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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack

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Title: Wood-Carving Design and Workmanship

Author: George Jack

Editor: W. R. Lethaby

Release Date: July 19, 2007 [EBook #22107]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

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THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES

OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS

EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY

WOOD-CARVING: DESIGN AND

WORKMANSHIP

[3]

ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF

TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.

Edited by W. R. Lethaby

The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrialand mechanic arts. It will consist of authoritative statementsby experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity,taste, imaginationthe whole sphere of the so-called "dependentarts."

BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OFBOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders,and Librarians. By Douglas Cockerell. With120 Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and8 collotype reproductions of binding. 12mo.$1.25 net; postage, 12 cents additional.

SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Bookfor Students and Workers in Metal. By H.Wilson. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-pageIllustrations. 12mo. $1.40 net; postage, 12 centsadditional.

WOOD CARVING: DESIGN ANDWORKMANSHIP. By George Jack. WithDrawings by the Author and other Illustrations.

In Preparation:

CABINET-MAKING AND DESIGNING. By C.Spooner.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

[4]

A Suggestion from Nature and Photography.See page 197.

[5]

WOOD-CARVING

DESIGN AND

WORKMANSHIP

BY GEORGE JACK

WITH

DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR

AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

1903

[6]

Copyright, 1903,

By D. Appleton and Company

All rights reserved

Published October, 1903

[7]

EDITOR'S PREFACE

In issuing these volumes of a series ofHandbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it willbe well to state what are our general aims.

In the first place, we wish to providetrustworthy text-books of workshop practise,from the points of view of expertswho have critically examined the methodscurrent in the shops, and putting aside vainsurvivals, are prepared to say what is goodworkmanship, and to set up a standard ofquality in the crafts which are more especiallyassociated with design. Secondly, indoing this, we hope to treat design itselfas an essential part of good workmanship.During the last century most of the arts,save painting and sculpture of an academickind, were little considered, and there was[8]a tendency to look on "design" as a merematter of appearance. Such "ornamentation"as there was was usually obtained byfollowing in a mechanical way a drawingprovided by an artist who often knew littleof the technical processes involved in production.With the critical attention givento the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it cameto be seen that it was impossible to detachdesign from craft in this way, and that, inthe widest sense, true design is an inseparableelement of good quality, involving as itdoes the selection of good and suitable material,contrivance for special purpose, expertworkmanship, proper finish, and so on,far more than mere ornament, and indeed,that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberanceof fine workmanship than a matterof merely abstract lines. Workmanshipwhen separated by too wide a gulf fromfresh thoughtthat is, from designinevitablydecays, and, on the other hand,ornamentation, divorced from workmanship,is necessarily unreal, and quickly fallsinto affectation. Proper ornamentation[9]may be defined as a language addressed tothe eye; it is pleasant thought expressed inthe speech of the tool.

In the third place, we would have thisseries put artistic craftsmanship before peopleas furnishing reasonable occupations forthose who would gain a livelihood. Althoughwithin the bounds of academic art,the competition, of its kind, is so acute thatonly a very few per cent can fairly hope tosucceed as painters and sculptors; yet, asartistic craftsmen, there is every probabilitythat nearly every one who would passthrough a sufficient period of apprenticeshipto workmanship and design wouldreach a measure of success.

In the blending of handwork and thoughtin such arts as we propose to deal with,happy careers may be found as far removedfrom the dreary routine of hack labor asfrom the terrible uncertainty of academicart. It is desirable in every way that menof good education should be brought backinto the productive crafts: there are morethan enough of us "in the city," and it is[10]probable that more consideration will begiven in this century than in the last to Designand Workmanship.

This third volume of our series treats ofone branch of the great art of sculpture,one which in the past has been in close associationwith architecture. It is, well, therefore,that besides dealing thoroughly, as itdoes, with the craftsmanship of wood-carving,it should also be concerned with thetheory of design, and with the subject-matterwhich the artist should select tocarve.

Such considerations should be helpful toall who are interested in the ornamentalarts. Indeed, the present book containssome of the best suggestions as to architecturalornamentation under modern circumstancesknown to me. Architects cannot forever go on plastering buildings overwith trade copies of ancient artistic thinking,and they and the public must some dayrealize that it is not mere shapes, but only[11]thoughts, which will make reasonable theenormous labor spent on the decoration ofbuildings. Mere structure will always justifyitself, and architects who can not obtainliving ornamentation will do well to fallback on structure well fitted for its purpose,and as finely finished as may be withoutcarvings and other adornments. It wouldbe better still if architects would make thedemand for a more intellectual code ofornament than we have been accustomed tofor so long.

On the side of the carver, either in woodor in stone, we want men who will give ustheir own thought in their own workasartists, that isand will not be content tobe mere hacks supplying imitations of allstyles to order.

On the teaching of wood-carving I shouldlike to say a word, as I have watched thecourse of instruction in many schools. Itis desirable that classes should be providedwith casts and photographs of good examples,such as Mr. Jack speaks of, varyingfrom rough choppings up to minute and exquisite[12]work, but all having the breath oflife about them. There should also be agood supply of illustrations and photographsof birds and beasts and flowers, andabove all, some branches and buds of realleafage. Then I would set the student ofdesign in wood-carving to make variationsof such examples according to his own skilland liking. If he and the teacher could begot to clear their minds of ideas of "style,"and to take some example simply becausethey liked it, and to adapt it just becauseit amused them, the mystery of designwould be nearly solved. Most design willalways be the making of one thing like another,with a difference. Later, motivesfrom Nature should be brought in, but alwayswith some guidance as to treatment,from an example known to be fine. I wouldsay, for instance, "Do a panel like this,only let it be oak foliage instead of vine,and get a thrush or a parrot out of thebird book."

In regard to the application of carving,I have been oppressed by the accumulation[13]in carving classes of little carved squaresand oblongs, having no relation to anythingthat, in an ordinary way, is carved. Tocarve the humblest real thing, were it buta real toy for a child, would be better thanthe production of these panels, or of theartificial trivialities which our minds instinctivelyassociate with bazaars

W. R. LETHABY.

September, 1903.

[15]

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

To the Reader,

Be you 'prentice or student, or what isstill better, both in one, I introduce the followingpages to you with this explanation:that all theoretical opinions set forth thereinare the outcome of many years of patientsifting and balancing of delicate questions,and these have with myself long since passedout of the category of mere "opinions"into that of settled convictions. With regardto the practical matter of "technique,"it lies very much with yourself to determinethe degree of perfection to which you mayattain. This depends greatly upon theamount of application which you may bewilling or able to devote to its practise.

Rememberthe laws which govern all[16]good art must be known before they can beobeyed; they are subtle, but unalterable.The conditions most favorable to yourcraft must first be understood before theselaws can be recognized. There yet remainsat your own disposal that devotion of energywhich is the first essential step, both inthe direction of obtaining clearer views andin conquering technical difficulties.

I have to thank the following gentlemenfor their assistance in providing photographsfor some of the illustrations: Messrs.Bedford Lemere & Co.H. SandlandCharlesC. WinmillW. WeirJ. R.Holliday and F. K. Rives.

G. J.

September, 1903.

[17]

Contents

PageEDITOR'S PREFACEAUTHOR'S PREFACE15LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSCHAPTER I25PREAMBLE

Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions ofWorkNecessity for Some Equality between Theory andPractiseThe Student's Opportunity lies on the Side of Design

CHAPTER II31TOOLS

Average Number of Tools required byCarversSelection for BeginnersDescription of ToolsPositionwhen in UseAcquisition by Degrees

CHAPTER III42SHARPENING-STONESMALLET AND BENCH

Different Stones in UseCase for StonesSlipsRoundMallet BestA Home-Made BenchA MakeshiftBenchCramps and Clips

[18]

CHAPTER IV48WOODS USED FOR CARVING

Hard Wood and Soft WoodCloseness of GrainDesirableAdvantages of Pine and English Oak

CHAPTER V52SHARPENING THE TOOLS

The Proper BevelPosition of Tools on OilstoneGood and BadEdgeStroppingPaste and LeatherCarelessSharpeningRubbing Out the InsideStropping FineToolsImportance of Sharp Tools

CHAPTER VI63"CHIP" CARVING

Its Savage OriginA Clue to its only Claim to ArtisticImportanceMonotony better than VarietyAn Exercise inPatience and PrecisionTechnical Methods

CHAPTER VII69THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD

Obstinacy of the Woody FiberFirst Exercise inGroundingDescription of MethodCutting theMitersHandling of Tools, Danger of CarelessnessImportanceof Clean Cutting

[19]

CHAPTER VIII82IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS

Difficulties of Selection and ArrangementLimits of an ImitativeTreatmentLight and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of aDesignEconomy of Detail NecessaryThe Word "Conventional"

CHAPTER IX88ROUNDED FORMS

Necessity for every Carver Making his own DesignsMethod ofCarving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground

CHAPTER X96THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND

Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to VisibilityPattern andFree Rendering ComparedFirst Impressions LastingMedievalChoice of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern

CHAPTER XI103CONTOURS OF SURFACE

Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes"ThrowingAbout"Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds

[20]

CHAPTER XII108ORIGINALITY

Dangers of Imposing WordsNovelty more Common thanOriginalityAn Unwholesome Kind of "Originality"

CHAPTER XIII110PIERCED PATTERNS

Exercise in Background PatternCare as to StabilityDrillingand Sawing out the SpacesSome Uses for Pierced Patterns

CHAPTER XIV115HARDWOOD CARVING

Carvings can not be Independent OrnamentsCarving Impossible onCommercial ProductionsThe Amateur JoinerCornerCupboardsIntroduction of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple inCharacterMethods of Carving Grapes

CHAPTER XV137THE SKETCH-BOOK

Old Work Best Seen in its Original PlaceMuseums to be approachedwith Caution.Methodical MemorandaSomeExamplesAssimilation of Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies

[21]

CHAPTER XVI149MUSEUMS

False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary ExhibitsEnvironment asImportant as HandicraftWorks Viewed as Records ofCharacterCarvers the Historians of their Time

CHAPTER XVII153STUDIES FROM NATUREFOLIAGE

Medieval and Modern Choice of Form ComparedA CompromiseAdoptedA List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character

CHAPTER XVIII161CARVING ON FURNITURE

Furniture Constructed with a View to CarvingReciprocal Aims ofJoiner and CarverSmoothness Desirable where Carving isHandledThe Introduction of Animals or Figures

CHAPTER XIX180THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING

Misproportion Not Essential to the Expression of HumorThe ShamGrotesque ContemptibleA True Sense of Humor Helpful to the Carver

[22]

CHAPTER XX191STUDIES FROM NATUREBIRDS AND BEASTS

The Introduction of Animal FormsRude Vitality better than Dull"Natural History""Action"Difficulties of the Study forTown-Bred StudentsThe Aid of Books and PhotographsOutlineDrawing and Suggestion of Main MassesSketch-Book Studies,Sections, and NotesSwiss Animal CarvingThe Clay Model: itsUse and Abuse

CHAPTER XXI205FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF

Intelligible Background Outline Better than ConfusedForeshorteningSuperposition of Masses

CHAPTER XXII214UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK

Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use andAbuse"Built-up" Work"Planted" Work"Pierced" Work

CHAPTER XXIII219PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE

The Limitations of an Art not Safely TransgressedAerialPerspective Impossible in ReliefLinear Perspective only Possiblein a Limited Way

[23]

CHAPTER XXIV223ARCHITECTURAL CARVING

The Necessity for Variety in StudyA Carver's View of the Study ofArchitecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own CraftImportanceof the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon theCarverCarpenters' Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too Far

CHAPTER XXV234SURFACE FINISHTEXTURE

Tool Marks, the Importance of their DirectionThe Woody TextureDependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling

CHAPTER XXVI240CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT

The Country Craftsman of Old TimesA Colony of Craftsmen in BusyIntercourseThe Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: EmbarrassingVariety of Choice

[24]

CHAPTER XXVII249ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEENBUILDER AND CARVER

The Infinite Multiplicity of StylesThe "Gothic" Influence:Sculpture an Integral Element in its DesignsThe Approach of theso-called "Renaissance" PeriodDisturbed ConvictionsTheRevival of the Classical StyleThe Two Styles in Conflict for aTime; their Respective Characteristics ReviewedCarvers BecomeDependent upon Architects and PaintersThe "Revival" Separates"Designer" and "Executant"

Notes onthe Collotype Plates265The Collotype Plates271Index305

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PageA Suggestion from Nature and PhotographyFrontispieceFig. 1.34Fig. 2.35Fig. 3.39Fig. 4.43Fig. 5.46Fig. 6.46Fig. 7.47Fig. 8.52Fig. 9.54Fig. 10.58Fig. 11.69Fig. 12.73Fig. 13.73Fig. 14.74Fig. 15.79Fig. 16.88Fig. 17.91Fig. 18.94Fig. 19.94Fig. 20.96Fig. 21.100Fig. 22.103Fig. 23.105Fig. 24.111Fig. 25.113Fig. 26.113Fig. 27.116Fig. 28.119Fig. 29.120Fig. 30.120Fig. 31.120Fig. 32.123Fig. 33.123Fig. 34. CARVINGIN PANELS OF FIG 33126Fig. 35.127Fig. 36.127Fig. 37.131Fig. 38.131Fig. 39.(a)131Fig. 39.(b)133Fig. 40.133Fig. 41.133Fig. 42.135Fig. 43.135Fig. 44.137Fig. 45.137Fig. 46.139Fig. 47.146Fig. 48.146Fig. 49.146Fig. 50.146Fig. 51.146Fig. 52.145Fig. 53.161Fig. 54.166Fig. 55.166Fig. 56.168Fig. 57.170Fig. 58.174Fig. 59.174Fig. 60.176Fig. 61.178Fig. 62.180Fig. 63.183Fig. 64.187Fig. 65.187Fig. 66.190Fig. 67.190Fig. 68.198Fig. 69.200Fig. 70.202Fig. 71.208Fig. 72.209Fig. 73.209Fig. 74.223Fig. 75.229Fig. 76.229Fig. 77.229Fig. 64.187The Collotype Plates271I.Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.III.Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in CanterburyCathedral.IIIII.Aisle RoofMildenhall Church, Suffolk.IIIIV.Nave RoofSall Church, Norfolk.IVV.Portion of a Carved Oak PanelTheSheepfold.VVIPortion of a Carved Oak PanelTheSheepfold.VIVII.Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving.By Phillip Webb.VIIVIII.Book Cover Carved in EnglishOak"Tale of Troy."VIIIIX.Book Cover Carved in EnglishOak"Tale of Troy."IXX.Book Cover Carved in EnglishOak"Reynard the Fox".

(only carved portions shown.)XXI.Carving from Choir Stalls in WinchesterCathedral.XIXII.Carving from ChoirScreenWinchester Cathedral.XIIXIII.Font CanopyTrunch Church, Norfolk.XIIIXIV.Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb.

One executed, one in drawing.XIVXV.Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.XVXVI.Pew Ends in CarvedOakBrent Church, Somersetshire.XVI

[25]

CHAPTER I

PREAMBLE

Student and Apprentice, their Aims andConditions ofWorkNecessity for some Equality betweenTheory and PractiseThe Student's Opportunitylies on the Side of Design.

The study of some form of handicrafthas of late years become an importantelement in the training of an art student.It is with the object of assisting such withpractical directions, as well as suggestingto more practised carvers considerationsof design and treatment, that the presentvolume has been written. The art ofwood-carving, however, lends itself toliterary demonstration only in a verylimited way, more especially in the condensedform of a text-book, which mustbe looked upon merely as a temporaryguide, of use only until such time aspractise and study shall have strengthenedthe judgment of the student, and enabled[26]him to assimilate the many and involvedprinciples which underlie the developmentof his craft.

If the beginner has mastered to some extentthe initial difficulties of the draftsman,and has a fair general knowledge ofthe laws of design, but no acquaintancewith their application to the art of wood-carving,then the two factors which willmost immediately affect his progress (apartfrom natural aptitude) are his opportunitiesfor practise, and his knowledge ofpast and present conditions of work. Noone can become a good carver withoutconsiderable practiseconstant, if the bestresults are to be looked for. Just astruly, without some knowledge of pastand existing conditions of practise, nonemay hope to escape the danger of becoming,on the one hand, dull imitators ofthe superficial qualities of old work; oron the other, followers of the first will-o'-the-wispnovelty which presents itself totheir fancy.

If use of the tools and knowledge ofmaterials were the only subjects of whicha carver need become master, there wouldbe no way equal to the old-fashioned oneof apprenticeship to some good craftsman.[27]Daily practise with the tools insures amanual dexterity with which no amateurneed hope to compete. Many traditionalexpedients are handed down in this waythat can be acquired in no other. Thereis, however, another side of the questionto be considered, of quite as much importanceas the practical one of handicraftskill. The art of wood-carving has alsoto fulfil its intellectual function, as aninterpreter of the dreams and fancies ofimagination. In this respect there is littleencouragement to be looked for in thedull routine of a modern workshop.

There are, therefore, two widely separatedstandpoints from which the art maybe viewed. It may be looked at from theposition of a regular craftsman, who regardsit primarily as his means of livelihood;or it may be dealt with as a subjectof intellectual interest, based upon itsrelation to the laws of art in general. As,in the first instance, the use of the toolscan not be learned without some accompanyingknowledge of the laws of art, howeverslight that acquaintance may be, themethod of apprenticeship has the advantageof being the more practical of thetwo; but it must be accepted with all the[28]conditions imposed upon it by the pressureof commercial interest and its usages:conditions, which, it may easily beimagined, are far more favorable to theperformance of dull task-work, than tothe adventurous spirit of curiosity whichshould prompt the enterprise of an energeticstudent.

On the other hand, although an independentstudy of the art offers a widerrange of interest, the student is, for thatvery reason, exposed to the risk of involvinghimself in a labyrinth of confusingand ineffectual theories. The fact is,that neither method can at the present timebe exclusively depended upon as a means ofdevelopment; neither can be pronouncedcomplete in itself nor independent of theother. The only sure safeguard againstthe vagueness of theory is constant practisewith the tools; while, to the craftsmanin the full enjoyment of every meansfor exercising and increasing his technicalskill, a general study and intelligent conceptionof the wide possibilities of his artis just as essential, if it were only as anantidote to the influence of an otherwisemechanical employment. The moreclosely these contradictory views are made[29]to approximate, the more certain willbecome the carver's aims, and the clearerwill be his understanding of the difficultieswhich surround his path, enabling him tochoose that which is practicable and intrinsicallyvaluable, both as regards thetheory and practise of his art.

If the student, through lack of opportunitiesfor practise, is debarred from allchance of acquiring that expertness whichaccompanies great technical skill, he mayat least find encouragement in the factthat he can never exhaust the interestafforded by his art in its infinite suggestionto the imagination and fancy; and alsothat by the exercise of diligence, and adetermination to succeed, he may reasonablyhope to gain such a degree of proficiencywith the tools as will enable himto execute with his hands every idea whichhas a definite existence in his mind. Generallyspeaking, it will be found that hismanual powers are always a little in advanceof his perceptions.

Thus the student may gradually workout for himself a natural and reliablemanner of expressing his thoughts, andin a way, too, that is likely to compensatefor his technical shortcomings, by exciting[30]a more lively interest in the resources of theart itself. The measure of his success willbe determined partly by his innate capacityfor the work, and partly by the amount oftime which he is enabled to give to its practise.The resources of his art offer an infinitescope for the exercise of his powersof design, and as this is the side which liesnearest to his opportunities it should be theone which receives his most earnest attention,not merely as experiments on paper,but as exercises carried out to the best ofhis ability with the tools. Such technicaldifficulties as he may encounter in the processwill gradually disappear with practise.There is also encouragement in the thoughtthat wood-carving is an art which makesno immediate calls upon that mysteriouscombination of extraordinary gifts labeled"genius," but is rather one which demandstribute from the bright and happy inspirationsof a normally healthy mind. Thereis, in this direction, quite a life's work forany enthusiast who aims at finding the bearingsof his own small but precious gift,and in making it intelligible to others;while, at the same time, keeping himselffree from the many confusions and affectationswhich surround him in the endeavor.

[31]

CHAPTER II

TOOLS

Average Number of Tools required byCarversSelectionfor BeginnersDescription of ToolsPositionwhen in UseAcquisition by Degrees.

We will suppose that the student is anxiousto make a practical commencement to hisstudies. The first consideration will be toprocure a set of tools, and we propose inthis place to describe those which willanswer the purposes of a beginner, as wellas to look generally at others in commonuse among craftsmen.

The tools used by carvers consist forthe most part of chisels and gouges ofdifferent shapes and sizes. The numberof tools required by professional carversfor one piece of work varies in proportionto the elaborateness of the carving to bedone. They may use from half a dozen onsimple work up to twenty or thirty for the[32]more intricate carvings, this number beinga selection out of a larger stock reachingperhaps as many as a hundred or more.Many of these tools vary only in size andsweep of cutting edge. Thus, chisels andgouges are to be had ranging from 1/16thof an inch to 1 inch wide, with curves or"sweeps" in each size graduated betweena semicircle to a curve almost flat. Fewcarvers, however, possess such a completestock of tools as would be represented byone of each size and shape manufactured;such a thing is not required: an averagenumber of, say seventy tools, will alwaysgive a sufficient variety of size and sweepfor general purposes; few pieces of workwill require the use of more than half ofthese in its execution.

The beginner, however, need not possessmore than from twelve to twenty-four, andmay even make a start with fewer. It is agood plan to learn the uses of a few toolsbefore acquiring a complete set, as by thismeans, when difficulties are felt in the executionof work, a tool of known descriptionis sought for and purchased with a foreknowledgeof its advantages. This is thesurest way to gain a distinct knowledgeof the varieties of each kind of tool, and[33]their application to the different purposesof design.

The following list of tools (see Figs. 1and 2) will be found sufficient for all theoccasions of study: beginning by the purchaseof the first section, Nos. 1 to 17, andadding others one by one until a set is madeup of twenty-four tools. The tools shouldbe selected as near the sizes and shapesshown in the illustration as possible. Thecurved and straight strokes represent theshape of the actual cuts made by pressingthe tools down perpendicularly into a pieceof wood. This, in the case of gouges, isgenerally called the "sweep."

Nos. 1, 2, 3 are gouges, of sweeps varyingfrom one almost flat (No. 1) to adistinct hollow in No. 3. These tools aremade in two forms, straight-sided and"spade"-shaped; an illustration of thespade form is given on the second page oftools. In purchasing his set of tools thestudent should order Nos. 1, 2, 3, 10, 11in this form. They will be found to havemany advantages, as they conceal less ofthe wood behind them and get well intocorners inaccessible to straight-sided tools.They are lighter and more easily sharpened,and are very necessary in finishing the surfaceof work, and in shaping out foliage,more especially such as is undercut.[34]

Fig. 1.

[35]

Fig. 2.

[36]

Nos. 5, 6, 7 are straight gouges graduatedin size and sweep. No. 8 is called aVeiner, because it is often used for makingthe grooves which represent veins in leaves.It is a narrow but deep gouge, and is usedfor any narrow grooves which may be required,and for outlining the drawing atstarting.

No. 9 is called a V tool or "parting"tool, on account of its shape. It is usedfor making grooves with straight sides andsharp inner angles at the bottom. It canbe used for various purposes, such asundercutting, clearing out sharply definedangles, outlining the drawing, etc., etc. Itshould be got with a square cutting edge,not beveled off as some are made. Nos.10, 11, 12 are flat chisels, or, as they aresometimes called, "firmers." (Nos. 10 and11 should be in spade shape.) No. 13 isalso a flat chisel, but it is beveled off to apoint, and is called a "corner-chisel"; itis used for getting into difficult corners, andis a most useful tool when used as a knifefor delicate edges or curves.

Nos. 14 and 16 are what are known as"bent chisels"; they are used principally[37]for leveling the ground (or background),and are therefore also called "grounders."These tools are made with various curvesor bends in their length, but for ourpresent uses one with a bend like thatshown to tool No. 23, Fig. 2, and at ain Fig. 3, will be best; more bend, as atb, would only make the tool unfit forleveling purposes on a flat ground.

No. 15 is a similar tool, but called a"corner grounder," as it is beveled off likea corner-chisel.

No. 17 is an additional gouge of veryslow sweep and small size. This is a veryhandy little tool, and serves a variety ofpurposes when you come to finishing thesurface.

These seventeen tools will make up avery useful set for the beginner, and shouldserve him for a long time, or at least untilhe really begins to feel the want of others;then he may get the remainder shown onFig. 2.

Nos. 18, 19, 20 are deep gouges, havingsomewhat straight sides; they are usedwhere grooves are set deeply, and whenthey are required to change in sectionfrom deep and narrow to wide andshallow. This is done by turning the[38]tool on its side, which brings the flattersweep into action, thus changing the shapeof the hollow. Nos. 21, 22 are gouges,but are called "bent gouges""frontbent" in this case, "back bent" when thecutting "sweep" is turned upside down.It is advisable when selecting these toolsto get them as shown in the illustration,with a very easy curve in their bend; theyare more generally useful so, as quickbends are only good for very deep hollows.These tools are used for making groovesin hollow places where an ordinary gougewill not work, owing to its meeting theopposing fiber of the wood.

No. 23 is a similar tool, but very "easy"both in its "sweep" and bendthe sweepshould be little more than recognizableas a curve. This tool may be used asa grounder when the wood is slightlyhollow, or liable to tear up under the flatgrounder.

No. 24 is called a "Maccaroni" tool.This is used for clearing out the groundclose against leaves or other projections;as it has two square sides it can be usedright and left.

In the illustration, Fig 3, a shows thebest form of grounding tool; b is little[39]or no use for this purpose, as it curves uptoo suddenly for work on a flat ground.It is a good thing to have the handles oftools made of different colored woods,as it assists the carver in picking themout quickly from those lying ready foruse.

Fig. 3.

When in use, the tools should be laidout in front of the carver if possible, andwith their points toward him, in order thathe may see the shape and choose quicklythe one he wants.

The tempering of tools is a very importantfactor in their efficiency. It isonly of too common occurrence to findmany of the tools manufactured of lateyears unfit for use on account of theirsoftness of metal. There is nothing morevexatious to a carver than working with a[40]tool which turns over its cutting edge,even in soft wood; such tools should bereturned to the agent who sold them.

With a selection from the above tools,acquired by degrees in the manner described,almost any kind of work may bedone. There is no need whatever to havea tool for every curve of the design.These can readily be made by usingstraight chisels in combination with suchgouges as we possess, or by sweeping thecurves along their sides with a chisel usedknife fashion. No really beautiful curvescan be made by merely following the curvesof gouges, however various their sweeps,as they are all segments of circles.

Tools generally come from the manufacturerground, but not sharpened. Asthe student must in any case learn how tosharpen his tools, it will be just as well toget them in that way rather than ready foruse. As this process of sharpening toolsis a very important one, it must be reservedfor another place. Should tools be seriouslyblunted or broken they must be reground.This can be done by the carver,either on a grindstone or a piece of grittyYork stone, care being taken to repeat theoriginal bevel; or they may be sent to a tool[41]shop where they are in the habit of grindingcarving tools.

Catalogues of tools may be had fromgood makers; they will be found to consistmainly in a large variety of the toolsalready mentioned. Those which are verymuch bent or curved are intended forspecial application to elaborate and difficultpassages in carving, and need notconcern the student until he comes to findthe actual want of such shapes; such, forinstance, as bent parting tools and back bentgouges.

In addition to the above tools, carversoccasionally use one called a "Router."This is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicularblade. It is used for diggingor "routing" out the wood in placeswhere it is to be sunk to form a ground.It is not a tool to be recommended for theuse of beginners, who should learn to makesufficiently even backgrounds without theaid of mechanical contrivances. Carversalso use the "Rifler," which is a bent file.This is useful for very fine work in hardwood, and also for roughly approximatingto rounded forms before finishing with thetools.

A few joiner's tools are very useful to[42]the carver, and should form part of hisequipment. A wide chisel, say about 1-1/4 in.wide, a small iron "bull-nose" plane, anda keyhole saw, will all be helpful, and savea lot of unnecessary labor with the carvingtools.

CHAPTER III

SHARPENING-STONESMALLET ANDBENCH

Different Stones in useCase forStonesSlipsRoundMallet BestA Home-Made BenchAMakeshift BenchCramps and Clips.

The stones which are most generally usedfor the purpose of sharpening carving toolsare "Turkey" and "Washita." Thereare many others, some equally good, but"Washita" is easily procured and very serviceable.It is to be had in various grades,and it may be just as well to have onecoarse and one fine, but in any case wemust have a fine-grained stone to put a keenedge on the tools. A "Turkey" stone isa fine-grained and slow-cutting one, andmay take the place of the finer "Washita."The "India" oilstone is a composition ofemery with some kind of stone dust, and[43]is a useful stone for quickly rubbing downsuperfluous steel before putting an edge tothe tool. It is better to get these stoneswithout cases, as they can then be used onboth sides, one for flat tools and one forgouges, which wear the face of a stoneinto grooves. A case may be made byhollowing out a block of wood so as totake the stone loosely; and if at one enda small notch is made in this block, ascrewdriver may be inserted under thestone when it is necessary to turn it.Two brads or pins should be inserted inholes, having their points just appearingbelow the bottom of the block. Theseprevent it slipping about when in use.These stones should be lubricated with amixture of olive oil and paraffin in equalparts. Bicycle lubricating oil is very goodfor this purpose.

Fig. 4.

For sharpening the insides of tools,"slips" are made with rounded edges ofdifferent sizes. One slip of "Washita"[44]stone and one of "Arkansas" will beenough for the present, as they will fitmoderately well most of the gouges inthe beginner's set of tools; the "Arkansas"being used for the smaller tools. The"Arkansas" slip should be what is called"knife-edged." This is required forsharpening such tools as the veiner and Vtool; it is a very fine marble-like stone,and exceedingly brittle; care must betaken in handling it, as a fall would in allprobability be fatal.

THE BENCH AND MALLET

The Mallet.The carver's mallet is usedfor driving his tools where force is required.The most suitable form is theround one, made of beech; one 4 ins.diameter will be heavy enough.

The Bench.Every carver should providehimself with a bench. He may makeone for himself according to the size andconstruction shown in the illustration,Fig. 5. The top should be made of two11 x 2 in. boards, and, as steadiness is themain feature to be aimed at, the jointsshould have some care. Those in illustrationare shown to be formed by checking[45]one piece of wood over the other, withshoulders to resist lateral strain. Propertenons would be better, but more difficultto make. It must have a projecting edgeat the front and ends, to receive the clamps.The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw"attached to the back leg for holdingwork which is to be carved on its edgesor ends. The feet should be secured tothe floor by means of iron brackets, asconsiderable force is applied in carvinghard wood, which may move the benchbodily, unless it is secured, or is veryheavy. Professional carvers use a bench[46]which is composed of beech planks, threeor four inches in thickness, and of lengthaccording to shop-room.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6

Should it not be possible to make orprocure a bench, then a substitute mustbe used. Fig. 6 gives a suggestion for[47]making such a temporary bench. The topis composed of one piece of board, 11 ins.wide and 1-1/2 in. thick. It should be about2 ft. 6 ins. long and rest on two blocksfixed about 1-1/2 in. from the ends, whichmust project, as in Fig. 6. This may beused on any ordinary table, to which itshould be secured by means of two 3-1/2-in.clamps. The height from the floor shouldbe 3 ft. 2 ins. to top of board. This givesa good height for working, as carvers invariablystand to their work. The heightcan be regulated by making the blocks, a,higher or lower to suit the table which isto be used.

Fig. 7.

Cramps.Cramps for holding the workin position on the bench are of severalkinds. For ordinarythicknessesof wood, two 4-1/2-in.screw clamps,like the one inFig. 7, will besufficient. Woodenblocks may bealso used to holdone end of thework down whilethe other is held by a clamp. These blocks[48]are notched out to fit over the thickness ofthe board being carved, as in Fig. 7.Carvers use for their heavier work a"bench-screw," as it is called; that is, ascrew which passes through the bench intothe back of the work, which may thus beturned about at will; also, if the work isvery thick, they hold it in position by meansof a bench "holdfast," a kind of combinedlever and screw; but neither of these contrivancesis likely to be required by the beginner,whose work should be kept withinmanageable dimensions.

CHAPTER IV

WOODS USED FOR CARVING

Hard Wood and Soft WoodCloseness of GrainDesirableAdvantages of Pine and English Oak.

The woods suitable for carving are veryvarious; but we shall confine our attentionto those in common use. Of the softerwoods, those which are most easily procuredand most adaptable to modern usesare yellow pine, Bass wood, Kauri pine,and Lime. These are all good woods forthe carver; but we need not at present[49]look for any better qualities than we shallfind in a good piece of yellow pine, freefrom knots or shakes.

The following woods may be consideredas having an intermediate place betweensoft and hard: Sycamore, Beech, andHolly. They are light-colored woods, andVery useful for broad shallow work.

English Oak.Of the hard woods incommon use, the principal kinds are Oak,Walnut, and occasionally Mahogany. Ofoak, the English variety is by far the bestfor the carver, being close in the grain andvery hard. It is beyond all others thecarvers' wood, and was invariably used bythem in this country during the robustperiod of medieval craftsmanship. It offersto the carver an invigorating resistance tohis tools, and its character determines toa great extent that of the work put uponit. It takes in finishing a very beautifulsurface, when skilfully handledand thistempts the carver to make the most of hisopportunities by adapting his execution toits virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrianand American, are often used, but they donot offer quite the same tempting opportunityto the carver. They are, by nature,quicker-growing trees, and are, consequently,[50]more open in the grain. Theyhave tough, sinewy fibers, alternating withsofter material. They rarely take the samedegree of finish as the English oak, but remainsomewhat dull in texture. Goodpieces for carving may be got, but theymust be picked out from a quantity of stuff.Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitutefor oak, but it is better fitted for large-scaledwork where fineness of detail is notof so much importance.

Italian Walnut.This is a very fine-grainedwood, of even texture. TheItalian variety is the best for carving: itcuts with something of the firmness ofEnglish oak, and is capable of receivingeven more finish of surface in small details.It is admirably suited for fine work in lowrelief. In choosing this wood for carving,the hardest and closest in grain should bepicked, as it is by no means all of equalquality. It should be free from sap, whichmay be known by a light streak on theedges of the dark brown wood.

English walnut has too much "figure"in the grain to be suitable for carving.American walnut is best fitted for sharplycut shallow carving, as its fiber is caney. Ifit is used, the design should be one in which[51]no fine modeling or detail is required, as thiswood allows of little finish to the surface.

Mahogany, more especially the kindknown as Honduras, is very similar toAmerican walnut in quality of grain: it cutsin a sharp caney manner. The "Spanish"variety was closer in grain, but is now almostunprocurable. Work carved in mahoganyshould, like that in American walnut,be broad and simple in style, withoutmuch rounded detail.

It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subjectof woods beyond the few kinds mentioned.Woods such as ebony, sandalwood,cherry, brier, box, pear-tree, lancewood,and many others, are all good forthe carver, but are better fitted for specialpurposes and small work. As this book isconcerned more with the art of carvingthan its application, it will save confusionif we accept yellow pine as our typical softwood, and good close-grained oak as representinghard wood. It may be noted inpassing that the woods of all flowering andfruit-bearing trees are very liable to the attackof worms and rot.

No carving, in whatever wood, shouldbe polished. I shall refer to this when wecome to "texture" and "finish."[52]

CHAPTER V

SHARPENING THE TOOLS

The Proper BevelPosition of Tools on OilstoneGoodand Bad EdgeStroppingPaste andLeatherCareless SharpeningRubbing Outthe InsideStropping Fine ToolsImportanceof Sharp Tools.

Having given this brief description ofthe tools and materials used by carvers,we shall suppose a piece of work is aboutto be started. The first thing the carverwill require to do is to sharpen his tools.That is, if we may assume that they havejust come from the manufacturer, groundbut not yet brought to an edge. It will beseen that each has a long bevel ending ina blunt ridge where the cutting edgeshould be. We shall take the chisel No.10 and sharpen that first, as it is the easiestto do, and so get a little practise before wetry the gouges. The oilstone and oil havealready been described. The first thing isto well oil the stone and lay it on the benchin a position with its end toward the operator.

A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD

B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD

Fig. 8.

Tools which are going to be used in[53]soft wood require rather a longer beveland more acute edge than when they arewanted for hard wood. Both angles areshown in Fig. 8. Lay the flat of the toolon the stone at an angle of about 15, withthe handle in the hollow of the right hand,and two fingers of the left pressed uponthe blade as near to the stone as possible.Then begin rubbing the tool from end toend of the stone, taking care not to rockthe right hand up and down, but to keepit as level as possible throughout thestroke, bearing heavily on the blade withthe left hand, to keep it well in contactwith the stone. Rocking produces arounded edge which is fatal to keenness.[54]C (Fig. 9) gives approximately, to an enlargedscale, the sections of a good edge,and D that of an imperfect one.

C. GOOD CUTTING EDGED. BADLY FORMED EDGE.Fig. 9.

Practise alone will familiarize the musclesof the wrist with the proper motion, but itis important to acquire this in order toform the correct habit early. It shouldbe practised very slowly at first, until thehands get accustomed to the movements.When one side of the tool has been rubbedbright as far as the cutting edge, turn itover and treat the other in the same way.Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbedon both sides, in the proportion of abouttwo-thirds outside to one-third inside.When a keen edge has been formed, whichcan easily be tested by gently applying thefinger, it should be stropped on a piece ofstout leather. It will be found, if the finger[55]is passed down the tool and over its edge,that the stoning has turned up a burr. Thismust be removed by stropping on bothsides alternately. A paste composed ofemery and crocus powders mixed withgrease is used to smear the leather beforestropping; this can either be procured atthe tool shop, or made by the carver.When the tool has been sufficientlystropped, and all burr removed, it isready for use, but it is as well to try it ona piece of wood first, and test it for burr,and if necessary strop it again.

Before we leave this tool, however, weshall anticipate a little, and look at it afterit has been used for some time and becomeblunt. Its cutting edge and the bevelabove it are now polished to a high degree,owing to friction with the wood. We layit on the stone, taking care to preserve theoriginal angle (15). We find on lookingat the tool after a little rubbing that thistime it presents a bright rim along theedge in contrast with the gray steel whichhas been in contact with the stone. Thisbright rim is part of the polished surfacethe whole bevel had before we began thissecond sharpening, which proves that theactual edge has not yet touched the stone.[56]We are tempted to lift the right handever so little, and so get rid of this brightrim (sometimes called the "candle"); weshall thus get an edge quicker than if wehave to rub away all the steel behind it.We do this, and soon get our edge; thebright rim has disappeared, but we havedone an unwise thing, and have not savedmuch time, because we have begun tomake a rounded edge, which, if carried alittle farther, will make the tool uselessuntil it is reground. There is no help forit: time must be spent and trouble taken insharpening tools; with method and carethere need be very little grinding, unlesstools are actually broken.

To resume our lesson in tool-sharpening:we can not do much carving with onechisel, so we shall now take up gouge No.2 as being the least difficult. This beinga rounded tool, we must turn the stoneover and use the side we have determinedto keep for gouges, etc. We commencerubbing it up and down the stone in thesame manner as described for the chisel,but, in addition, we have now anothermotion. To bring all the parts of theedge into contact with the stone thegouge must be rolled from side to side[57]as it goes up and down. To accomplishthis the wrist should be slowly practiseduntil it gets into step with the up anddown motions; it matters very littlewhether one turn of the tool is given toone passage along the stone, or only oneturn to many up and down rubbings. Themain thing is evenness of rubbing all alongthe circular edge, as if one part gets morethan its share the edge becomes wavy,which is a thing to be avoided as muchas possible. When the outside has beencleanly rubbed up to the edge, the inside[58]is to be rubbed out with the Washita slipand oil to the extent of about half as muchas the outside. The handle of the toolshould be grasped in the left hand, whileits blade rests on a block of wood, or onthe oilstone. Hold the slip between thefingers and thumb, slanting a little overthe inner edge; and work it in a seriesof short downward strokes, beginningthe stroke at one corner of the gouge andleaving off at the other (see Fig. 10).Strop the outside of the tool, and testfor burr, then lay the leather over thehandle of another tool and strop the inside,repeating the operation until all burrhas been removed, when probably the toolwill be ready for use.

Fig. 10.

The Veiner requires the same kind oftreatment, only as this tool is not part ofa circle in its section (having straightsides), only one-half must be done at atime; and it is as well to give the straightsides one stroke or so in every half-dozenall to itself to keep it in shape. Caremust be taken with this tool as it is easilyrubbed out of shape. The inside must befinished off with the Arkansas knife-edgedslip, one side at a time, as it is impossibleto sweep out the whole section of these[59]deep tools at one stroke. Stropping mustfollow as before, but as this tool is so smallthat the leather will not enter its hollow,the leather must be laid down flat and thehollow of the tool drawn along its edgeuntil it makes a little ridge for itself whichfills the hollow and clears off burr (seeFig. 11); if any such adheres outside, aslight rub on the Arkansas stone will probablyremove it. When the edges of thetools begin to get dull, it often happensthat they only require to be stropped, whichshould be frequently done. As the treatmentof all gouges is more or less likewhat has been described, practise will enablethe student to adapt it to the shapeof the tool which requires his attention.There remains only the V tool, the Spoontools, and the Maccaroni, which all requirespecial attention. The point of the V[60]tool is so acute that it becomes difficultto clear the inside. A knife-edged slip isused for this purpose, and it is well alsoto cut a slip of wood to a thin edge, andafter rubbing it with paste and oil, passit down frequently over the point betweenthe sides. Unless a very sharp point isobtained, this tool is practically useless;the least speck of burr or dullness willstop its progress or tear up the wood. Insharpening it, the sides should be pressedfirmly on the stone, watching it every nowand then to see what effect is being produced.If a gap begins to appear on oneside, as it often does, then rub the otherside until it disappears, taking care tobear more heavily on the point of thetool than elsewhere. If the sides get outof shape, pass the tool along the stone,holding it at right angles to the side ofthe stone, but at the proper angle ofelevation; in this case the tool is held nearits end, between fingers and thumb. Spoontools must be held to the stone at a muchhigher angle until the cutting edge is inthe right relation to the surface, or theymay be drawn sidewise along it, takingcare that every part of the edge comes incontact and receives an equal amount of[61]rubbing. These may be treated halfat a time, or all round, according to thesize and depth of the tool. Howeverit is produced, the one thing essential is along straight-sectioned cutting bevel, nota rounded or obtuse one. Strop the insideby folding up the leather into a littleroll or ball until it fills the hollow of thetool.

Fig. 11.

For the small set of tools described inChapter II one flat oilstone and two slipswill be found sufficient for a beginning,but as a matter of fact, it will be advisable,as the number of tools is enlarged,to obtain slips of curves correspondingto the hollows of all gouges as nearly aspossible. Many professional carvers havesets of these slips for the insides of tools,varying in curves which exactly fit everyhollow tool they possess, including a triangularone for the inside of the V tool.The same rule sometimes applies to thesweeps of the outsides of gouges, for these,corresponding channels are ground out inflat stones, a process which is both difficultand laborious. If the insides aredealt with on fitting slips, which may beeasily adapted to the purpose by applicationto a grindstone, the outsides are not[62]so difficult to manage, so that groovedstones may be dispensed with.

Before we leave the subject of sharpeningtools it will be well to impress uponthe beginner the extreme importance ofkeeping his tools in good order. When atool is really sharp it whistles as it works;a dull tool makes dull work, and thecarver loses both time and temper. Therecan be no doubt that the great technicalskill shown in the works of GrinlingGibbons and his followers could not havebeen arrived at without the help of extraordinarilysharp tools. Tools not merelysharpened and then used until they becamedull, but tools that were always sharp,and never allowed to approach dullness.Sharpening tools is indeed an art in itself,and like other arts has its votaries, whosuccessfully conquer its difficulties withapparent ease, while others are baffled atevery point. Impatience is the stumbling-blockin such operations. Those mostpainstaking people, the Chinese, accordingto all accounts, put magic into theirsharpening stones; the keenness of theirblades being only equaled by that of theirwits in all such matters of delicate application.To make a good beginning is[63]a great point gained. To carefully examineevery tool, and at the expense oftime correct the faults of management, isthe only way to become expert in sharpeningtools.

CHAPTER VI

CHIP CARVING

Its Savage OriginA Clue to its onlyClaim to ArtisticImportanceMonotony better than VarietyAnExercise in Impatience and PrecisionTechnicalMethods.

One of the simplest forms of wood-carvingis that known as "chip" carving.This kind of work is by no means ofmodern origin, as its development may betraced to a source in the barbaric instinctfor decoration common to the ancient inhabitantsof New Zealand and other SouthSea Islands. Technically, and with moderntools, it is a form of the art which demandsbut little skill, save in the matter of precisionand patient repetition. As practisedby its savage masters, the perfectionof these two qualities elevates their work tothe dignity of a real art. It is difficult to[64]conceive the contradictory fact, that thisapparently simple form of art was once theexponent of a struggling desire for refinementon the part of fierce and warlike men,and that it should, under the influence ofpolite society, become the all-too-easy taskof esthetically minded schoolgirls. Inthe hands of those warrior artists, andwith the tools at their command, mostlyfashioned from sharpened fish-bones andsuch like rude materials, it was an artwhich required the equivalent of many fineartistic qualities, as such are understood bymore cultivated nations. The marvelousdexterity and determined purpose evincedin the laborious decoration of canoe paddles,ax-handles, and other weapons, is,under such technical disabilities as to tools,really very impressive. This being so,there is no inherent reason why such arudimentary form of the art as "chip"carving should not be practised in a wayconsistent with its true nature and limitations.As its elemental distinctions are sofew, and its methods so simple, it followsthat in recognizing such limitations, weshall make the most of our design. Instead,then, of trusting to a forced variety, let usseek for its strong point in an opposite[65]direction, and by the monotonous repetitionof basket-like patterns, win the not-to-be-despisedpraise which is due to patienceand perseverance. In this way only cansuch a restricted form of artistic expressionbecome in the least degree interesting.The designs usually associated with the"civilized" practise of this work are,generally speaking, of the kind known as"geometric," that is to say, composed ofcircles and straight lines intersecting eachother in complicated pattern. Now the"variety" obtained in this manner, as contrastedwith the dignified monotony of thesavage's method, is the note which marksa weak desire to attain great results withlittle effort. The "variety," as such, iswholly mechanical, the technical difficulties,with modern tools at command,are felt at a glance to be very trifling;therefore such designs are quite unsuitableto the kind of work, if human sympathiesare to be excited in a reasonable way.

An important fact in connection withthis kind of design is that most of thesegeometric patterns are, apart from theiruncomfortable "variety," based on toolarge a scale as to detail. All the laboriouscarving on paddles and clubs, such as[66]may be seen in our museums, is foundedupon a scale of detail in which the holesvary in size from 1/16 to something under1/4 in. their longest way, only in specialplaces, such as borders, etc., attaining alarger size. Such variety as the artist haspermitted himself being confined to theoccasional introduction of a circular form,but mostly obtained by a subtle change inthe proportion of the holes, or by analternate emphasis upon perpendicular orhorizontal lines.

As a test of endurance, and as an experimentaleffort with carving tools, I setyou this exercise. In Fig. 12 you will finda pattern taken from one of those SouthSea carvings which we have been considering.Now, take one of the articles sooften disfigured with childish and hastyefforts to cover a surface with so-called"art work," such as the side of a bellowsor the surface of a bread-plate, and on itcarve this pattern, repeating the same-shapedholes until you fill the entire space.By the time you have completed it youwill begin to understand and appreciateone of the fundamental qualities whichmust go toward the making of a carver,namely, patience; and you will have produced[69]a thing which may give you pleasantsurprises, in the unexpected but verynatural admiration it elicits from yourfriends.

Fig. 12.

Having drawn the pattern on yourwood, ruling the lines to measurement,and being careful to keep your lines thinand clear as drawn with a somewhat hardpencil, proceed to cut out the holes withthe chisel, No. 11 on our list, 1/4 in. wide.It will serve the purpose much better thanthe knife usually sold for this kind ofwork, and will be giving you useful practisewith a very necessary carving tool.The corner of the chisel will do most ofthe work, sloping it to suit the differentangles at the bottom of the holes. Eachchip should come out with a clean cut,but to insure this the downward cutsshould be done first, forming the raiseddiagonal lines.

When you have successfully performedthis piece of discipline, you may, if youcare to do more of the same kind of work,carry out a design based upon the principleswe have been discussing, but introducinga very moderate amount ofvariety by using one or more of thepatterns shown in Fig. 12, all of which are[69]from the same dusky artist's designs andcan not be improved upon. If you wish formore variety than these narrow limits afford,then try some other kind of carving,with perhaps leafage as its motive.

CHAPTER VII

THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD

Obstinacy of the Woody FiberFirstExercise inGroundingDescription of MethodCuttingthe MitersHandling of Tools, Danger ofCarelessnessImportance of Clean Cutting.

It is curious to imagine what the inside ofa young enthusiast's head must be likewhen he makes his first conscious steptoward artistic expression. The chaoticjumbles of half-formed ideas, whirlingabout in its recesses, produce kaleidoscopiceffects, which to him look like the mostlovely pictures. If he could only learnto put them down! let him but acquire thetechnical department of his art, and whateasier than to realize those most marvelousdreams. Later in his progress it begins todawn upon him that this same technicaldepartment may not be so very obedient[70]to his wishes; it may have laws of itsown, which shall change his fairy fanciesinto sober images, not at all unlike somethingwhich has often been done beforeby others. But let the young soul continueto see visions, the more the better, providedthey be of the right sort. We shall in themeantime ask him to curb his imagination,and yield his faculties for the moment tothe apparently simple task of realizing aleaf or two from one of the trees in his enchantedvalley.

With the student's kind permission weshall, while these lessons continue, makebelieve that teacher and pupil are togetherin a class-room, or, better still, in acountry workshop, with chips flying in alldirections under busy hands.

I must tell you then, that the first surprisewhich awaits the beginner, and onewhich opens his eyes to a whole series ofrestraints upon the freedom of his operations,lies in the discovery that wood has adecided grain or fiber. He will find thatit sometimes behaves in a very obstinatemanner, refusing to cut straight here,chipping off there, and altogether seemingto take pleasure in thwarting his everyeffort. By and by he gets to know his[71]piece of wood; where the grain dips andwhere it comes up or wriggles, and withpractise he becomes its master. He findsin this, his first technical difficulty, a kindof blessing in disguise, because it setsbounds to what would otherwise be aninfinitely vague choice of methods.

We shall now take a piece of yellowpine, free from knots, and planed clean allround. The size may be about 12 ins.long by 7 ins. wide. We shall fix this tothe bench by means of two clamps or oneclamp and a screwed block at oppositecorners. Now we are ready to begin work,but up to the present we have not thoughtof the design we intend executing, beingso intent upon the tools and impatient foran attack upon the silky wood with theirsharp edges.

The illustration, Fig. 13, gives a clueto the sort of design to begin with; itmeasures about 11 ins. long by 7 ins.wide, allowing a margin all round. Thewood should be a little longer than thedesign, as the ends get spoiled by theclamps. This little design need not, andindeed should not, be copied. Make onefor yourself entirely different, only bearingin mind the points which are to be observed[72]in arranging it, and which havefor their object the avoidance of difficultieslikely to be too much for a first effort.These points are somewhat to this effect:the design should be of leaves, laid outflat on a background, with no complicationof perspective. They should have noundulations of surface. That is to say,the margins of all the features should beas nearly as possible the original surfaceof the wood, which may have just the leastpossible bit of finish in the manner I shalldescribe later on. The articulation of theleaves and flower is represented by simplegouge cuts. There should be nothing inthe design requiring rounded surfaces.The passage for tools in clearing out theground between the features must notbe less than 1/4 in.; this will allow the3/16 in. corner grounder to pass freelybackward and forward. The ground issupposed to be sunk about three-sixteenthsof an inch.

As you have not got your design made,I shall, for convenience' sake, explain howFig. 13 should be begun and finished.First having traced the full-size design itshould be transferred to the wood bymeans of a piece of blue carbon paper.[73]

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

[74]

Then with either the Veiner or V tooloutline the whole of the leaves, etc., about1/8 in. deep, keeping well on the outsideof the drawing. Ignore all minor detailfor the present, blocking out the design inmasses. No outline need be grooved forthe margin of the panel at present, as itshould be done with a larger tool. Forthis purpose take gouge No. 6 (1/4 in.wide), and begin at the left-hand bottomcorner of the panel, cut a groove about1/16 in. within the blue line, taking carenot to cut off parts of the leaves in theprocess; begin a little above the cornerat the bottom, and leave off a little belowthat at the top. The miters will beformed later on.

In this operation, as in all subsequentones, the grain of the wood will be more orless in evidence. You will by degrees getto know the piece of wood you are workingupon, and cut in such a way that yourtool runs with the grain and not against it;that is to say, you will cut as much aspossible on the up-hill direction of thefiber. This can not always be done in deephollows, but then you will have had somepractise before you attempt these.

Now take chisel No. 11, and with it[75]stab into the grooved outline, pressing thetool down perpendicularly to what youthink feels like the depth of the ground.The mallet need not be used for this, asthe wood is soft enough to allow of thetools being pressed by the hand alone, butremember that the force must be proportionedto the depth desired, and to thedirection of the grain; much less pressureis wanted to drive a tool into the woodwhen its edge is parallel with the grainthan when it lies in a cross direction;small tools penetrate more easily thanlarge ones, as a matter of course, but onemust think of these things or accidentshappen.

When you have been all round thedesign in this way with such gouges asmay be needed for the slow and quickcurves, get the wood out nearly down tothe ground, leaving a little for finishing.Do this with any tool that fits the spacesbest; the larger the better. Cut across thegrain as much as possible, not along it.The flat gouge, No. 1, will be found usefulfor this purpose in the larger spaces, andthe grounders for the narrow passages.This leaves the ground in a rough state,which must be finished later on.[76]

Now take gouges Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,and chisels Nos. 10, 11, 12, and with themcut down the outline as accurately as possibleto the depth of the ground, and, ifyou are lucky, just a hair's breadth deeper.In doing this make the sides slope a littleoutward toward the bottom. If thegouges do not entirely adapt themselvesto the contours of your lines, do nottrouble, but leave that bit to be doneafterward with a sweep of the tool, eithera flat gouge, or the corner-chisel used likea knife.

Now we have all the outline cut downto the depth of the background, and mayproceed to clear out the wood hangingabout between the design and the groundall round it. We shall do this with the"grounders," using the largest one whenpossible, and only taking to the smallestwhen absolutely necessary on account ofspace. This done, we shall now proceed tofinish the hollow sides of the panel andmake the miters. Again, take No. 6gouge and drive a clear hollow touchingthe blue line at end of panel, and reachingthe bottom of the sinking, i.e., the actualground as finished, see a, Fig. 15. To formthe miter at top of left-hand side of panel,[77]carry the hollow on until the tool reachesthe bottom of the hollow running alongthe top; as soon as this point is gained,turn the tool out and pitch it a little upin the way shown at c, Fig. 15, in whichthe tool is shown at an angle which bringsthe edge of the gouge exactly on the lineof the miter to be formed. Beginning as itdoes at b, this quick turn of the handle tothe left takes out the little bit of wood[78]shown by dotted lines at b, and forms one-halfof the miter. The cross-grain cutshould be done first, as in this way there isless risk of splintering. Now repeat theprocess on the long-grain side of the panel,and one miter is in a good way for beingfinished.

Fig. 15.

A word now about these sides of sunkpanels. They always look better if theyare hollowed with a gouge instead ofbeing cut square down. In the first casethey carry out the impression that thewhole thing is cut out of a solid piece ofwood, whereas when they are cut sharplydown they always suggest cabinet-making,as if a piece had been glued on to form amargin.

We have now got the work blocked outand the ground fairly level, and we areready to do the little carving we haveallowed ourselves. Before we begin thisI shall take the opportunity of remindingyou that you must be very careful inhandling your tools; it is a matter of thegreatest importance, if the contingency ofcut fingers or damaged work is to beavoided. The left hand in carving hasnearly as much to do as the right, only ina different way. Grasp the chisel or gouge[79]in the left hand with the fingers somewhatextended, that is, the little fingerwill come well on to the blade, and thethumb run up toward the top of thehandle; the wrist meanwhile resting onthe work. The right hand is used forpushing the tool forward, and for turningit this way and that, in fact does most ofthe guiding. Both hands may be describedas opposing each other in force,for the pressure on the tool from theright hand should be resisted by the left,until almost a balance is struck, and justenough force left to cut the wood gently,without danger of slipping forward anddamaging it or the fingers. The tool isthus in complete command, and theslightest change of pressure on either handmay alter its direction or stop it altogether.Never drive a tool forward with one handwithout this counter-resistance, as there isno knowing what may happen if it slips.Never wave tools about in the hand, andgenerally remember that they are dangerousimplements, both to the user and the work.Never put too much force on a tool whenin the neighborhood of a delicate passage,but take time and eat the bit of wood outmouse-like, in small fragments.[80]

Now we are ready to finish our panel.Take the grounders, according to the sizerequired, always using the biggest possible.Keep the tool well pressed down, andshave away the roughness of the ground,giving the tool a slight sideway motionas well as a forward one. Work right upto the leaves, etc., which, if cut deepenough, should allow the chips to comeaway freely, leaving a clear line of intersection;if it does not, then the uprightsides must be cut down until the groundis quite clear of chips. Grounder toolsare very prone to dig into the surface andmake work for themselves: sharp tools,practise, and a slight sideway motion willprevent this. Tool No. 23 is useful inthis respect, its corners being slightly liftedabove the level of the ground as it passesalong. Corners that can not be reachedwith the bent chisels may be finished offwith the corner-chisel.

Now we come to the surface decorations,for the carving in this design consists oflittle more. This is all done with thegouges. Generally speaking, enter thegroove at its widest end and leave it atthe narrowest, lowering the handle of thetool gradually as you go along to lift the[81]gouge out of the wood, producing thedrawing of the forms at the same time.A gouge cut never looks so well as whendone at one stroke; patching it afterwardwith amendments always producesa labored look. If this has to be done,the tool should be passed finally over thewhole groove to remove the superfluoustool marksa sideway gliding motionof the edge, combined with its forwardmotion, often succeeds in this operation.To form the circular center of the flower,press down gouge Nos. 5 or 6, gently atfirst and perpendicular to the wood. Whena cut has been made all round the circle,work the edge of the tool in it, circus-like,by turning the handle in the fingersround and round until the edge cuts itsway down to the proper depth. (SeeA, Fig. 15.)

Carve the sides of the leaves wherenecessary with flat gouges on the insidecurves, and with chisels and corner-chiselson the outside ones. These should beused in a sliding or knife-like fashion, andnot merely pushed forward. Finish thesurface in the same manner all overbetween the gouge grooves and the edgesof the leaves, producing a very slight[82]bevel as in section a, Fig. 13, and thispanel may be called finished.

Fig. 14 is another suggestion for adesign, upon which I hope you will baseone of your own as an exercise at thisstage of your progress.

Before we begin another, though, I shalltake this opportunity of reading you a shortlecture on a most important matter whichhas a great deal to do with the preparationof your mind in making a suitable choiceof subject for your future work.

CHAPTER VIII

IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS

Difficulties of Selection andArrangementLimits ofan Imitative TreatmentLight and DistanceFactors in the Arrangement of a DesignEconomyof Detail NecessaryThe Word"Conventional."

Broadly stated, the three most formidabledifficulties which confront the beginnerwhen he sets out to make what he ispleased to call his design for carving inrelief, are: Firstly, the choice of asubject; secondly, how far he may go inthe imitation of its details; thirdly, its[83]arrangement as a whole when he has decidedthe first two points.

Just now we shall deal only with thesecond difficulty, that is, how far maylikeness to nature be carried. We shalldo this, because until we come to someunderstanding on that point, a rightchoice of subject becomes practically impossible,consequently the consideration ofits arrangement would be premature.

There is, strictly speaking, only one aimworthy of the artist's attention, be he carveror painter; and that is the representationof some form of life, or its associations.Luckily, there is a mighty consensus ofopinion in support of this dictum, bothby example and precept, so there is noneed to discuss it, or question its authority.We shall proceed, therefore, to act uponit, and choose for our work only suchmaterial as in some way indicates life,either directly, as in trees, animals, orfigures, or by association, and as explanationthereof, as in drapery and other accessoriesneverchoosing a subject like thoseknown to painters as "still life," such asbowls, fiddles, weapons, etc., unless, as Ihave said, they are associated with themore important element.[84]

You have already discovered by practisethat wood has a grain which sets boundsto the possibilities of technique. Youhave yet to learn that it has also an inordinatecapacity for swallowing light.Now, as it is by the aid of light that wesee the results of our labor, it followsthat we should do everything in ourpower to take full advantage of that helpfulagency. It is obvious that work whichcan not be seen is only so much laborthrown away. There is approximately aright relative distance from which to viewall manner of carvings, and if from thisposition the work is not both distinct andcoherent, its result is valueless.

Then what is the quality which makesall the difference between a telling pieceof carving, and one which looks, at amoderate distance, like crumpled paper orthe cork bark which decorates a suburbansummer-house? The answer is, attentionto strict economy in detail. Withouteconomy there can be no arrangement,and without the latter no general effect.We are practically dealing, not with somuch mere wood, but unconsciously weare directing our efforts to a manipulationof the light of dayplaying with the[85]lamps of the skyand if we do notunderstand this, the result must be undoubtedlyfailure, with a piece of woodleft on our hands, cut into unintelligibleruts.

But what, you will say, has all this todo with copying the infinite variety ofnature's detail; surely it can not be wrongto imitate what is really beautiful in itself?You will find the best answer to this inthe technical difficulties of your task.You have the grain of the wood to thinkof, and now you have this other difficultyin managing the light which is to displayyour design. The obstinacy of the woodmay be to some extent conquered, andindeed has been almost entirely so, by thetechnical resources of Grinling Gibbons,but the treatment demanded by the lawsof light and vision is quite another question,and if our work is to have its due effect,there is no other solution of the problemthan by finding a way of complying withthose laws.

If I want to represent a rose and makeit intelligible at a glance from such andsuch a point of view, and I find aftertaking infinite pains to reproduce as manyas I can of its numerous petals, and as[86]much as possible of its complicated foliage,that I had not reckoned with the lightwhich was to illuminate it, and that insteadof displaying my work to advantage,it has blurred all its delicate forms intodusky and chaotic masses, would I not befoolish if I repeated such an experiment?Rather, I take the opposite extreme, andproduce a rose this time which has butfive petals, and one or two sprays of rudimentaryfoliage. Somehow the result isbetter, and it has only taken me a tenthpart of the time to produce. I now findthat I can afford, without offending thegenius of light, or straining my eyesight, toadd a few more petals and one or two extraleaves between those I have so sparinglydesigned, and a kind of balance is struck.The same thing happens when I try torepresent a whole treeI can not even countthe leaves upon it, why then attempt tocarve them? Let me make one leaf thatwill stand for fifty, and let that leaf besimplified until it is little more than anabstract of the form I see in such thousandfoldvariety. The proof that I am rightthis time is that when I stand at the properdistance to view my work, it is all as distinctas I could wish it to be. Not a leaf-point[87]is quite lost to sight, except where,in vanishing into a shadow, it adds mysterywithout creating confusion.

We have in this discovery a clue to themeaning of the word "Conventional": itmeans that a particular method has been"agreed upon" as the best fitted for itspurpose, i.e., as showing the work to mostadvantage with a minimum of labor.Not that experience had really anythingto do with the invention of the method.Strange to say, the earliest efforts in carvingwere based upon an unquestioning sensethat no other was possible, certainly noattempts were made to change it until inlatter days temptations arose in variousdirections, the effects of which have entailedupon ourselves a conscious effort of choicein comparing the results of the many subsequentexperiments.

Before I continue this subject further, Ishall give you another exercise, with theobject of making a closer resemblance tonatural forms, bearing in mind the whileall that has been said about a sparinguse of minute detail with reference to itsvisible effect. We shall in this designattempt some shaping on the surface ofthe leaves and a little rounding too, which[88]may add interest to the work. In mynext lecture to you, I shall have somethingto say about another important element inall designs for wood-carving. I mean theshapes taken by the background betweenthe leaves, like the patches of sky seen behinda tree.

CHAPTER IX

ROUNDED FORMS

Necessity for Every Carver Making his ownDesignsMethodof Carving Rounded Forms on a SunkGround.

[89]

Fig. 16.

Fig. 16, our second exercise, like the firstone, is only to be taken as a suggestion fora design to be made by yourself. It is afundamental principle that both design andexecution should be the work of one andthe same person, and I want you to beginby strictly practising this rule. It was indeedone of the main conditions of productionin the best times of the past, andthere is not a shadow of doubt that it mustagain come to be the universal rule if anyreal progress is to be made in the art ofwood-carving, or in any other art for that

[90]matter. Just think for a moment howfalse must be the position of both parties,when one makes a "design" and anothercarries it out. The "designer" sets hishead to work (we must not count his handsat present, as they only note down theresults in a kind of writing), a "design"is produced and handed over to the carverto execute. He, the carver, sets his handsand eyes to work, to carry out the otherman's idea, or at least interpret his notesfor the same, his head meanwhile havingvery little to do, further than transfer thesaid notes to his hands. For very good reasonssuch an arrangement as this is boundto come to grief. One is, that no piece ofcarving can properly be said to be "designed"until it is finished to the laststroke. A drawing is only a map of itsgeneral outline, with perhaps contours approximatelyindicated by shading. In anycase, even if a full-size model were suppliedby the designer, the principle involvedwould suffer just the same degree of violence,for it is in the actual carving of thewood that the designer should find both hisinspiration and the discipline which keepsit within reasonable bounds. He must beat full liberty to alter his original intention[91]as the work develops under hishand.

Apparently I have been led into givingyou another lecture; we must now get towork on our exercise.

Draw and trace your outline in the samemanner as before, and transfer it to thewood. You may make it any convenientsize, say on a board 18 ins. long by 9 ins.wide, or what other shape you like, providedyou observe one or two conditionswhich I am going to point out. It shallhave a fair amount of background betweenthe features, and the design, whatever itis, shall form a traceable likeness to apattern of some description; it shall havea rudimentary resemblance to nature, withoutgoing into much detail; and last, itshall have a few rounded forms in it,rounded both in outline and on the surface,as, for instance, plums.

Fig. 17.

In setting to work to carve this exercise,follow the same procedure as in the firstone, up to the point when the surfacedecorations began. In the illustration,there is a suggestion for a variety in thebackground which does not occur in theother. In this case the little branches aresupposed to lie along the tops of gentle[92]elevations, and the plums to lie in thehollows. It produces a section somethinglike this, Fig. 17. There is a sufficientexcuse for this kind of treatment in thefact that the branches do not requiremuch depth, and the plums will look allthe better for a little more. The depthof the background will thus vary, saybetween 3/16 in. at the branches and 3/8 in. atthe plums. The branches are supposedto be perfectly level from end to end,that is, they lie parallel to the surface ofthe wood, but of course curve about inthe other direction. The leaves, on theother hand, are supposed to be somewhatrounded and falling away toward theirsides and points in places. The vein inthe center of the leaves may be done witha parting tool, as well as the serrations atthe edge, or the latter may perhaps bemore surely nicked out with a chisel, afterthe leaves have received their shapes, theleaves being made to appear as if one sidewas higher than the other, and as though[93]their points, in some cases, touched thebackground, while in others the base maybe the lowest part. The twigs comingout from the branches to support theplums should be somewhat like this insection, and should lie along the curveof the background, and be in themselvesrounded, as in Fig. 18, see section a a.The bottom of the panel shows a bevelinstead of a hollow border: this will serveto distinguish it as a starting-point forthe little branches which appear to emergefrom it like trees out of the ground. Theplums should be carved by first cuttingthem down in outline to the background,as A, Fig. 19. Then the wood should beremoved from the edge all round, to formthe rounded surface. To do this, firsttake the large gouge, No. 2, and with itshollow side to the wood, cut off the top,from about its middle to one end, and reversingthe process do the same with theother side. Then it will appear something[94]like B (Fig. 19). The remaindermust be shaped with any tool which willdo it best. There is no royal road to theproduction of these rounded forms, butprobably gouge No. 1 will do the mostof it.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Here it may be observed that the fewertools used the better, as if many are usedthere is always a risk of unpleasant facetsat the places where the various marks joineach other. Before you try the plums,or apples, or other rounded fruit whichyou may have in your design, it would beas well to experiment with one on a pieceof spare wood in order to decide upon themost suitable tools. The stems or branchesmay be done with flat gouge No. 1, or theflat or corner chisel. A very delicate twistor spiral tendency in their upward growthwill greatly improve their appearance, amere faceting produced by a flat gouge or[95]chisel will do this; anything is better thana mere round and bare surface, which hasa tendency to look doughy. The little circularmark on the end of the plum (call ita plum, although that fruit has no suchthing) is done by pressing gouge No. 7 intothe wood first, with the handle rather nearthe surface of the wood, and afterward ata higher inclination, this taking out a tinychip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shapedgroove.

Now I am going to continue the subjectof my last lecture, in order to impressupon you the importance of suiting yoursubject to the conditions demanded by thelaws of technique and light. Practise withthe tools must go hand in hand with theeducation of the head if good results areto be expected; nor must it be left whollyto hand and eye if you are to avoid thepitfalls which lie in wait for the unwarymechanic.

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CHAPTER X

THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND

Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid toVisibilityPatternand Free Rendering ComparedFirstImpressions LastingMedieval Choice of NaturalForms Governed by a Question of Pattern.

Fig. 20.

By a comparison of the piece of Byzantinesculpture, Fig. 20, with the more elaboratetreatment of foliage shown in Fig. 21,from late Gothic capitals, in SouthwellMinster, it will be seen how an increasingdesire for imitative resemblance has takenthe place of a patterned foundation, andhow, in consequence, the background is nolonger discernible as a contrasting form.The Byzantine design is, of course, littlemore than a pattern with sunk holes for abackground, and it is in marble; but thoseholes are arranged in a distinct and orderlyfashion. The other is a highly realistictreatment of foliage, the likeness to naturebeing so fully developed that some of thesegroups have veins on the backs of theleaves. The question for the moment isthis, which of the two extremes gives the[98]clearest account of itself at a distance? Ithink there can be little doubt that the moreformal arrangement bears this test betterthan the other, and this, too, in face of thefact that it has cost much less labor toproduce. Remember we are only nowconsidering the question of visibility in thedesign. You may like the undefined andsuggestive masses into which the leavesand shadows of the Southwell one groupthemselves better than the unbending severityof the lines in the other, but thatis not the point at present. You can not seethe actual work which produces thatmystery, and I may point out to you, thatwhat is here romantic and pleasing on accountof its changeful and informalshadows, is on the verge of becoming merebewildering confusion; a tendency whichalways accompanies attempts to imitate theaccidental or informal grouping of leaves,so common to their natural state. Thefurther this is carried, the less is itpossible to govern the forms of thebackground pattern; they become lessdiscernible as contrasting forms, althoughthey may be very interesting as elementsof mystery and suggestive of things notactually seen. The consequence is a[100]loss of power in producing that instantaneousimpression of harmony whichis one of the secrets of effectiveness incarving. This is greatly owing to theconstant change of plane demanded by animitative treatment, as well as the want offormality in its background. The lack ofrestful monotony in this respect createsconfusion in the lights, making a closerinspection necessary in order to discern thebeauty of the work. Now the human imaginationloves surprises, and never whollyforgives the artist who, failing to administera pleasant shock, invites it to come forwardand examine the details of his workin order to see how well they are executed.

Fig. 21.

These examples, you will say, are fromarchitectural details which have nothing todo with wood-carving. On the contrary,the same laws govern all manner ofsculpturesque compositionscale or materialmaking no difference whatever. Asculptured marble frieze or a carved ivorysnuff-box may be equally censurable as beingeither so bare that they verge on baldnessand want of interest, or so elaboratethat they look like layers of fungus.

Do not imagine that I am urging anypreference for a Byzantine treatment in[101]your work; to do so would be as foolishas to ask you to don medieval costumewhile at work, or assume the speech andmanners of the tenth century. It wouldbe just as ridiculous on your part to affecta bias which was not natural to you. Iam, however, strongly convinced that inthe choice of natural forms and theirarrangement into orderly masses (moreparticularly with regard to their appearancein silhouette against the ground), andalso in the matter of an economical use ofdetail, we have much to learn from the carverswho preceded the fourteenth century.They thoroughly understood and appreciatedthe value of the light which fell upontheir work, and in designing it arrangedevery detail with the object of reflecting asmuch of it as possible. To this end, theirwork was always calculated for its besteffects to be seen at a fairly distant pointof view; and to make sure that it wouldbe both visible and coherent, seen fromthat point, they insisted upon some easilyunderstood pattern which gave the key tothe whole at a glance. To make a patternof this kind is not such an easy matter asit looks. The forms of the backgroundspaces are the complementary parts of the[102]design, and are just as important as thoseof the solid portions; it takes them bothto make a good design.

Now I believe you must have hadenough of this subject for the present,more especia