicalphilosophical expressionexpression ofof AmericanAmerican capitalism.capitalism. (2)(2) NoNo contemporarycontemporary reviewerreviewer singledsingled outout thethe cash­cash­valuevalue metaphormetaphor asas aa particularlyparticularly convincingconvincing oror helpfulhelpful trope.trope. ToTo thethe con­con­trary,trary, manymany criticscritics latchedlatched ontoonto thethe termterm asas paradigmaticparadigmatic ofof pragmatism'spragmatism's problems,problems, bothboth ofofstylestyle andand content.content. ForFor instance,instance, PaulPaul Carus, thethe influentialinfluentialCarns,

Monist) Hib"editoreditor ofof thethe Monist, andand PrincetonPrinceton UniversityUniversity philosopherphilosopher JohnJohn GnerGner Hib­benben analyzedanalyzed thethe termterm andand foundfound itit wanting.wanting. ToTo HibbenHibben itit suggested,suggested, inin

con"thethe end,end, somethingsomething akinakin toto thethe "kiting"kiting ofof checks"checks" whilewhile CarusCarus waswas con­vinced thatthat thethe metaphormetaphor illill suitedsuited thethe essenceessence ofof pragmatism.pragmatism. (3)(3) MoreMore recentrecent philosophersphilosophers havehave remainedremained perplexedperplexed byby thethe term.term. A.].A.]. AyerAyer hashas vineed

Of,calledcalled thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor "more"more vividvivid thanthan precise;'precise;' or, quitequite simply,simply, "not"not dear."dear." (4)(4)

AlthoughAlthough JamesJames waswas painfullypainfully awareaware thatthat hishis metaphormetaphor troubledtroubled many,many, hehe persistedpersisted inin usingusing it.it. InIn fact,fact, thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor isis ubiquitousubiquitous inin thethe JamesianJamesian corpus,corpus, appearingappearing inin hishis popularpopular worksworks qUIteqUIte asas muchmuch asas inin thosethose intendedintended forfor aa moremore philosophicallyphilosophically sophisticatedsophisticated audience.audience. (5)(5) TheThe

**GeorgeGeorge CotkinCotkin ISIS AssistantAssistant ProfessorProfessor ofof HIstoryHIstory atat CaliforOla PolytechmcPolytechmc StateState UnIver­UnIver­CalifornIa sitysity inin SanSan LUlSLUlS Obispo,Obispo, Califorma.CalifornIa.

37 37

3838 EtEt ceteracetera •• SPRINGSPRING 19851985

metaphormetaphor waswas firstfirst introduced,introduced, andand remainedremained employedemployed inin similarsimilar fashionfashion inin laterlater works,works, inin James'sJames's importantimportant addressaddress ofof 18981898 toto thethe BerkeleyBerkeley PhilosophicalPhilosophical UnionUnion onon «Philosophical«Philosophical ConceptionsConceptions andand PracticalPractical Results;'Results;' thethe precursorprecursor toto thethe pragmaticpragmatic doctrinesdoctrines publishedpublished inin PragmatismPragmatism (1907).(1907). InIn thethe BerkeleyBerkeley address,address, afterafter agreeingagreeing withwith thethe EnglishEnglish empiricistsempiricists andand CharlesCharles PeircePeirce thatthat conceptsconcepts mustmust bebe rigorouslyrigorously investigatedinvestigated andand defined,defined, JamesJames thenthen offeredoffered aa seriesseries ofof rhetoricalrhetorical questionsquestions concerningconcerning anyany concept.concept.

cash.JValue, experience?"«What«What isis itsits cashJl)alue, inin termsterms ofof particularparticular experience?' InIn essence,essence, whatwhat practicalpractical differencedifference toto anan individualindividual wouldwould aa conceptionconception makemake bebe itit truetrue oror false?false? FurtherFurther onon inin thethe paragraph,paragraph, JamesJames againagain invokedinvoked thethe metaphormetaphor inin hishis discussiondiscussion ofof LockeLocke andand BerkeleyBerkeley onon matter.matter. TheThe discussiondiscussion ofof mat­mat­terter isis clearedcleared up,up, thatthat isis renderedrendered concrete,concrete, JamesJames declared,declared, onlyonly whenwhen "the"the

sensations;'cash-valuecash-value ofof mattermatter isis ourour physicalphysical sensations:' ThisThis isis howhow wewe verifyverify matter,matter, 'matter';'inin fact,fact, thisthis constitutesconstitutes "the"the wholewhole meaningmeaning ofof thethe wordword 'matter'." (6)(6)

WhileWhile thethe BerkeleyBerkeley addressaddress andand itsits conceptionsconceptions ofof thethe pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod wouldwould bebe substantiallysubstantially expandedexpanded andand revisedrevised asas JamesJames presentedpresented themthem inin aa seriesseries ofof publicpublic lectureslectures toto audiencesaudiences atat Chicago,Chicago, thethe LowellLowell InstituteInstitute inin Boston,Boston, andand ColumbiaColumbia UniversityUniversity beforebefore finallyfinally committingcommitting themthem toto printprint andand thethe historyhistory ofof philosophyphilosophy inin Pragmatism,Pragmatism, thethe usageusage ofof thethe cash­cash­valuevalue metaphormetaphor remainedremained consistentconsistent andand constanLconstanL (7)(7) InIn PragmatismPragmatism JamesJames employedemployed thethe metaphormetaphor toto demonstratedemonstrate howhow conceptsconcepts oror substancessubstances suchsuch asas mattermatter oror chalkchalk mustmust bebe judgedjudged onlyonly accordingaccording toto theirtheir "sole"sole cash-valuecash-value forfor ourour actualactual experience;'experience;' (8)(8) InIn thatthat volume'svolume's crucialcrucial andand controversialcontroversial chapter,chapter, "Pragmatism's"Pragmatism's ConceptionConception ofof Truth;'Truth;' JamesJames echoedechoed hishis BerkeleyBerkeley addressaddress whenwhen hehe askedasked what,what, inin short,short, isis aa "truth's"truth's cash-valuecash-value inin experien­experien­tialtial terms?"terms?" (9)(9) JamesJames consideredconsidered thisthis passagepassage especiallyespecially significant;significant; hehe quotedquoted itit asas effectivelyeffectively summingsumming upup thethe essentialsessentials ofof pragmatismpragmatism inin hishis defensedefense ofof thethe doctrinedoctrine inin thethe collectioncollection ofof essays,essays, TheThe MeaningMeaning ofof TruthTruth (1909).(1909). (10)(10)

ItIt waswas inin TheThe MeaningMeaning ofof TruthTruth thatthat JamesJames attemptedattempted toto explicitlyexplicitly defenddefend hishis cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor againstagainst thethe chargescharges thatthat itit waswas inappropriateinappropriate forfor philosophicalphilosophical discoursediscourse andand tootoo weakweak aa metaphormetaphor uponupon whichwhich toto deter­deter­minemine value.value. InIn thethe essay,essay, "The"The PragmatistPragmatist AccountAccount ofof TruthTruth andand itsits Misunderstanders;'Misunderstanders;' (1908)(1908) JamesJames especiallyespecially soughtsought toto dispeldispel thethe notionnotion thatthat pragmatismpragmatism meantmeant onlyonly action,action, thatthat ideasideas werewere truetrue onlyonly whenwhen theythey werewere

advantage!'capablecapable ofof"enabling"enabling usus toto makemake moneymoney oror gaingain somesome 'practical''practical' advantage;' ThatThat conceptsconcepts oror ideasideas sometimessometimes workedworked inin suchsuch aa fashionfashion JamesJames couldcould notnot andand wouldwould notnot deny,deny, butbut hehe stronglystrongly maintainedmaintained thatthat thisthis narrownarrow appli­appli­cationcation ofof pragmaticpragmatic ideasideas diddid notnot constituteconstitute thethe widewide rangerange ofof anan idea'sidea's cash-valuecash-value oror utility_utility_ WhileWhile admittingadmitting thatthat manymany unfortunatelyunfortunately soughtsought toto

weltanschauung,"reducereduce pragmatismpragmatism toto "some"some sortsort ofof aa roughrough andand readyready weltanschauung/' JamesJames contendedcontended thatthat thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof aa concept,concept, itsits experientialexperiential worth,worth, couldcould bebe variablevariable whenwhen appliedapplied inin aa purelypurely theoretictheoretic sense,sense, oneone withoutwithout apparentapparent "practical'"practical' bearings.bearings. ToTo thethe criticcritic whowho imploredimplored JamesJames toto castcast outout

39 39 \X'ILLIA]v\' JA1\1ES ANDAND THETHE CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHORMETAPHORWILLIAlv\. JA..\1ES

thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor fromfrom hishis writingswritings becausebecause ofof itsits pecuniarypecuniary con­con­notations,notations, JamesJames respondedresponded explicitlyexplicitly onlyonly byby reiteratingreiterating thethe theoretictheoretic nono lessless thanthan thethe utilitarianutilitarian usefulnessusefulness ofof hishis pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod andand implicitlyimplicitly byby retainingretaining thethe metaphormetaphor throughoutthroughout TheThe /\i[eamng ofof Tmrh. (11)(11)

Nowhere,Nowhere, then,then, diddid JamesJames reallyreally offeroffer eithereither hishis criticscritics oror hishis supporterssupporters anyany explanationexplanation asas toto whywhy hehe consideredconsidered thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor particularlyparticularly effectiveeffective inin conveyingconveying thethe spiritspirit andand meaningmeaning ofof pragmatism.pragmatism. InIn sum,sum, oneone mightmight inquireinquire asas toto whywhy thenthen diddid JamesJames continuecontinue toto useuse suchsuch aa problematicproblematic andand unpopularunpopular metaphormetaphor toto explainexplain hishis pragmaticpragmatic notionnotion ofof truth?truth?

InIn evaluatingevaluating thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphor,metaphor, WilliamWilliam JamesJames mightmight wellwell havehave askedasked whetherwhether itit worked,worked, assimilatedassimilated newnew knowledgeknowledge intointo one'sone's previousprevious stockstock ofof truths,truths, andand satisfiedsatisfied ourour desiredesire forfor intellectualintellectual clarity,clarity, simplicity,simplicity, andand beauty.beauty. InIn spitespite ofof somesome trenchanttrenchant criticismscriticisms ofof thethe term,term, especiallyespecially withwith regardregard toto itsits lacklack ofof clarityclarity andand inabilityinability toto workwork onon anyany levellevel otherother thanthan thethe mundanemundane "rough"rough andand ready"ready" world,world, thisthis essay'sessay's thesisthesis willwill bebe thatthat firstlyfirstly thethe metaphormetaphor waswas quitequite appropriateappropriate withinwithin thethe contextcontext ofof James'sJames's theorytheory ofof pragmatism.pragmatism. WhileWhile certainlycertainly typicaltypical ofof thethe colloquialcolloquial languagelanguage thatthat JamesJames lovedloved toto playfullyplayfully employ,employ, thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor figuredfigured cen­cen­trallytrally becausebecause itit worked,worked, thethe sinesine quaqua nonnon ofof thethe pragmaticpragmatic temper.temper. Secondly,Secondly, thethe metaphor,metaphor, itit willwill bebe argued,argued, hadhad aa deep,deep, personalpersonal resonanceresonance toto James.James. ItIt servedserved toto linklink hishis personalpersonal financialfinancial problemsproblems withwith thethe cashcash realitiesrealities in­in­

A1eamng TrUth.

of lecturingherentherent inin thethe formatformat oflecturing thatthat hehe usedused toto testtest andand presentpresent hishis ideasideas asas wellwell asas toto helphelp supportsupport himselfhimself andand hishis family.family.

AtAt firstfirst glance,glance, James'sJames's explanationexplanation ofof thethe meaningmeaning ofof truthtruth withwith thethe metaphoricalmetaphorical structurestructure ofof cash-valuecash-value appears,appears, asas hishis criticscritics claimed,claimed, toto bebe grievousgrievous error,error, especiallyespecially whenwhen evaluatedevaluated withinwithin thethe stockstock ofofvaluesvalues associatedassociated withwith thethe termterm fromfrom AmericanAmerican thought.thought. TheThe viewsviews ofof AmericanAmerican intellec­intellec­tualstuals towardstowards thethe marketplacemarketplace andand itsits valuesvalues were,were, atat best,best, redolentredolent withwith ambivalence.ambivalence. WhenWhen EmersonEmerson spokespoke ofof commerce,commerce, forfor example,example, hehe sometimessometimes celebratedcelebrated itit asas aa kindkind ofof transnationaltransnational experience,experience, inin whichwhich barriersbarriers werewere knockedknocked downdown andand thethe worldworld broughtbrought closercloser together.together. AtAt thethe samesame timetime Emerson,Emerson, whilewhile admittingadmitting thatthat thethe wingswings ofof commercecommerce gavegave toto allall nationsnations andand individualsindividuals aa commoncommon language,language, aa newnew argot,argot, toto hishis mind,mind, thethe businessbusiness enterpriseenterprise waswas sulliedsullied withwith thethe stenchstench ofof materialismmaterialism andand lowlylowly desiresdesires forfor gain.gain. EmersonEmerson commonlycommonly invokedinvoked termsterms suchsuch asas market-valuemarket-value inin aa pejora­pejora­tivetive oror satiricalsatirical sense,sense, onceonce goinggoing soso farfar asas toto writewrite thatthat "Commerce"Commerce 1Sis aa

Cannibalism."varioloidvarioloid ofof Cannibalism:' (12)(12) ForFor Emerson,Emerson, nono lessless thanthan forfor HenryHenry DavidDavid ThoreauThoreau andand especiallyespecially forfor HermanHerman MelvilleMelville inin TheThe ConfidenceConfidence Man) thethe marketplacemarketplace waswas hardlyhardly thethe sitesite wherewhere cash-valuecash-value forfor one'sone's wareswares couldcould bebe easilyeasily securedsecured oror worthworth establishedestablished onon aa firmfirm foundation.foundation. Cash-valuesCash-values werewere illusions,illusions, partpart ofof thethe shadyshady dominiondominion ofof thethe confidenceconfidence manman whowho figuredfigured soso prominentlyprominently inin AmericanAmerican thoughtthought andand literatureliterature inin thisthis period.period. (13)(13)

JamesJames thusthus appears,appears, onon thethe surface,surface, toto havehave usedused aa termterm thatthat hadhad aa longlong associationassociation withwith deceit,deceit, masquerades,masquerades, andand falsity;falsity; hehe seeminglyseemingly basedbased hishis

Man,

4040 EtEt ceteracetera ~~ SPRINGSPRING 19851985

systemsystem forfor thethe verificationverification andand validationvalidation ofof conceptsconcepts uponupon aa metaphoricalmetaphorical traditiontradition whichwhich was,was, toto saysay thethe least,least, shaky.shaky. Moreover,Moreover, JamesJames waswas aa politicalpolitical mugwump,mugwump, someonesomeone whowho personallypersonally disdaineddisdained thethe valuesvalues ofof modernmodern capitalistcapitalist cultureculture andand whowho certainlycertainly placedplaced littlelittle faithfaith inin thethe marketmarket economy.economy. (14)(14) But,But, asas KarenKaren HalttunenHalttunen hashas indicated,indicated, thisthis pejorativepejorative tradi­tradi­tiontion waswas onon thethe wanewane byby thethe lastlast thirdthird ofof thethe nineteenthnineteenth century,century, thethe con­con­trasttrast betweenbetween charactercharacter andand capitalismcapitalism withwith itsits attendantattendant anguishanguish andand uncer­uncer­taintytainty hadhad passed.passed. (15)(15) InIn itsits steadstead waswas anotheranother imageimage forfor thethe marketplacemarketplace andand capitalism.capitalism. InIn thethe cultcult ofof thethe self-madeself-made man,man, oror thethe popularitypopularity ofofAndrewAndrew CarnegieCarnegie asas aa culturalcultural figure,figure, thethe capitalist-as-herocapitalist-as-hero inhabitedinhabited aa groundground thatthat whilewhile stillstill saturatedsaturated withwith thethe trickstricks ofof thethe confidenceconfidence manman nownow alsoalso ap­ap­pearedpeared toto bebe someonesomeone whowho hadhad builtbuilt anan empireempire basedbased uponupon substantialsubstantial foun­foun­dations,dations, puttingputting hishis productproduct upup againstagainst thethe wareswares ofof othersothers inin thethe chang­chang­inging conditionsconditions ofof thethe market,market, andand finallyfinally byby producingproducing aa goodgood thatthat "paid""paid" inin aa cash-valuecash-value economy.economy. ThusThus maymay oneone surmisesurmise thatthat atat thethe timetime JamesJames waswas employingemploying hishis cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor thethe termterm waswas suspendedsuspended inin twotwo worldsworlds ofof meaning,meaning, oneone suggestingsuggesting anan ephemeracyephemeracy ofofvalue,value, thethe otherother point­point­inging towardstowards aa durabilitydurability andand realreal worth.worth. ForFor James,James, aa mastermaster ironist,ironist, thethe dualdual connotationsconnotations ofof cash-valuecash-value wouldwould proveprove bothboth aestheticallyaesthetically appealingappealing andand usefuluseful inin thethe elucidationelucidation ofof pragmaticpragmatic assumptions.assumptions.

TheThe tensiontension inherentinherent inin thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor byby thethe turnturn ofof thethe cen­cen­turytury waswas wellwell suitedsuited toto James'sJames's pragmaticpragmatic maxims,maxims, althoughalthough hishis criticscritics failedfailed toto realizerealize it.it. WithWith cash-value,cash-value, JamesJames hadhad aa metaphormetaphor thatthat diddid notnot suggestsuggest somethingsomething withwith immutableimmutable value,value, inherentinherent worth;worth; yet,yet, atat thethe samesame time,time, thethe termterm waswas nevernever devoiddevoid ofofvalue;value; everyevery conceptconcept oror ideaidea hadhad aa theoreticaltheoretical worthworth untiluntil putput toto thethe test,test, andand inin aa specifiedspecified situation.situation. James'sJames's chiefchief an­an­tagoniststagonists overover thethe metaphor,metaphor, HibbenHibben andand Carus,Carus, werewere incapableincapable ofof discern­discern­inging thethe double-edgedouble-edge ofof truth,truth, ofof acceptingaccepting thatthat thethe metaphormetaphor allowedallowed JamesJames toto emphasizeemphasize thatthat ideasideas andand conceptsconcepts diddid notnot havehave truthtruth withinwithin themthem asas anan innateinnate qualityquality ofof being.being. TheThe worthworth oror cash-valuecash-value ofof anyany concept,concept, asas JamesJames oftenoften timestimes repeated,repeated, waswas inin howhow thethe conceptconcept helpedhelped thethe individualindividual toto cope,cope, howhow itit aidedaided thethe individualindividual inin hishis oror herher actual,actual, practical,practical, andand concreteconcrete experiences.experiences. InIn oneone sense,sense, then,then, thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof anyany conceptconcept waswas com­com­putedputed oror validatedvalidated accordingaccording toto thethe personalpersonal financialfinancial systemsystem ofof thethe indi­indi­vidual.vidual. AsAs aa philosophicalphilosophical position,position, thisthis ofof coursecourse drewdrew thethe firefire ofof manymany whowho couldcould notnot seesee oror diddid notnot wantwant toto seesee truthstruths asas individuallyindividually validatedvalidated withoutwithout anyany otherother criteriacriteria forfor value;value; nonetheless,nonetheless, thethe metaphormetaphor diddid effec­effec­tivelytively serveserve toto illustrateillustrate James'sJames's meaningmeaning ofof truth.truth. InIn aa secondsecond sense,sense, however,however, JamesJames contendedcontended thatthat thisthis personalpersonal experience,experience, itsits pay-off,pay-off, waswas alsoalso aa socialsocial oror communitycommunity experience.experience. Again,Again, sincesince thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof anyany conceptconcept oror ideaidea diddid notnot solelysolely residereside inin anyany innateinnate qualitiesqualities ofof thethe entityentity nornor inin thethe simplesimple subjectivesubjective currencycurrency ofof thethe individual,individual, itit alsoalso hadhad toto answeranswer toto thethe marketplacemarketplace ofof ideas,ideas, thethe largerlarger networknetwork ofof financialfinancial transactionstransactions andand obliga­obliga­tions.tions. ToTo bebe sure,sure, thethe marketplacemarketplace remainedremained aa denizendenizen forfor deceit,deceit, butbut itit

41 41 WILLIAMWILLIAM JAMESJAMES ANDAND THETHE CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHORMETAPHOR

waswas alsoalso anan arenaarena wherewhere buyersbuyers andand sellerssellers spokespoke aa similarsimilar language,language, andand wherewhere thethe testingtesting outout ofof hypotheseshypotheses andand theirtheir evaluationevaluation andand revisionrevision oc­oc­curred.curred. InIn thisthis sense,sense, thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof anyany conceptconcept oror ideaidea becamebecame panpan

experience-thoughofof aa socialsocial experience - though JamesJames diddid notnot emphasizeemphasize communitycommunity verifica­verifica­tiontion asas stronglystrongly asas CharlesCharles PeircePeirce -where-where thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof thethe individual'sindividual's perceptionsperceptions becamebecame aa worthyworthy figurefigure forfor negotiation.negotiation. ThroughThrough suchsuch negotia­negotia­tionstions oneone couldcould livelive upup toto theirtheir generalgeneral obligationobligation toto seekseek truth,truth, notnot onlyonly forfor somesome abstractabstract satisfaction,satisfaction, bur becausebecause truetrue ideasideas wouldwould bringbring payments,payments, whereaswhereas falsefalse ideasideas would,would, inin thethe end,end, registerregister onlyonly inin debits.debits. (16)(16) ToTo addadd toto ourour certaintycertainty concerningconcerning thethe truthtruth valuevalue ofof ourour concepts,concepts, JamesJames regularlyregularly

but

e.xpediencyconnectedconnected thethe cash-valuecash-value oror expediency andand utilityutility ofof hishis ownown conceptsconcepts toto whatwhat hehe referredreferred toto asas thethe "marketplace.""marketplace." JamesJames presentedpresented hishis ideasideas andand concepts,concepts, whosewhose cash-valuecash-value waswas realreal toto him,him, inin thethe marketplacemarketplace notnot onlyonly asas aa giftgift oror offering,offering, butbut alsoalso forfor thethe veryvery realreal returnsreturns thatthat hehe wouldwould gaingain fromfrom thethe criticismcriticism andand debate.debate. (17)(17)

TheThe metaphormetaphor ofof cash-valuecash-value alsoalso provedproved useful,useful, asas JacquesJacques BarzunBarzun hashas recentlyrecently demonstrated,demonstrated, whenwhen JamesJames soughtsought toto identifyidentify thethe useuse ofof anan ideaidea withwith thethe naturenature ofof aa loan,loan, oror promissorypromissory note.note. TheThe notenote isis worthlessworthless whenwhen itit cannotcannot bebe convertedconverted intointo cash,cash, nono valuevalue inhertsinherts inin thethe notenote asas such.such. SoSo tootoo withwith James'sJames's emphasisemphasis onon cash-valuecash-value "to"to express;'express;' asas BarzunBarzun phrasesphrases it,it, "the"the factfact thatthat anan ideaidea isis worthlessworthless ifif itit cannotcannot soonersooner oror laterlater bebe con­con­vertedverted intointo thethe concretenessconcreteness aimedaimed at:'at:' (18)(18) TruthTruth inin hishis viewview waswas somethingsomething thatthat onlyonly becamebecame apparentapparent asas thethe intellectualintellectual coincoin ofof thethe realmrealm waswas placedplaced intointo circulation.circulation. WhileWhile thisthis conceptconcept troubledtroubled CarusCarus andand thusthus initiatedinitiated hishis attackattack uponupon thethe metaphor,metaphor, thethe cash-valuecash-value tropetrope diddid express,express, inin accessibleaccessible terms,terms, twotwo crucialcrucial conceptsconcepts ofof thethe pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod andand meaningmeaning ofof truth:truth: thatthat qualitiesqualities werewere notnot abstractabstract oror innateinnate andand thatthat thethe determinationdetermination ofof worthworth waswas measuredmeasured inin termsterms ofof experiencesexperiences andand practicalpractical application.application.

TheThe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor workedworked becausebecause itit capturedcaptured thethe tensiontension andand dualityduality uponupon whichwhich JamesJames soughtsought toto basebase hishis theorytheory ofof truth.truth. FromFrom aa pragmaticpragmatic perspective,perspective, however,however, anan additionaladditional considerationconsideration mightmight bebe evaluated:evaluated: toto whatwhat needsneeds andand desiresdesires withinwithin JamesJames diddid thethe metaphormetaphor satisfysatisfy oror respondrespond to?to? TheThe answeranswer toto thisthis questionquestion maymay lielie inin thethe nexusnexus ofof James'sJames's personalpersonal lifelife andand thethe demandsdemands thatthat hehe encounteredencountered asas aa professionalprofessional lee· turerturer whowho waswas paidpaid forfor hishis labors.labors.

ThroughoutThroughout thethe periodperiod whenwhen JamesJames waswas lecturinglecturing onon pragmatism,pragmatism, hehe waswas troubledtroubled byby financialfinancial problems,problems, inin partpart becausebecause ofof hishis growinggrowing family,family, generositygenerosity withwith money,money, andand frequentfrequent sojournssojourns inin Europe.Europe. ToTo supplementsupplement hishis professorialprofessorial incomeincome fromfrom HarvardHarvard andand hishis meagremeagre trusttrust funds,funds, JamesJames waswas forcedforced toto taketake hishis philosophyphilosophy onon thethe road,road, notnot onlyonly deliveringdelivering hishis TalksTalks toto TeachersTeachers andand otherother occasionaloccasional piecespieces forfor pay,pay, butbut accepting,accepting, atat times,times, paymentpayment forfor lectureslectures onon pragmatism.pragmatism. TheThe productionproduction andand presentationpresentation ofof pragmatismpragmatism waswas inexorablyinexorably linkedlinked toto thethe marketplacemarketplace ofof ideas,ideas, thethe arenaarena wherewhere JamesJames thethe sellerseller literallyliterally presentedpresented hishis intellectualintellectual wares.wares. ThusThus whenwhen

lec­

4242 EtEt ceteracetera •• SPRINGSPRING 19851985

corneJamesJames invokesinvokes thethe termterm cash-valuecash-value withinwithin hishis discourse,discourse, itit appearsappears toto come fromfrom thethe heartheart andand is,is, inin somesome respectsrespects perhaps,perhaps, aa psychicpsychic crycry ofof despairdespair emanatingemanating fromfrom aa proudproud manman whowho facedfaced eacheach publicpublic lecturelecture withwith anguishanguish andand dread.dread. ToTo viewview WilliamWilliam JamesJames andand thethe productionproduction andand presentationpresentation ofof pragmatismpragmatism asas connectedconnected toto thethe marketplacemarketplace andand intimatelyintimately linkedlinked toto cash-valuecash-value shouldshould inin nono wayway denigratedenigrate thethe achievement,achievement, nornor sullysully thethe valuevalue andand puritypurity ofof thethe philosophyphilosophy produced.produced. WhatWhat itit maymay dodo isis explainexplain James'sJames's recourserecourse toto thethe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor justjust asas LeonLeon EdelEdel hashas helpedhelped toto con­con­structstruct HenryHenry James'sJames's lifelife andand literaryliterary productionproduction byby demonstratingdemonstrating howhow thethe writerwriter waswas forcedforced toto practicepractice hishis craftcraft forfor aa living.living. (19)(19)

AA biographerbiographer ofof WilliamWilliam JamesJames hashas writtenwritten thatthat thethe philosopherphilosopher hadhad thethe dreamdream ofof becomingbecoming somesome dayday aa gentlemangentleman farmer,farmer, freefree fromfrom financialfinancial obliga­obliga­tionstions andand thethe rigorsrigors ofof teaching,teaching, butbut thatthat financialfinancial exigencyexigency preventedprevented thethe realizationrealization ofof thisthis desire.desire. JamesJames waswas notnot poorlypoorly paidpaid asas aa HarvardHarvard professor,professor, butbut thethe fundsfunds werewere inadequateinadequate forfor himhim andand hishis family.family. ByBy thethe 1880s1880s hehe hadhad discovereddiscovered additionaladditional sourcessources ofof income,income, sendingsending offoff chapterschapters ofof thethe long-in-preparationlong-in-preparation PrinciplesPrinciples ofof PsychologyPsychology toto payingpaying journalsjournals andand com­com­posingposing aa shorter,shorter, betterbetter sellingselling versionversion ofof thethe monumentalmonumental volume.volume. (20)(20) InIn thethe 1890s1890s whenwhen James'sJames's reputationreputation hadhad flowered,flowered, hehe foundfound himselfhimself inin

lectures­constantconstant demanddemand asas aa publicpublic lecturer.lecturer. ArmedArmed withwith aa seriesseries ofof 1ectures­Talkssometimessometimes hishis Ta lks toto Teachers,Teachers, atat otherother timestimes enticingenticing lectureslectures onon excep­excep­

tionaltional mentalmental phenomenaphenomena oror pragmatism-Jamespragmatism-James crisscrossedcrisscrossed thethe countrycountry gatheringgathering inin money,money, estimatingestimating thethe sizesize ofof hishis audiences,audiences, andand evaluatingevaluating thethe qualityquality andand receptionreception ofof hishis lectures.lectures. (21)(21)

PublicPublic lectureslectures attestedattested toto thethe cash-valuecash-value ofof James'sJames's ideas;ideas; theythey broughtbrought intointo thethe familyfamily bankbank accountaccount impressiveimpressive andand neededneeded sumssums ofof money.money. TheThe allureallure ofof thethe revenuesrevenues waswas sometimessometimes soso greatgreat asas toto forceforce JamesJames toto givegive upup hishis muchmuch lovedloved summersummer vacationsvacations atat ChocoruaChocorua toto makemake money,money, asas hehe putput it,it, byby lecturinglecturing toto boringboring highhigh schoolschool teachersteachers onon psychology.psychology. (22)(22) JamesJames hatedhated thethe publicpublic lecturelecture forumforum -- althoughalthough itit mustmust bebe admittedadmitted thatthat inin thethe lastlast fewfew yearsyears ofof hishis lifelife hehe feltfelt moremore confidentconfident aboutabout hishis lecturinglecturing abilities,abilities, greatergreater rapportrapport withwith audiences,audiences, andand beganbegan toto enjoyenjoy baskingbasking inin thethe sunshinesunshine ofof theirtheir adulationadulation forfor himhim -- toto thethe pointpoint ofof referringreferring toto lecturinglecturing asas "a"a sortsort ofof prostitution:'prostitution:' (23)(23) HeHe waswas sellingselling hishis ideasideas forfor moneymoney andand inin aa wayway chasingchasing afterafter thethe hatedhated "bitch-goddess"bitch-goddess success:'success:' Moreover,Moreover, thethe timetime hehe spentspent inin thethe preparationpreparation andand presentationpresentation ofof thesethese publicpublic lectureslectures asas wellwell asas thethe inter­inter­minableminable socialsocial gatheringsgatherings connectedconnected withwith themthem ledled toto greatgreat frustrationfrustration forfor JJames;ames; lecturinglecturing forfor moneymoney waswas "a"a badbad wayway ofof expendingexpending energy;'energy;' especial­especial­lyly whenwhen hehe feltfelt thatthat hehe couldcould betterbetter spendspend hishis timetime workingworking onon hishis long­long­delayeddelayed philosophicalphilosophical opus.opus. (24)(24) AfterAfter thethe completioncompletion ofofeacheach lecturelecture seriesseries JJamesames wouldwould explain,explain, andand hishis avowalsavowals lastedlasted forfor aa periodperiod ofof nearlynearly tenten years,years, thatthat hehe waswas forsakingforsaking thethe publicpublic lecturelecture podiumpodium onceonce andand forfor all.all. ThusThus inin 18981898 hehe wrotewrote toto hishis wife,wife, "I"I amam nevernever goinggoing toto lecturelecture againagain outside.outside.

according­ThatThat decisiondecision isis aa fixedfixed point;point; andand wewe shallshall shapeshape ourour expensesexpenses according­

WILLIAMWILLIAM ]Alv\.ES ANDAND THETHE CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHORMETAPHORlA..lv'\.ES 4343

ly." (25)(25) FiveFive yearsyears laterlater hehe sworeswore toto hishis wife,wife, thatthat therethere vlouldvlould bebe "no"no moremore miscellaneousmiscellaneous lectureslectures forfor me;me; thankthank you."you." (26)(26) Finally,Finally, inin remarkingremarking onon ly:'

hishis ColumbiaColumbia UniversityUniversity lectureslectures onon pragmatismpragmatism inin 1907,1907, JamesJames wrotewrote to

hishis sonson thatthat hehe wouldwould riskrisk thethe strainstrain ofof deliveringdelivering hishis addressesaddresses onlyonly becausebecause theythey representedrepresented "the"the lastlast lecturelecture engagementengagement ofof mymy life."life." (27)(27)

TheThe summersummer ofof 18981898 sawsaw WilliamWilliam JamesJames inin CaliforniaCalifornia deliveringdelivering hishis TalksTalks toto TeachersTeachers inin Oakland,Oakland, afterafter presentingpresenting themthem firstfirst inin SaltSalt LakeLake City,City, andand hishis "Philosophical"Philosophical ConceptionsConceptions andand PracticalPractical Results"Results" toto thethe PhilosophicalPhilosophical UnionUnion atat Berkeley.Berkeley. JamesJames hadhad longlong wantedwanted toto visitvisit thethe WestWest CoastCoast butbut hehe couldcould notnot readilyreadily affordafford thethe trip.trip. InIn aa correspondencecorrespondence withwith GeorgeGeorge HolmesHolmes Howison,Howison, philosophyphilosophy professorprofessor atat Berkeley,Berkeley, thatthat continuedcontinued forfor twotwo years,years, JamesJames negotiatednegotiated andand bargainedbargained overover fees,fees, arrangements,arrangements, andand datesdates forfor thethe publicpublic lectureslectures thatthat wouldwould financefinance thethe e.xcursion.e.xcursion. InIn nono uncertainuncertain termsterms hehe wrotewrote Howison,Howison, "As"As forfor ourour 'business;'business; 10001000 dollarsdollars forfor sixteensixteen lectureslectures atat thethe U.U. ofof CallCall twotwo coursescourses ofof eight,eight, oneone onon PsychologyPsychology forfor TeachersTeachers andand onon ExceptionalExceptional MentalMental PhenomenaPhenomena willwill covercover allall mymy demands,demands,

work:' HowisonHowison thatthat hehe

ro

bothboth forfor cashcash andand forfor work." ButBut JamesJames mademade clearclear totolecturedlectured onlyonly forfor thethe moneymoney andand gavegave onlyonly asas manymany addressesaddresses asas necessary:necessary:"I"I hatehate lecturing,lecturing, onon thethe whole:' (28)(28) SubsequentSubsequent lettersletters toto HowisonHowison readreadlikelike advertisementsadvertisements asas JamesJames setssets outout hishis terms,terms, describesdescribes thethe contentscontents ofofthethe lectures,lectures, andand specifiesspecifies thethe attractivenessattractiveness ofof eacheach lecturelecture seriesseries forfor par­par­ticularticular audiences.audiences. WhileWhile alwaysalways seekingseeking toto limitlimit hishis lecturing,lecturing, JamesJamesnonethelessnonetheless letlet itit bebe knownknown thatthat ifif BerkeleyBerkeley wouldwould paypay himhim fiftyfifty dollarsdollarsapieceapiece forfor eacheach lecture,lecture, "of"of coursecourse II shouldshould notnot refuserefuse moremore ifif itit werewere urgedurgedupon:'upon:' (29)(29)

"Philosophical"Philosophical ConceptionsConceptions andand PracticalPractical Results;'Results;' wherewhere JamesJames firstfirst employedemployed cash-valuecash-value asas thethe metaphormetaphor whichwhich servedserved asas thethe foundationfoundation forfor thethe pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod waswas thusthus inexorablyinexorably connectedconnected withwith thethe realityreality ofof

whole."

feesfees andand publicpublic lectures.lectures. ThatThat JamesJames soughtsought to divorcedivorce thethe two,two, hIS "pure""pure"ro hiS philosophyphilosophy ofof pragmatismpragmatism andand hishis "cash""cash" philosophyphilosophy contaIned inin thethe TalksTalks toto Teachers,Teachers, waswas apparentapparent asas hehe sternlysternly informedinformed HowisonHowison thatthat hehe wouldwould

conta1l1ed

givegive thethe talktalk onon thethe pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod toto thethe Union onlyonly asas aa "free"free gIft." AfterAfter completingcompleting hishis paidpaid lectures,lectures, givinggiving aa freefree lecturelecture onon pragmatism,pragmatism, andand receivingreceiving strenuousstrenuous criticismcriticism fromfrom HowisonHowison andand hIShIS students,students, JamesJames askedasked onlyonly thatthat hishis "remains"remains ...... bebe gatheredgathered upup andand sentsent homehome byby freIghtfreIght

U nion gift."

remains- mytoto mymy wifewife withwith whatwhat moneymoney remains-my pocketpocket fromfrom thethe experience."experience." (30)(30) ShortShort wouldwould bebe thethe verbalverbal distancedistance traveledtraveled fromfrom thisthis humoroushumorous epithetepithet toto James'sJames's askingasking inin hishis firstfirst sustamed analysisanalysis ofof thethe pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod

"cash J{)a lue, inin termsterms ofof particularparticular susta1l1ed

thatthat oneone shouldshould knowknow aa conception'sconception's "cash-value, experience:'experience:' (31)(31)

TheThe cash-valuecash-value metaphormetaphor remainedremained inin successivesuccessive draftsdrafts ofof PragmallsmPragmallsm andand becamebecame etchedetched foreverforever inin thethe printedprinted volume.volume. DuringDuring thethe yearsyears ofof Pragmallsm'sPragmallsm's finalfinal elucidation,elucidation, 1906-1907,1906-1907, JamesJames delivereddelivered lectureslectures onon thethe subject,subject, sometimessometimes forfor excellentexcellent fees,fees, atat Glenmore,Glenmore, Chicago,Chicago, thethe LowellLowell

4444 EtEt ceteracetera •• SPRINGSPRING 19851985

Institute,Institute, andand ColumbiaColumbia University.University. TheThe cash-valuecash-value ofof thesethese lectureslectures onon pragmatismpragmatism waswas never,never, therefore,therefore, distantdistant fromfrom James'sJames's mind.mind. ByBy thisthis time,time,

but genuine-thethethe JamesianJamesian refrainrefrain waswas oldold bur stillstill genuine - the frustrationsfrustrations ofof publicpublic lectureslectures andand thethe glareglare castcast uponupon thethe philosopherphilosopher asas paidpaid lecturer.lecturer. TheThe feel­feel­ingsings mustmust havehave beenbeen mixed,mixed, somewhatsomewhat likelike thethe metaphormetaphor itself,itself, asas JamesJames

accumulatedsatsat atat hishis deskdesk andand wrotewrote outout checkschecks coveringcovering hishis <iccumulated billsbills fromfrom thethe feesfees hehe hadhad receivedreceived fromfrom thethe LowellLowell InstituteInstitute lectureslectures whichwhich hadhad comecome toto "a"a prosperousprosperous end"end" thethe previousprevious evening.evening. AsAs always,always, thoughthough thethe cashcash waswas deeplydeeply appreciated,appreciated, JamesJames waswas "glad"glad they'rethey're over."over." EspeciallyEspecially impor­impor­tanttant toto JamesJames waswas thatthat theythey mightmight nownow bebe collectedcollected intointo aa volumevolume thatthat wouldwould makemake "a"a solidsolid andand originaloriginal littlelittle chunkchunk ofof truthtruth whenwhen writtenwritten outout && pub­pub­lished~' NotNot onlyonly wouldwould they,they, asas JamesJames correctlycorrectly anticipated,anticipated, createcreate aa rumblerumble inin thethe philosophicalphilosophical world,world, butbut theirtheir publicationpublication wouldwould freefree himhim fromfrom onceonce againagain deliveringdelivering themthem asas lectures.lectures. (32)(32) TheThe cash-valuecash-value ofof thethe lectureslectures hadhad beenbeen longlong establishedestablished andand theirtheir deliverydelivery broughtbrought onlyonly cash-returns,cash-returns, notnot personalpersonal satisfaction.satisfaction. TheThe cash-valuecash-value ofof hishis pragmatismpragmatism lectureslectures wouldwould nownow havehave toto bebe workedworked outout inin thethe marketplacemarketplace ofof ideas.ideas.

TheThe cash-valuecash-value metaphor,metaphor, then,then, inin spitespite ofof allall thethe controversycontroversy itit engendered,engendered, retainedretained aa tenacioustenacious holdhold uponupon thethe consciousnessconsciousness ofof WilliamWilliam James.James. ItIt capturedcaptured certaincertain ambiguitiesambiguities inin James'sJames's pragmaticpragmatic methodmethod thatthat hehe diddid notnot wishwish toto bebe ignoredignored oror simplified.simplified. ItIt alsoalso hadhad thethe kindkind ofof stylisticstylistic exuberance,exuberance, thethe colloquialcolloquial currencycurrency thatthat JamesJames favoredfavored throughoutthroughout hishis writings.writings. Lastly,Lastly, thethe termterm hadhad cash-valuecash-value withinwithin James'sJames's personalpersonal experi­experi­ences,ences, aa closeclose connectionconnection withwith thethe productionproduction andand presentationpresentation ofof prag­prag­matism.matism. AllAll ofof thesethese explanationsexplanations conspiredconspired toto makemake JamesJames unwillingunwilling toto dropdrop thethe metaphormetaphor inin thethe faceface ofof sustainedsustained andand harshharsh criticism.criticism. TheThe style,style, nono lessless thanthan thethe metaphor,metaphor, inin thisthis case,case, waswas thethe samesame asas WilliamWilliam James.James.

lished."

NOTESNOTES ANDAND REFERENCESREFERENCES

1.1. Anon,Anon, "Pragmatism;'"Pragmatism;' TheThe SpectatorSpectator 4949 (July(July 6,6, 1907)1907) 10.10. SimilarSimilar criticismscriticisms appearedappeared often.often. See,See, forfor example,example, JamesJames Huneker,Huneker, TheThe PathosPathos ofof DistanceDistance (New(New York:York: CharlesCharles Scribner'sScribner's Sons,Sons, 1913),1913), pp.pp. 348,348, 356;356; AdditionalAdditional criticismscriticisms areare recordedrecorded inin IsaacIsaac Riley,Riley, "Continental"Continental CriticsCritics ofof Pragmatism;'Pragmatism;' JournalJournal ofof PhilosophyPhilosophy 88 (April(April 27,27, 1911),1911), pp.pp. 225-52.225-52. SimilarSimilar criticismscriticisms werewere offeredoffered byby GeorgeGeorge T.T. Ladd,Ladd, "The"The ConfusionConfusion ofof Pragmatism;'Pragmatism;' HibbertHibbert Jouma/7 (1909),(1909), pp.pp. 784-801;784-801; FW.FW. Woodbridge,Woodbridge, "Pragmatism"Pragmatism andand Education;'Education;' EducationalEducational ReviewReview 3434 (Oct.,(Oct., 1907),1907), p.p. 230.230.

Joumal7

2.2. TypicalTypical ofof thethe genregenre ofof MarxistMarxist criticismcriticism areare HarryHarry K.K. Wells,Wells, Pragmatism:Pragmatism: PhilosophyPhilosophy ofof ImperialismImperialism (New(New York:York: BooksBooks forfor LibrariesLibraries Press,Press, 1954),1954), pp.pp. 99-130;99-130; GeorgeGeorge Novack,Novack, PragmatismPragmatism versusversus MarxismMarxism (New(New York:York: PathfinderPathfinder Press,Press, 1975),1975), passim;passim;

PhilalogiaY.].Y.]. Jerome,Jerome, "Accident"Accident andand History;'History;' Philologia PragensiaPragensia 66 (1963),(1963), pp.pp. 337-42;337-42; ErnstErnst Bloch,Bloch, OnOn KarlKarl MarxMarx (New(New York:York: HerderHerder andand Herder,Herder, 1971),1971), pp.pp. 90-91.90-91. NotNot allall radicalsradicals foundfound JamesJames anan apologistapologist forfor capitalism.capitalism. WalterWalter Lippmann,Lippmann, aa one-timeone-time Har­Har­vardvard studentstudent thenthen inin hishis socialistsocialist stage,stage, viewedviewed JamesJames asas aa philosophicalphilosophical democrat.democrat. SeeSee Lippmann,Lippmann, "An"An OpenOpen Mind:Mind: WilliamWilliam James;'James;' Everybody'sEverybody's MagazineMagazine 2323 (Dec.,(Dec., 1910),1910), pp.pp. 800-01.800-01. AA moremore usefuluseful considerationconsideration ofof WilliamWilliam James'sJames's socialsocial philosophyphilosophy

45 45 WILLIAMWILLIAM jAlviESjAlviES ANDAND THETHE CASH-VALUECASH-VALUE METAPHORMETAPHOR

andand VIewsVIews maymay bebe foundfound mm DamelDamel B.B. SchIrmer,SchIrmer, "\Vilham"\Vilham JamesJames andand thethe NewNew Age;'Age;' SelenaSelena andand SOClelYSOClelY 3333 (Fa(Fa ll-\X'intell-\X'inte1',1', 1969),1969), pp.pp. 434-45.434-45.

3.3. PaulPaul Carus,Carus, "Pragmatism;'"Pragmatism;' TheThe MonisrMonisr 1818 (July,(July, 1908),1908), pp.pp. 321-62;321-62; FundamentalFundamental Pro­Pro­blemsblems (Chicago:(Chicago: TheThe OpenOpen Court,Court, 1891),1891), pp.pp. 17-18.17-18. JohnJohn GrierGrier Hibben,Hibben, "The"The TestTest ofof Pragmatism;'Pragmatism;' PhilosophtcalPhilosophtcal RevIewRevIew 1717 (July,(July, 1908),1908), pp.pp. 365-82.365-82.

44 AyeI',AyeI', PhilosophyPhilosophy inin rherhe Twenl!elhTwenl!elh CenturyCentury (London:(London: \X1eidenfel\X1eidenfel andand Nicholson,Nicholson, 1982),1982), pp.pp. 74-7574-75

5.5. BeverlyBeverly LawnLawn enumeratesenumerates thethe usesuses ofof thethe cash-\~dluecash-\~dlue metaphormetaphor andand othersothers withwith busll1essbusll1ess connotatIonsconnotatIons asas usedused byby James.James. SheShe baSiCallybaSiCally V1ewsV1ews thethe metaphormetaphor asas aa rheroncalrheroncal deVIcedeVIce toto joinjoin JamesJames andand hishis audience.audience. ThisThis essay,essay, however,however, suggestssuggests aa differentdifferent theSIStheSIS andand ImportImport forfor thethe metaphor.metaphor. See,See, BeverlyBeverly Lawn,Lawn, "From"From TempleTemple toto Streets:Streets: TheThe StyleStyle ofof PragmaPragma lISm,"lISm," NewNew EnglandEngland QuarrerlyQuarrerly 4545 (Dec.,(Dec., 1972),1972), pp.pp. 526-40.526-40. TheThe metaphormetaphor appearedappeared alsoalso in:in: James'sJames's TheThe VaneliesVanelies ofof ReligiousReligious ExpeneneeExpenenee (1902,(1902, NewNew York:York: UniversityUniversity Books,Books, 1963),1963), p.p. 443;443; "A"A WorldWorld ofof PurePure Expenence;'Expenence;' (1904)(1904) mm EssaysEssays IIIIII RadIcalRadIcal EmplriemnEmplriemn (New(New York:York: E.P.E.P. DuttonDutton andand Co.,Co., Inc.,Inc., 1971),1971), p.p. 40;40; SomeSome ProblemsProblems ofof Philosophy:Philosophy: TheThe WorksWorks ofof WilhamWilham .James.James (Cambridge,(Cambridge, MA.:MA.: HarvardHarvard UmversityUmversity Press,Press, 1979),1979), p.p. 70.70. PeterPeter HareHare effectivelyeffectively discussesdiscusses James'sJames's stylestyle inin 1m1m introductionintroduction toto SomeSome ProblemsProblems ofof Philosophy,Philosophy, esp.esp. pp.pp. XliI-XIX.XliI-XIX.

6.6. James,James, "Philosophical"Philosophical ConceptionsConceptions andand PracticalPractical ResulrS;'ResulrS;' appendixappendix toto Pragmalmn:Pragmalmn: TheThe WorksWorks ofof WilhamWilham .James.James (Cambndge,(Cambndge, MA.:MA.: HarvardHarvard U.U. Press,Press, 1975),1975), p.p. 268.268. TheThe metaphormetaphor appearedappeared frequentlyfrequently inin James'sJames's lectureslectures toto h1sh1s introductoryintroductory philosophyphilosophy studentsstudents atat HarvardHarvard andand Stanford.Stanford. See,See, "Fragments"Fragments ofof aa Lecture;'Lecture;' (n.p.,(n.p., c.c. 1907);1907); "Syllabus"Syllabus inin PhilosophyPhilosophy forfor PhilosophyPhilosophy lA;'lA;' bothboth inin thethe JamesJames FamilyFamily Papers,Papers, HoughtonHoughton Library,Library, HarvardHarvard University,University, bMSbMS AmAm 1092.91092.9 (hereafter(hereafter referredreferred toto asas JFP).JFP).

7.7. TheThe backgroundbackground historyhistory ofof pragmatismpragmatism hashas beenbeen outlinedoutlined byby H.S.H.S. ThayerThayer inin hishis intro­intro­ductionduction toto Pragmatism,Pragmatism, pp.pp. xii-xix.xii-xix. UsefulUseful analysesanalyses ofof PragmallSmPragmallSm willwill bebe foundfound inin RalphRalph BartonBarton Perry,Perry, TheThe ThoughtThought andand CharacterCharacter ofof WilliamWilliam .James.James (Boston:(Boston: Little,Little, Brown,Brown, andand Company,Company, 1935),1935), II,II, pp.pp. 441-51;441-51; and,and, ofof course,course, H.S.H.S. Thayer,Thayer, MeaningMeaning andand Action:Action: AA CriticalCritical HistoryHistory ofof PragmallSmPragmallSm (Indianapolis:(Indianapolis: TheThe Bobbs-MerrillBobbs-Merrill Com­Com­pany,pany, Inc.,Inc., 1968),1968), pp.pp. 133-52.133-52.

8.8. Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp. 45-46.45-46. 9.9. Ibid.,Ibid., p.p. 97.97.

10.10. James,James, TheThe MeamngMeamng ofof Truth:Truth: TheThe WorksWorks ofof WilhamWilham .James.James (Cambridge,(Cambridge, MA.:MA.: Har­Har­vardvard UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1975),1975), pp.pp. 3,3, 69,69, 112.112.

11.11. Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp. 51,51, 101,101, 112-13.112-13. 12.12. Gilman,Gilman, d.d. al.,al., eds.,eds., TheThe .Journals.Journals andand MIscellaneousMIscellaneous NOlebooksNOlebooks ofof RalphRalph WaldoWaldo Emer­Emer­

sonson (Cambridge,(Cambridge, MA.:MA.: HarvardHarvard UmversltyUmverslty Press,Press, 1960-1973),ten1960-1973),ten volumes,volumes, VII,VII, pp.pp. 295,295, 9.9.

13.13. KarenKaren Halttunen,Halttunen, ConfIdenceConfIdence MenMen andand Pal1lledPal1lled Women:Women: AA StudyStudy ofof Middle-classMiddle-class CultureCulture IIIIII Amenca,Amenca, 1830-18701830-1870 (New(New Haven.Haven. YaleYale UmversltyUmverslty Press,Press, 1982),1982), esp.esp. pp.pp. 198-210;198-210; MichaelMichael PaulPaul Rogin,Rogin, SubverSIveSubverSIve Genealogy:Genealogy: TheThe PoliticsPolitics andand ArlArl ofof HermanHerman MelvilleMelville (New(New York:York: AlfredAlfred A.A. Knopf,Knopf, 1983),1983), p.p. 2727

14.14. Schumer,Schumer, "Wilham"Wilham JamesJames andand thethe NewNew Age."Age." 15.15. Halttunen,Halttunen, op.op. ei£.,ei£., pp.pp. 203-10.203-10. 16.16. James,James, Pragmalism,Pragmalism, op.op. eiL,eiL, p.p. 110.110. 17.17. James,James, TheThe WillWill toto Beheve:Beheve: TheThe WorksWorks ofof WilhamWilham .James.James (Cambridge,(Cambridge, MA.MA. HarvardHarvard

UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1979),1979), p.p. 8.8. 18.18. JacquesJacques Barzun,Barzun, AA StrollStroll wirhwirh WilhamWilham .James.James (New(New York.York. HarperHarper andand Rmv,Rmv, 1983),1983), rn.,rn.,

pp.pp. 106-07.106-07. 19.19. LeonLeon Edel,Edel, Henry.James:Henry.James: TheThe HauntedHaunted YearsYears (Phila(Phila .... ].B.].B. LIppincott,LIppincott, 1953),1953), pp.pp. 16-17.16-17.

LawnLawn offersoffers somesome suggestivesuggestive thoughtsthoughts onon James'sJames's lecturinglecturing butbut tendstends toto pamtpamt thethe endeavorendeavor inin overlyoverly existentIahstexistentIahst colors.colors. See,See, "From"From TempleTemple toto Street;'Street;' pp.pp. 533-36.533-36.

20.20. GayGay WilsonWilson Allen,Allen, WilhamWilham .James.James (New(New York:York: TheThe VikingViking Press,Press, 1967),1967), passIm.passIm.

III4646 EtEt ceteracetera • SPRINGSPRING 19851985

21.21. MmgaretJamesJames toto M2rgaret James,James, JulyJuly 11,11, 1905;1905; JamesJames toto HenryHenry James,James, Jan.Jan. 2,2, 19021902 andand Feb.Feb. 8,8, 1904,1904, JFP.JFP.

22.22. Allen,Allen, op.op. eil.,eiL, p.p. 385.385. 23.23. Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp. 439-41.439-41. 24.24. JamesJames toto HenryHenry James,James, Feb.Feb. 1,1, 1906,1906, JFP.JFP. 25.25. JamesJames toto AliceAlice G.G. James,James, AprilApril 1919 [18981,[1898], JFP.JFP. 26.26. Ibid.,Ibid., Aug.Aug. 30,30, JJ903,903, JFP.JFP. 27.27. JamesJames toto Bill,Bill, Feb.Feb. 2,2, 1907,1907, JFP.JFP. 28.28. JamesJames toto GeorgeGeorge HolmesHolmes Howison,Howison, JulyJuly 2,2, 1897,1897, JFP.JFP. 29.29. Ibid.) AprilS, 1897,Ibid., April 5, J897, JFP.JFP. 30.30. Ibid.Ibid. OnOn James'sJames's speechspeech atat thethe Union,Union, seesee SanSan FranciscoFrancisco Chronic/e)Chronicle, Aug.Aug. 27,27, 1898,1898,

Calzjornian 1.1.p.p. 77 andand DailyDaily Caltfornian (Berkeley)(Berkeley) 1212 (Aug.(Aug. 31,31, 1898),1898), p.p. 31.31. James,James, Pragmalism)Pragmatism, p.p. 268.268. 32.32. JamesJames toto HenryHenry andand Bill,Bill, Dec.Dec. 4,4, 1906,1906, JFP.JFP.