Women Empowerment: Issues and Challenges through … · Women Empowerment: Issues and Challenges...

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Women Empowerment: Issues and Challenges through the Lens of

Reservation in Panchayati Raj System

by Minaketan Bag[a]

Manjulata Jagadala

[b]

Abstract

The Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992, provides for elective posts for women. It has

been provided that not less than one-third reservation of total number of posts of Members and

Chairpersons at all three tiers of Panchayati Raj Institutions (i.e. Gram Panchayat, Intermediate

Panchayat and District Panchayat) shall be reserved for women. The women reservation has been

introduced keeping in mind the maximising participation of women in process of decision making in

Panchayati Raj System. Considering the involvement of domination on women in the society, it is

expected that the introduction of reservation policy on Panchayati Raj system may be an important

instrumental step to strengthen the participation of women in the political system. In this context, the

empowerment of Rural Women is crucial for the development of the Rural Bharat. Bringing women into

the mainstream of development is a major concern for the Government of India, the purpose of which

2001 has been declared as the "Year of Women Empowerment". In fact, it has been observed in the rural

India and particularly among the indigenous women that though they are elected, do not get the chances

to participate in the decision making process of Panchayat activities. Husbands, family members or other

village headmen play an important role in decision making process of Panchayat activities. They are

considered to be rubber stamp. Even the decision makers are considered as Panchayat representative

among the inhabitants of Panchayat. Again majority of the elected women representatives contest for only

one term in the election. It has been observed that the majority of former women representatives are not

re-elected because the seat to which they were elected is de-reserved in the next round. The data are

collected from the women representatives of Kharmunda and Tangarpali Panchayat of Bargarh district

through the case study method.

Against this backdrop the paper tries to make a humble attempt to explore the ground realities

and its effectiveness through women reservation in Panchayat Raj System.

Keywords-: Empowerment, Panchayati Raj, Participation, Issues and Challenges

[a]

Minaketan Bag,

Lecturer,

Department of Anthropology,

Sambalpur University, India.

[b] Manjulata Jagadala,

Science Teacher,

Menda High school, Menda,

District Sonepur, India.

1. Introduction

After the approval of reports of the Balwant Ray Mehta committee (1957) by the national

development councils, the state government introduced a three tier Panchayat Raj system of rural

local government and Orissa Panchayat Raj Samiti and Zilla Parishad act 1959 was passed. Since

then the Panchayat Samiti has been constituted at the block level and Zilla Parishad at the district

level. While the Gram Panchayat and the Panchayat Samiti continued to function the Zilla

Parishad continued for a short spell and was abolished in 1968. The gram panchayat had already

been constituted at the village level since 1948. The districts (now numbering 30) are divided



into bocks (a total of 314) to serve as a unit of development administration. A new act called

Orissa Gram Panchayat Act 1964 was passed in 1965 consolidating all the laws relating to Gram

Panchayats in the State. This act was amended in 1992.The 73rd

Amendment of constitution of

India has provided safeguard for women in political participation and decision making at the

grass root level at all three tiers of Panchayati Raj Institutions (i.e. Gram Panchayat, Panchayat

Samiti and District Panchayat). There are 1/3rd of the seats reserved for the women all over the

nation. The women belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) are provided

reservation in Article243D Constitution (73rd and 74th Amendment) Act, 1992 in order to

empower the women through the participation in politics. Despite of such constitutional

safeguards no eye catching participations of women have been observed in decision making

process in the local self-governance. Women reservation has led only to formal and not real

empowerment of women in the Panchayats.

2. Areas of Study

Kharmunda and Tangarpali Panchayat of Attabira block of Bargarh District has been

selected for the study. Both the Panchayat consist of 15 and 12 wards respectively. Each

Panchayats comprise of seven villages. In 2002 the Tangarpali Panchayat was bifurcated from

Gram Panchayat. These are situated at the foot hill of Barapahar and approximately 17 km from

both block as well as district head quarters.

3. Methodology

Personal interview, Case study and focus group discussion method have been followed in

order to collect information. Position holding as well as former women representatives’ are

selected as sample respondents. There are 22 ward members and 4 representatives from each

Samiti members and Sarapanch are selected for the study. In order to get information regarding

the non-participation of so called higher castes qualitative interview is conducted among them.

4. Objectives

1) Find out socio-economic profile of sample respondents;

2) Explore the willingness of women representatives to participate in the electoral

process of Panchayati Raj System;

3) Find out the role of women representatives in election/ selection process;

4) Participation of women representatives in decision making process of different

development activities;

5) Trace out the hurdles of non-participation in decision making process.

5. Review of Literature

Theories of the study

“Day and night women must be kept in dependence by the males (of) their (families),

and, if they attach themselves to sensual enjoyments, they must be kept under one’s control. Her



father protects (her) in childhood; her husband protects (her) in youth, and her sons protect (her)

in old age; a woman is never fit for independence” (ManusmritiIX.2-3; Course Pack, p.20).

“In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her

lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent. She must not seek to separate

herself from her father, husband, or sons; by leaving them she would make both (her own and

her husband’s) families contemptible” (ManusmritiV. 148-149; Course Pack, pp. 20-21).

Under Manusmriti the religious life or practice of the adult woman revolves around her

relationship with her husband or son(s). Women, within Patriarchal Hinduism, are primarily

concerned to conceive children (particularly sons) and to serve (and revere) their husbands.

After Analyzing the Balawantrai Mehta Committee Manikymba (1989) states that the

rural woman should not be considered as the beneficiary of development rather they can

contribute to the development of rural area in the process of representation and participation in

decision making process in political institution. Bhargava and Bhaskar (1996) indicate that the

women reservation system is introduced in order to increase the representation of rural women in

the rural political institution. They argue that the reservation system enhance self confidence

among the rural women. Again it will create an opportunity to raise their grievances on issues of

women and other socio- economic problem of the Panchayat in a formal forum.

Naryan (1996) explores the multi-facet objectives of women reservation under 73rd

constitutional amendment. It involves in projecting the participation of women as voter, women

as members of political parties, women as candidates, women as elected members of Panchayati

Raj Institutions and deeply involves in taking part in decision making, planning, implementation

and evaluation. Approximately half of voters of rural India belong to women, but their

participation and representation in the rural political institution is negligible. In order to enhance

the participation and representation 73rd

amendment provides opportunities to the women.

Hence, not less than one-third seats reserved including the offices of chairpersons for women in

Panchayati Raj Institution at all levels (Krishna; 1997).Indian Institute of Social Science (2000)

highlights the progress of women representatives in a study of Panchayat Raj in Haryana. It

reviewed the performance of some hundred elected women in four districts; majorities of the

elected women Panches including younger women were illiterate when elected to office. After

two years in office, they demanded literary skill and generally feel the need of education for their

daughters. Palanthurai (2001) indicates in a study of Tamilnadu that women were able to hold

the position in the Panchayati Raj Institution due to mandatory provision of women reservation.

After holding the office the mindset of the patriarchal society has been gradually changing day

by day towards the women. From his experience the Author suggests to provide necessary

facilities such as proper orientation, sensitization, capacity building, information and counselling

continuously through the organizations. The necessary facilities can help the women leaders to

perform the assigned role in a better way.



6. Findings

Socio-Economic Profile of respondents

It has been observed from the field that no woman from the higher caste come forward to

take part in the Panchayati Raj System. The women who participate in this process belong to low

ranking society in general and SCs and STs in particulars. The concept of dominant caste

(Srinivas, 1959: 1-16) is not executed in case of women is concerned. According to him “A caste

may be said to be dominant when it preponderates numerically over the other caste and when it

also wields preponderant economic and political power”. But in case of the political participation

of women belong to dominant caste is found absent in the sample area. May be due to the

prevalence of rigid Hindu belief system the women of dominant caste are restricted to participate

in the local self-governance. The empirical data shows;

Table.1: Caste-wise Distribution of Sample Respondents [N=30]

Caste Number of representatives of different portfolio Percentage

Ward members Sarapanch Samiti member

SCs 7 2 2 36.66

STs 11 2 2

50

OBCs 4 nil nil

13.33

Total 22 4 4

99.99

Source: Fieldwork

The table.1 indicates that out 30 sample respondents 11 (36.66%) participated in

Panchayat election belong to SCs community and a significant number i.e. 15 (50%) belong to

STs community. From the qualitative field data, it has been found that no woman has been

elected in unreserved seats, which indicates that caste based reservation in Panchayati Raj

institution is the main reason of women participation. Like caste the occupation is an important

factor of the socio-economic status. The table.2 indicates the occupational status of the women

representatives.

Table.2: Occupation of Sample Respondents before participation in Election and Primary

Occupation of Household Heads [N=30]

Distribution of Sample Respondents Distribution of Household Head

Name of

Occupation

No. of

Respondents Percentage

Name of

Occupation.

No. of Household

head Percentage

House Wives 2 6.66 Agriculture 6 20

Agricultural

Labour 16 53.33 Agricultural Labour 14 46.66

Wage Labour 12 40 Wage Labour 10 33.33

Total 30 99.99 30 30 99.99

Source: Fieldwork



Table 2.shows that significant number of women depend on agricultural labour and wage

labour i.e. 16 (53.3%) and 12 (40%) respectively. Like them considerable number of household

heads belong to the occupational categories, agricultural labour and wage labour i.e. 14 (46.66%)

and 10 (33.33%) respectively. The occupational patterns of the sample respondents and their

household heads clearly state that they belong to lower economic strata and they are dependent

on labour work. The caste based reservation policy has pushed them to participate in Panchayati

Raj institution. Education is another aspect which helps a person to expose outer world.

Table.3: Educational Status of Sample Respondents

Educational Qualification Distribution of Respondents Percentage

Illiterate 17 56.66

Primary 13 43.33

Secondary Nil nil

Higher Nil nil

Total 30 99.99

Source: Fieldwork

The table.3 indicates that out of 30 sample women representatives 17 (56.66%) are

illiterate and the educational status of 13 (43.33%) respondents is primary school. The

educational status of the sample women representatives is very low. They have participated in

election out of their own interest. They have come to participate in Panchayati Raj election in

persuasion of either family member or local leader. A case study of Arun (1997) in Madhya

Pradesh indicates that in most of the cases women are housewives. They come to politics for first

time and most of them are illiterate or educated up to primary level.

Willingness of Women Representative to Participate in Electoral Process

The government has finished its duty by enacting an amendment in 1992 for unfinished

agenda of empowerment of women through the reservation in Panchayati Raj institution. No

such consciousness has been created among them to participate in this process in their own

interest. They participate in Panchayati Raj institution due to mandatory provision of reservation

system. Only the policy is not enough to bring them into politics and to become a shareholder of

politics in patriarchal society. From the field information it is found that all 30 representatives

belong to non-political background and so-called low ranking society. Out of 30 women

representatives 28 maintain their livelihood with the agricultural labour and wage labour. Out of

28 representatives 12 are sitting ward member who have been maintaining livelihood by doing

both agricultural and wage labour. They also know very well that the seats are reserved for one

term for a particular caste or tribe and after the completion of five years again they have to turn

to labour or agricultural work. Again, most of them are illiterate or possess low educational

qualification. So, they hesitate to speak to highly qualified people like B. D. O., Secretary or any

officer. As a result they are not interested to participate in the election. But they are influenced to

participate in the Panchayat politics due to caste based reservation. From the field data it has



been found that earlier to the last Panchayat election particularly for the posts of Sarapanch and

Samiti member the women candidates were first selected in the village level by the elderly

members in the presence of village male folk. The information was conveyed to the concern

woman through her family member. The women representatives were persuaded by their male

folk of the family with the support of villagers. In the last Panchayat election the intervention of

political parties is found directly through the different local political leaders. The candidates are

selected on flexibility of local political leaders. There are some well educated women of so

called low ranking society living in these villages to whom the local politician do not want them

to participate in the election which indicates their ill intention to enjoy the political power

behind the elected woman. They select the women particularly for the post of Sarapanch and

Samiti member to whom they can trap easily and enjoy all power behind the portfolio. Though

the candidates can not contest the election with party banner still they are supported by the party.

The local party leaders assure to bear all the expenses of the election as a result the women of so

called low ranked social group take some interest to participate in the election. They do not have

any past experience of participating in politics. Four ward-members and one former Sarapanch

had participated in a rally at Bhubaneswar before coming into politics. But the reality in the

sample area is that whatever rallies are organized in Bhubaneswar, the local leaders take people

in free ticket in order to show their strength to the party leaders. The people also go with them

not to take part in the rallies rather to make a visit to Lord Jagannath temple, Konark and

Lingaraj. That participation in the rally may not be considered as experience. Generally the

women enter into politics due to mandatory provision of reservation. Most of the women are

from non-political background and enter into politics due to persuasion by their family members

or pressure from the village community. As a result, before knowing something about the politics

and policies level understanding, they are trapped by the male member of the family or leaders of

the community. They are kept aside in all decision making process of the Panchayats.

The qualitative information regarding the non-participation of women belong to so called

higher caste collected from the women whose male folks are involved in politics and well

educated indicate that some of them are interested to participate in the Panchayat election. But

the rigid religious belief system does not allow them to participate in the electoral process. The

elders as well as the male folk also do not like to see them in the public places or participate in

the decision making process of village or Panchayat. Some of them hesitate to participate in the

election and take decision in the presence of elders. The well-educated and socially established

women do not participate in the Panchayat election.

Participation of Women Representatives in Election Process

Generally in the sample area the people do not go to contest for the post of ward member.

The posts are selected in the village meeting by the elderly member and local political leaders in

the presence of male members of the village. Only the information is shared by the concern male

member of the family to her; no consent of woman candidate is taken regarding her candidature.



It is found that all the 22 women representatives for ward member were finalized without

contesting in Panchayat election by the elderly male members of the villages. In order to answer

the question “did you present in the meeting, you were selected? A woman Mrs. Tusabanti

Bhosagar says;

Voice-Ame meeting ke kahijimu, meeting re sabu sian saman lok thibe, dedhsasur mane

thibe, semankar samnare ame kana kahemu, ame kahele semankar mud tal nai heijiba?

Voice Interpretation-the answer given by Mrs. Tusabanti Bhosagar indicates that she is

not interested to attend public meetings of the village because she feels that the prestige

of the elder members of the village will be low because of her presence in the meeting.

At the same time she does not feel comfortable standing and speaking before the people

who may be her avoidance relatives. Mrs. Tusabanti Bhosagar is a “woman” who

represents “women” in the locality and her case is not the only case rather many similar

cases are found where the women are not interested to participate in the meeting. Their

participation in the public meeting is considered as humiliation towards the elders and

brother in laws (elders to their husband).

The posts of Sarapanch, Samiti member and Zilla Parisad are selected through voting

system. The Zilla Parisad members are not included in our study. Out of 30 elected sample

women representatives, 4 candidates from each Sarapanch and Samiti members were elected

through the voting process.

The unwillingness of women representatives are also observed in campaigning of election in

sample area. They are found as passive participants in the campaigning process. In the village

meeting they only introduce themselves and announce the names of posts they are contesting.

With that much of introduction the candidates shift the mouth speaker to the male campaigner.

They do not deliver any speech in support of their candidature. Mrs. Tapisa Bagarty the former

Samiti member of Kharmunada Panchayat;

Voice-Ame jetabele vote prachar karijauthilu mor sange amar gaonra sian lok mane bhi

jauthile. Mui arambh karuthili, mor naa au ken parthi thin thia heuchhe kahideuthili. Se

meeting thin sian mainta lokmane thisan hetir lagi mui besi naikahuthili aur mike ta

jenmane mate utheithile semanku deideuthili.Tar utaru amar lokmane baki sabu

kahuthile. Ame paile kana karmu, kenu nalkua heba, kenu Kalab ghar heba, sabu budha

budhi manku bhatta kenta milba.

Voice Interpretation- She was not telling more as the meeting was attended by the

elders’ members of the village. She was only introducing herself and announcing the

post. The male members (local leaders) were delivering speeches and telling the agenda

of their candidate.

Few hands counting close relatives women are found accompany to the woman candidate

in campaigning. But they are only passive participants of campaign group. They never speak

anything in support of their candidate. They tell it is not good in the part of a woman to go with a

group of male members. She feels lonely for which they accompany her. This indicates that they



are no more interested to be part of Panchayat electoral campaigning process. Bohra (1997)

conducted a study in Panchayat of Tamilnadu and found that despite of women electorate

constitute half of the total voters, including the women female candidates the other supporter

women hardly have interest in campaigning.

Earlier to 2012 Panchayat election the candidates were spending from their own. The

average expenditure for election per candidate was approximately Rs. 15, 000/-.The interesting

finding is that though the Sarapanch and Samiti member do not contest with the affiliation of any

political party’s but directly the candidates are supported by the political parties in 2012

Panchayat election. The expenditure of Panchayat election is increased to more than Rs. 40,000/-

. The local party’s leader motivate woman through the male member of the family to participate

in the Panchayat election. They also assure to support in all financial matter. The behind agenda

of all moral and financial support are reflected after winning of the candidates. A huge gap has

been observed between the representation and participation in decision making process of

women representatives in the sample area.

Participation of women representatives in decision making process

The enactment of women reservation in the Panchayati Raj institution helps to gradual

increase of women representation in the lower level of politics. In same way it fails to achieve

the women participation in the decision making process. The proper representation of women

does not meant proper participation. No woman representation is found in the sample area. All

the 30 women representatives agree that they do not go to participate in the public meeting where

male members remain present. The most interesting finding is that Mrs. Kishori Barik the sitting

Sarapanch of Kaharmunda Panchayat never comes to Panchayat office in her four years of

tenure. All the Panchayat activities are undertaken by her husband including the husband of all

ward members. The signatures of the candidates for the proceeding of meeting are done in their

houses by the office bearers or the male members of the concern family. She also does not know

the different development programme running in her Panchayat. According to the inhabitants of

village Kharmunda they never see her after election as she belong to the neighbouring village

Dadangapali. In a personal interview she expresses her inability to discuss with male members.

Sometimes she thinks to do so but her husband do not allow to public meeting. Mrs. Tapisa

Bagarty former Samiti member was attaining all Panchayat meeting; she alleged that her

suggestion was ignored knowingly by the Panchayat Secretary and Naib Sarapanch.

The 73rd

amendment act gives emphasis on the participation of women in the decision

making process of gram Sabha and plalli Sabha meeting. Similar trends are also found in the

study area where women are the most marginalized section whose participation is lacking in the

meeting. The study reveals that the women are not invited to Gram Sabha and Palli Sabha. When

focused group discussions are organized among the women of the sample Panchayats, it is found

that most of the women representatives hesitate to participate in the meeting as the elder male

members of the village remain present in the meeting. From the study area the entire women

ward member reported that they were not informed or invited to the meetings rather their



husbands are invited to the meeting. But in question of their willingness to participate in the

meeting, the answer was negative. They also hesitate to participate in public meeting in the

presence of a large number of elder male members. The women representatives participate

through the caste based reservation policy in the Panchayat election are first timers. Most of

them are illiterates or low literates. So they hesitate in conducting Panchayat activities. They also

fear to speak with the highly educated officials like B.D.O. Again the strong caste feeling

prevails in the sample area. As a result particularly the SCs women do not like to expose to

public place.

The patriarchal forms of socio-cultural practices become a constraint for women to

participate in the meetings. The society does not allow the women to participate in public

meeting and discussion in the presence elderly male member of the village. The presence of

women in Palli Sabha meeting in the village and Gram Sabha in the Panchayat office among the

male members of different villages is not quite an acceptable behaviour and considered as

disrespect to the male member of the meeting and family as well. Thus, hardly a woman dares to

participate in the meetings. However some extent the desire to participate in the meeting is

expressed by former Samiti member of Kharmunda Panchayat. It gives an insight into the

interest of women to be involved in the developmental process. But multi-level boundaries of

family, village and society suppress and prevent them to participate in the process. Despite of

such huddles she was interested to participate but the rotation basis of seat reservation prevent

her. In reality the rotation basis of seats reservation for women plays significant role in providing

more opportunity to the women in a large extent; but in case of interested woman candidate for

the same seat prevent to participate in the Panchayat Raj Institution. Tiwari (2009) in her study

indicates that some interested women are not able to re-elect as because the seat where they were

elected is rotated to other caste or de-reserved in the next round election. In Karamunda

Panchayat the present Sarapanch is a lady but all the political power is enjoyed by her husband.

For any discussion or matter of Panchayat the village people meet to the husband of Sarapanch.

He is mostly told and accepted as Sarapanch of Kharmunda Gram Panchayat by the people. In a

personal discussion the patriarchal form of culture and distribution of labour mind set are

observed. He expresses the duty of a woman is to cook food, distribution of food and caring of

children. She is not able to maintain the Panchayat office. The mandatory policy of women

reservation cannot empower them.

Huddles in Participating Decision Making Process

The socialization processes based upon Manu Smiriti that women are dependent on men

in different period of times are strictly prevalence in the societies Particular in the sample

area and largely in rural Odisha. After 68 years of Independence the women are not free

to participate in the public meeting. The male member of the family think the female

should be stayed inside the four wall of the house. This has been mentioned in the Manu

Smriti “Day and night women must be kept in dependence by the males (of) their

(families), and, if they attach themselves to sensual enjoyments, they must be kept under



one’s control. Her father protects (her) in childhood; her husband protects (her) in youth,

and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence”

(ManusmritiIX.2-3; Course Pack, p.20).

The bureaucratic domination in the local councils also prevents the women in

participating in decision making process.

Lack of knowledge on the programme and planning also one of the reasons of non-

participation of women in this process.

Local elites from connivance with local administration for their own interests and bypass

the needs of the mass. So the scanty participation that exists is limited only to the rich and

participation of the rural poor is minimal.

7. Concluding Remarks

It is all accepted that the reservation of women in Panchayati Raj system plays an

important role for the women representation in grassroots politics in India. Centre for Women’s

Development Studies (1999) indicates women representatives never come to acquire positions in

Panchayati Raj, if the reservation is not provided to them. It has succeeded in bringing the

womenfolk of rural India into the political forum. It is also most important that women should be

in a position to influence decision making, prepare and implement schemes for economic

development and social justice. But from the collected information from the sample area it has

been found that their participation in the process of decision making is absent. One among the

reason may be the lack of proper education. Most of women of sample area belong to so called

low ranked social strata. The literacy level among them is low. Education may not compensate

for all real life experiences or does not magically present upon recipients a fool-proof moral

compass but it provides moral courage to stand before someone and helps right from wrong. As a

result they hesitate to participate in the decision making process and transfer their elected

position to their husband or influential politician or person of that locality to administer.

Providing opportunity to the women of so called low ranking society in Panchayat matter is

relatively easy in the part of male member or political leaders to enjoy the all power behind the

scene.

The most important reason found from the sample area is the prevalence traditional mind

set among the male as well as female of sample area based on Manusmriti. All the women

express the restriction of family members that they should not go to public places. They should

be kept under dominancy of male members. Their participation in the public meeting may

humiliate the elderly member of the family and village well. There are so much of restrictions

are imposed on them in patriarchy society. Again the caste identity based on Purusasukta of Rig

Veda has been demoralizing the women of so called low ranked society to participate in public

meeting or in the process of decision making.



8. Suggestions

Here are some suggestions for the better involvement of women in Panchayati Raj for the

betterment as well as the progress of the State.

Particularly the rural women are mostly illiterates or low literates and new participants in

election process. They are unknown to the decorum of Panchayat office as well as the

rule and regulation of office with different development programmes running under the

Panchayat. In rotational basis of reservation the tenure of five year come to end in

knowing the total process and it rotates to other. So the term should extend; as they can

get time to understand the system and develop a sense of confidence among themselves

to participate in decision making process.

An important requirement for bringing about empowerment of rural women is to bring

about an attitudinal change in both men and women. The male members of society feel

that women are meant for household activities and taking care of children and their needs.

This mind set should be replaced by a feeling of equal partnership of women and men in

the society.

Interaction programmes should be organized in regular interval with the women leaders.

They should be exposed to the urban areas in order to interact with urban elected women

representatives. The successful women leaders need to be encouraged to publicize their

leadership abilities and qualities. The government should honour them in public meetings

organizes in rural area. It will encourage other rural women representatives

Attendance in Panchayat meeting should be mandatory in all level from Gram Panchayat

to Zilla Parishad. Ensuring participation in the Panchayat meeting in order to enhance

self-confidence and leadership qualities among the rural women.

They should be linked with Local NGO particularly those works on women

empowerment. For which government should provide financial support and

infrastructural facilities to them. This responsibility may be shouldered by the leaders of

women’s movement in the State. They can also provide necessary support to sensitize the

rural women.

The responsibility should also be assigned to National Literacy Mission and other

organizations engaged in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan for educating the rural men and

women regarding the significance of Panchayati Raj and empowerment of women.

Both print as well as electronic media can play vital role in encouraging the rural women

to participate in Panchayati Raj System. They can act as an agent of political socialization

for inculcating the values of gender equality and gender justice.

The course curriculum of the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels should be

modified in such way as to promote gender sensitivity among the students. Again a

special chapter should be introduced regarding the role of women in Panchayati Raj

system.



9. References

1) Arun , R,1997. “Role Of Women in Panchayati Raj”,Administrator, x11 (April-June)

2) Bhargava, B. S. and M. Bhaskar 1992. Women in Grassroots Democracy A Study of

Kerala, University of Kerala. New Delhi: ICSSR.

3) Bhora, O. P. 1997. “Women in Decentralised Democracy”, Journal of Rural

Development,16 (4): 637-683.

4) Centre for Women’s Development Studies, 1999.“From Oppression to Assertion: A Study

of Panchayats and Women in M.P., Rajasthan and U.P.”. New Delhi: CWDS.

5) Institution of Social Science, New Delhi. 2000. Status of Panchayati Raj in the States and

Union Territories of India,

6) Krishna, S. 1997. “Women and Panchayati Raj: The Law, Programme and Practices”,

Journal of Rural Development, 16 (4): 651-662.

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