Wireless Networks Primer CS577 Advanced Computer Networks.

WirelessNetworks

Primer

WirelessNetworks

Primer

CS577 Advanced Computer Networks

Wireless Networks OutlineWireless Networks Outline Terminology, WLAN types, IEEE Standards

IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n 802.11 AP Management Functions– Association, scanning

802.11 MAC Sub-Layer– DCF

• CSMA/CA• MACAW

Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks Primer

2

Wireless Networks OutlineWireless Networks Outline 802.11 MAC Sub-Layer (cont.)

– RTS/CTS– PCF

• Beacons, DIFS, SIFS

– Frame Details• PLCP preamble and header• Address fields

– Dynamic Rate Adaptation – Frame Fragmentation


3

Broad View of Wireless Technologies

Broad View of Wireless Technologies

Cellular (2G to 4G)– WiMax {long range wireless}

RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification)

WiFi

The focus here is on WiFi technologies and MAC layer issues!!


4

RFID in BriefRFID in Brief RFID uses radio waves to transfer data from an electronic tag (RFID tag or label), attached to an object, through a reader to identify and track the object.

The tag's information is stored electronically.

Some RFID tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.


5

RFID in BriefRFID in Brief An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag.

With a small RF transmitter and receiver, the RFID tag receives the message and responds with its identification information.Many RFID tags have no battery. Instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader as its energy source. Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks

Primer6

LAN, WLAN and WSN Terminology

LAN, WLAN and WSN Terminology

802.3:: Ethernet CSMA/CD

802.11a/b/g/n::WiFi CSMA/CA

802.15.4::ZigBee 802.11-based

lower data rates, lower powerBluetooth::

TDMA - wireless Personal Area Networks (PANs) that provide secure, globally unlicensed short-range radio communication.

– Clusters with max of 8: cluster head + 7 nodes

WBAN (Wireless Body Area Networks):: generally 802.15.4 or TDMA medical PANs

WSNs

7Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks Primer

Elements of a Wireless Network


network infrastructure

wireless hosts laptop, PDA, smart

phone run applications may be stationary

(non-mobile) or mobile wireless does not

always mean mobility


K & R



network infrastructure

base station (BS) typically connected

to wired network relay - responsible

for sending packets between wired network and wireless host(s) in its “area” e.g., cell towers,

802.11 access points


K & R

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

The proliferation of laptop computers and other mobile devices (PDAs and cell phones) created an obvious application level demand for wireless local area networking.

Companies jumped in, quickly developing incompatible wireless products in the 1990’s.

Industry decided to entrust standardization to IEEE committee that dealt with wired LANs – namely, the IEEE 802 committee!!


IEEE 802 Standards Working Groups

IEEE 802 Standards Working Groups

Figure 1-38. The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with are hibernating. The one marked

with † gave up.

802.15.4 ZigBee


Tanenbaum

WiMAX

IEEE 802.11IEEE 802.11The following IEEE 802.11 standards exist or are in

development to support the creation of technologies for wireless local area networking:

802.11a - 54 Mbps standard, 5 GHz signaling (ratified 1999)

802.11b - 11 Mbps standard, 2.4 GHz signaling (1999) 802.11c - operation of bridge connections (moved to

802.1D) 802.11d - worldwide compliance with regulations for use of

wireless signal spectrum (2001) 802.11e - Quality of Service (QoS) support (not yet

ratified) 802.11f - Inter-Access Point Protocol recommendation for

communication between access points to support roaming clients (2003)

802.11g - 54 Mbps standard, 2.4 GHz signaling (2003) 802.11h - enhanced version of 802.11a to support

European regulatory requirements (2003) 802.11i- security improvements for the 802.11 family

(2004) 802.11j - enhancements to 5 GHz signaling to support

Japan regulatory requirements (2004) 802.11k - WLAN system management (in progress)

About.com


IEEE 802.11IEEE 802.11The following IEEE 802.11 standards exist or are in development

to support the creation of technologies for wireless local area networking:

802.11m - maintenance of 802.11 family documentation 802.11n - OFDM version at 248 Mbps; MIMO version up to 600

Mbps** formally voted into the standard in September 2009! 802.11p- Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment 802.11r - fast roaming support via Basic Service Set

transitions 802.11s - ESS mesh networking for access points 802.11t - Wireless Performance Prediction - recommendation

for testing standards and metrics 802.11u - internetworking with 3G / cellular and other forms of

external networks 802.11v - wireless network management / device configuration 802.11w - Protected Management Frames security

enhancement 802.11x- skipped (generic name for the 802.11 family) 802.11y - Contention Based Protocol for interference

avoidance

About.com


Wireless Link StandardsWireless Link Standards

Indoor10-30m

Outdoor50-200m

Mid-rangeoutdoor200m – 4 Km

Long-rangeoutdoor5Km – 20 Km

.056

.384

1

45-11

54

IS-95, CDMA, GSM 2G

UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000 3G

802.15

802.11b

802.11a,g

UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO 3G cellularenhanced

802.16 (WiMAX)

802.11a,g point-to-point

200 802.11n

Dat

a ra

te (

Mbp

s) data


K & R

Wireless Link Characteristics Wireless Link Characteristics Differences from wired link…

decreased signal strength: radio signal attenuates as it propagates through matter (path loss).

interference from other sources: standardized wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared by other devices (e.g., phone); devices (motors) interfere as well.

multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off objects ground, arriving ad destination at slightly different times.

…. makes communication across (even a point to point) wireless link much more difficult. 15Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks

Primer

Classification of Wireless Networks

Classification of Wireless Networks

Base Station:: all communication via an Access Point (AP) {hub topology}. Other nodes can be fixed or mobile.

Infrastructure Wireless:: AP is connected to the wired Internet.

Ad Hoc Wireless:: wireless nodes communicate directly with one another.– Mesh Networks:: have a relatively stable

topology. MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) :: ad hoc nodes are mobile. 16Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks

Primer

Wireless LANsWireless LANs

Figure 1-36.(a) Wireless networking with a base station. (b) Ad hoc networking.


Tanenbaum

Infrastructure Wireless LAN

Infrastructure Wireless LAN


18

DCC 9th Ed.Stallings

Wireless Network Taxonomy

Wireless Network Taxonomysingle hop multiple hops

infrastructure(e.g., APs)

noinfrastructure

host connects to base station (WiFi,WiMAX, cellular) which connects to larger Internet

no base station, noconnection to larger Internet (Bluetooth, ad hoc nets)

host may have torelay through severalwireless nodes to connect to larger Internet: mesh net

no base station, noconnection to larger Internet. May have torelay to reach other a given wireless nodeMANET, VANET


K & R

The 802.11 Protocol Stack

The 802.11 Protocol Stack

Note – ordinary 802.11 products are no longer being manufactured.

Figure 4-25. Part of the 802.11 protocol stack.


Tanenbaum

802.11nOFDM SDM

IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer


Physical layer conforms to OSI (five options)– 1997: 802.11 infrared, FHSS, DSSS {FHSS and DSSS run in the 2.4GHz

band}– 1999: 802.11a OFDM and 802.11b HR-DSSS– 2003: 802.11g OFDM– 2009: 802.11n OFDM and MIMO

802.11 Infrared– Two capacities: 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps.– Range is 10 to 20 meters and cannot penetrate walls.– Does not work outdoors.

802.11 FHSS (Frequence Hopping Spread Spectrum)– The main issue is multipath fading.– [P&D] The idea behind spread spectrum is to spread the signal over a

wider frequency to minimize the interference from other devices. – 79 non-overlapping channels, each 1 Mhz wide at low end of 2.4 GHz

ISM band.– The same pseudo-random number generator used by all stations to

start the hopping process.– Dwell time: min. time on channel before hopping (400msec).


Media Access ControlMedia Access Control



22

IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer 802.11 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

– The main idea is to represent each bit in the frame by multiple bits in the transmitted signal (i.e., it sends the XOR of that bit and n random bits).

– Spreads signal over entire spectrum using pseudo-random sequence (similar to CDMA see Kurose & Ross Chap 6).

– Each bit transmitted using an 11-bit chipping Barker sequence, PSK at 1Mbaud.

– This yields a capacity of 1 or 2 Mbps.

Random sequence: 0100101101011001

Data stream: 1010

XOR of the two: 1011101110101001

0

0

0

1

1

1

Figure 2.37 Example 4-bit chipping sequenceP&D slide

unique codeper sender


Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Used in several wireless broadcast channels (cellular, satellite, etc) standards.

A unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set partitioning.

All users share the same frequency, but each user has its own chipping sequence (i.e., code) to encode data.

encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)

decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping sequence

Allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes are “orthogonal”).


CDMA Encode/DecodeCDMA Encode/Decode

slot 1 slot 0

d1 = -1

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

Zi,m= di.cmd0 = 1

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

1 1 11

1-1- 1- 1-

slot 0channeloutput

slot 1channeloutput

channel output Zi,m

sender

code

databits

slot 1 slot 0

d1 = -1d0 = 1

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

1 1 1 1

1- 1- 1- 1-

1 1 11

1-1- 1- 1-

slot 0channeloutput

slot 1channeloutputreceiver

code

receivedinput

Di = S Zi,m.cmm=1

M

M


Bit width

K & R

CDMA: Two-Sender InterferenceCDMA: Two-Sender Interference


K & R



802.11a OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Divisional Multiplexing)

– Compatible with European HiperLan2.– 54 Mbps in wider 5.5 GHz band transmission range

is limited.– Uses 52 FDM channels (48 for data; 4 for

synchronization).– Encoding is complex ( PSM up to 18 Mbps and QAM

above this capacity).– E.g., at 54 Mbps 216 data bits encoded into into 288-

bit symbols.– More difficulty penetrating walls.




802.11b HR-DSSS (High Rate Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

– 11a and 11b shows a split in the standards committee.

– 11b approved and hit the market before 11a.– Up to 11 Mbps in 2.4 GHz band using 11 million

chips/sec.– Note in this bandwidth all these protocols have to

deal with interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones and garage door openers.

– Range is 7 times greater than 11a.– 11b and 11a are incompatible!!




802.11g OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

– An attempt to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b.

– Supports bandwidths up to 54 Mbps.– Uses 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range.– Is backward compatible with 802.11b.

Note – common for products to support 802.11a/b/g in a single NIC.


Data Rate vs Distance (m)Data Rate vs Distance (m)Data Rate (Mbps) 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g

1 90+ — 90+

2 75 — 75

5.5(b)/6(a/g) 60 60+ 65

9 — 50 55

11(b)/12(a/g) 50 45 50

18 — 40 50

24 — 30 45

36 — 25 35

48 — 15 25

54 — 10 20


30


IEEE 802.11 Physical LayerIEEE 802.11 Physical Layer 802.11n OFDM version at 248 Mbps

Physical Layer Changes:– Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output

(MIMO)– maximum of 600 Mbps with the use

of four spatial streams at a channel width of 40 MHz.

– Spatial Division Multiplexing (SDM) MAC Layer Changes:

– Frame aggregation into single block for transmission.


31

IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format

IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format


32


Larger than Ethernet frame

802.11 LAN Architecture802.11 LAN Architecture

wireless host communicates with base

station base station = access

point (AP) Basic Service Set (BSS)

(aka “cell”) in infrastructure mode contains: wireless hosts access point (AP):

base station ad hoc mode: hosts

only

BSS 1

BSS 2

Internet

hub, switchor routerAP

AP


K & R

802.11 Management Functions

802.11 Management Functions

Channel Selection Scanning Station (user) Authentication and

Association Beacon Management Power Management Mode

Beacon

BeaconReturned

ProbeSent

Adv-NetsKeating


Channels and AP Association

Channels and AP Association

802.11b: 2.4GHz-2.485GHz spectrum divided into 11 channels (overlapping frequencies).

– AP admin chooses frequency for AP.– Interference is possible: The channel can be same as

that chosen by a neighbor AP! Wireless nodes must associate with an AP.

– Node scans channels, listening for beacon frames containing AP’s name (SSID) and MAC address.

– Node makes choice for AP association {default is best RSSI}.

– may perform authentication [K&R Chapter 8].– will typically run DHCP to get IP address in AP’s

subnet. 35Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks Primer

802.11 Overlapping Channels

802.11 Overlapping Channels

802.11b/g transmission occurs on one of 11 overlapping channels in the 2.4GHz North American ISM band.

2.412

2.417

2.422 2.432 2.442 2.452 2.462 2.472 2.484

2.427 2.437 2.447 2.457 2.467

2

34

5

1

7

89

10

6 11

12

1314

Adv-NetsKeating


802.11: Passive/Active Scanning

802.11: Passive/Active Scanning

AP 2AP 1

H1

BBS 2BBS 1

122

3 4

Active Scanning (1)Probe Request frame

broadcast from H1(2)Probes response frame sent

from APs(3)Association Request frame

sent: H1 to selected AP (4)Association Response frame

sent: H1 to selected AP

AP 2AP 1

H1

BBS 2BBS 1

1

23

1

Passive Scanning(1)beacon frames sent from

APs(2)association Request frame

sent: H1 to selected AP (3)association Response frame

sent: H1 to selected AP


K & R

802.11 MAC Layer Protocol802.11 MAC Layer Protocol In 802.11 wireless LANs, “seizing the channel” does not exist as in 802.3 wired Ethernet.

Two additional problems:– Hidden Terminal Problem– Exposed Station Problem

To deal with these two problems 802.11 supports two modes of operation:

– DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)– PCF (Point Coordination Function).

All implementations must support DCF, but PCF is optional.


Figure 4-26.(a)The hidden terminal problem. (b) The exposed station problem.Figure 4-26.(a)The hidden terminal problem. (b) The exposed station problem.


802.11 Problems802.11 Problems

Tanenbaum

The Hidden Terminal Problem

The Hidden Terminal Problem

Wireless stations have transmission ranges and not all stations are within radio range of each other.

Simple CSMA will not work! C transmits to B. If A “senses” the channel, it will not hear C’s transmission and falsely conclude that A can begin a transmission to B.


The Exposed Station Problem

The Exposed Station Problem

This is the inverse problem. B wants to send to C and listens to the channel.

When B hears A’s transmission, B falsely assumes that it cannot send to C.


Distribute Coordination Function (DCF)

Distribute Coordination Function (DCF)

CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance) uses one of two modes of operation:

virtual carrier sensing physical carrier sensing

The two methods are supported by:1. MACAW (Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance for Wireless) with virtual carrier sensing.

2. 1-persistent physical carrier sensing.


Wireless LAN Protocols[Tanen pp.279-280]

Wireless LAN Protocols[Tanen pp.279-280]

MACA protocol reduces hidden and exposed terminal problems:

• Sender broadcasts a Request-to-Send (RTS) and the intended receiver sends a Clear-to-Send (CTS).

• Upon receipt of a CTS, the sender begins transmission of the frame.

• RTS,CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision Avoidance). - Can a collision still occur?


Wireless LAN ProtocolsWireless LAN Protocols

Figure 4-12. (a) A sending an RTS to B.(b) B responding with a CTS to A.

• MACAW added ACKs, Carrier Sense, and BEB done per stream and not per station.


Tanenbaum

Virtual Channel Sensing in CSMA/CA


Figure 4-27. The use of virtual channel sensing using CSMA/CA.

C (in range of A) receives the RTS and based on information in RTS creates a virtual channel busy NAV (Network Allocation Vector).

D (in range of B) receives the CTS and creates a shorter NAV.


Tanenbaum

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS Exchange

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS Exchange

APA B

time

RTS(A) RTS(B)

RTS(A)

CTS(A) CTS(A)

DATA (A)

ACK(A) ACK(A)

reservation collision

NAVdefer


K & R



What is the advantage of RTS/CTS?RTS is 20 bytes, and CTS is 14 bytes.

MPDU can be 2300 bytes. “virtual” implies source station sets the duration field in data frame or in RTS and CTS frames.

Stations then adjust their NAV accordingly!


1-Persistent Physical Carrier

Sensing 1-Persistent Physical Carrier

Sensing The station senses the channel when it wants to send.

If idle, the station transmits.– A station does not sense the channel while

transmitting. If the channel is busy, the station defers until idle and then transmits (1-persistent).

Upon collision (no ACK received), wait a random time using binary exponential backoff (BEB).


IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CAIEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA

802.11 sender1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then

Transmit entire frame (no CD).

2 if sense channel busy then Choose a random backoff time.

When channel is busy, counter is frozen.

Timer counts down while channel idle and

transmit when timer expires.

if no ACK, increase random backoff interval, repeat 2.

802.11 receiver- if frame received OK return ACK after SIFS.

sender receiver

DIFS

data

SIFS

ACK


K & R

Point Coordinated Function (PCF)

Point Coordinated Function (PCF)

PCF uses a base station to poll other stations to see if they have frames to send.

No collisions occur. Base station sends beacon frame periodically.

Base station can tell another station to sleep to save on batteries and base stations holds frames for sleeping station.

Subsequently, BS awakens sleeping node via beacon frame.


DCF and PCF Co-Existence

DCF and PCF Co-Existence

Distributed and centralized control can co-exist using InterFrame Spacing.

SIFS (Short IFS):: the time waited between packets in an ongoing dialog (RTS,CTS,data, ACK, next frame)

PIFS (PCF IFS):: when no SIFS response, base station can issue beacon or poll.

DIFS (DCF IFS):: when no PIFS, any station can attempt to acquire the channel.

EIFS (Extended IFS):: lowest priority interval used to report bad or unknown frame. 51Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks

Primer

Inter-frame Spacing in 802.11Inter-frame Spacing in 802.11

Figure 4-29. Interframe Spacing in 802.11.


Tanenbaum

Basic CSMA/CA Basic CSMA/CA

[N. Kim]

possible collision !!


802.11b Physical Layer802.11b Physical Layer

[N. Kim]

‘Adjust transmission rate on the fly’


framecontrol

durationaddress

1address

2address

4address

3payload CRC

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4seq

control

802.11 Frames - Addresses802.11 Frames - Addresses

Address 2: MAC addressof wireless host or AP transmitting this frame

Address 1: MAC addressof wireless host or AP to receive this frame

Address 3: MAC addressof router interface to which AP is attached

Address 4: used only in ad hoc mode


Internetrouter

AP

H1 R1

AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addr

address 1 address 2 address 3

802.11 frame

R1 MAC addr H1 MAC addr

dest. address source address

802.3 frame

802.11 Frame - Addresses


K & R

TypeFromAP

SubtypeToAP

More frag

WEPMoredata

Powermgt

Retry RsvdProtocolversion

2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 11 1

duration of reserved transmission time (RTS/CTS)

frame seq # (for RDT)

frame type(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)

802.11 Frame Addresses (more)


framecontrol

durationaddress

1address

2address

4address

3payload CRC

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4seq

control

K & R

hub or switch

AP 2

AP 1

H1 BBS 2

BBS 1

802.11: Mobility within Same Subnet

router H1 remains in same IP subnet: IP address can remain same.

Switch: Which AP is associated with H1?

– Uses self-learning (Ch. 5)– Switch will see frame

from H1 and “remember” which switch port can be used to reach H1.


K & R

Wireless Network DetailsWireless Network Details

All APs (or base stations) will periodically send a beacon frame (10 to 100 times a second).

Beacon frames are also used by DCF to synchronize and handle nodes that want to sleep.

– Node sets Power management bit to indicate going to sleep and timer wakes node up for next beacon.

– The AP will buffer frames intended for a sleeping wireless client and wakeup for reception with beacon frame.


Wireless Network DetailsWireless Network Details

AP downstream/upstream traffic performance is asymmetric.

AP has buffers for downstream/upstream queueing.

Wireless communication quality between two nodes can be asymmetric due to multipath fading.{Characterization paper shows this!}


Dynamic Rate AdaptationDynamic Rate Adaptation 802.11b, g and n use dynamic rate adaptation based on frame loss (algorithms internal to wireless card at the AP).– e.g. for 802.11b choices are: 11, 5.5, 2 and 1

Mbps Standard 802.11 retries:

– 7 retries for RTS and CTS– 4 retries for Data and ACK frames

RTS/CTS may be turned off by default. [Research has shown that RTS/CTS degrades performance when hidden terminal is not an issue].


6262

Node ContentionNode Contention

[N. Kim]

without RTS/CTS


Wireless Link CharacteristicsWireless Link Characteristics

SNR: signal-to-noise ratio larger SNR – easier to

extract signal from noise. SNR versus BER tradeoffs

given a physical layer: increase power -> increase SNR-> decrease BER.

given a SNR: choose physical layer that meets BER requirement, aiming for highest throughput.

SNR may change with mobility: dynamically adapt physical layer (modulation technique, rate).

10 20 30 40

QAM256 (8 Mbps)

QAM16 (4 Mbps)

BPSK (1 Mbps)

SNR(dB)B

ER

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-5

10-6

10-7

10-4


K & R

Dynamic Rate Adaptation

Mobile Node Example:1. SNR decreases, BER

increases as node moves away from base station.

2. When BER becomes too high, switch to lower transmission rate but with lower BER.

Idea:: lower data rate for higher throughput.

QAM256 (8 Mbps)QAM16 (4 Mbps)

BPSK (1 Mbps)

10 20 30 40SNR(dB)

BE

R

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-5

10-6

10-7

10-4

operating point

K & R


Note - Performance Anomaly paper shows there are other issues when wireless flows contend at AP !

6565

Rate Adaptation versus Distance

Rate Adaptation versus Distance

[CARA paper]


Figure 4-28 Fragmentation in 802.11

Figure 4-28 Fragmentation in 802.11

High wireless error rates long packets have less probability of being successfully transmitted.

Solution: MAC layer fragmentation with stop-and-wait protocol on the fragments.

66Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks

Tanenbaum

Wireless Networks Summary


Terminology, WLAN types, IEEE Standards– Infrastructure, ad hoc, MANET, Base

Station, Access Point, single and multi-hop

IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n– Differences in data rate and

transmission technologies– FHSS, DSSS, CDMA, OFDM, HR-DSSS,

MIMO

Advanced Computer Networks Wireless Networks 67



802.11 AP Management Functions– Association with AP, active and

passive scanning, beacon frames 802.11 MAC Sub-Layer

– Overlapping channels– Hidden terminal problem, exposed

station problem– DCF

• CSMA/CA• MACAW




802.11 MAC Sub-Layer (cont.)– RTS/CTS– PCF

• Beacons, DIFS, SIFS, sleeping nodes

– Frame Details• PLCP preamble and header• 3 or 4 Address fields used in 802.11

– SNR vs BER issues– Dynamic Rate Adaptation– Frame Fragmentation


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Wireless Networks Primer CS577 Advanced Computer Networks.

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