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Word-Building with Esperanto Affixes
by Don Harlow
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Copyright Notice
This material is copyright 1995 by Donald J. Harlow. Hard copies may be made for personal use only.
Any user may make one electronic copy for personal use only. All copies must contain this copyright
notice, including the date given below. No electronic copy may be located elsewhere for public access.
Links to this original copy on the World Wide Web are encouraged. Please respect the conditions of this
copyright notice; I simply don't want to have various unofficial (and perhaps not up-to-date) copies
floating around elsewhere. Date: 1995.11.26.
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Table of Contents
Participial Suffixes
Category Suffixes
Noun Suffixes
Adjective Suffixes
Verb Suffixes
Quasi Suffixes
Pseudosuffixes
Adverb Prefixes
Root Prefixes
Prepositional Prefixes
Pseudoprefixes
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True Suffixes
True Prefixes
Quasi Prefixes
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Supersigned letters are shown by a following '^'.
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Herewith follows a short and somewhat idiosyncratic discussion of the theory of Esperanto word-
formation. If you think this is going to bore you, click here to bypass it.
Zamenhof invented the Esperanto word-formation system without bothering to attempt to justify it except
by pointing out that ... it works! Couturat, the prime mover behind the Ido conspiracy, felt that this was amajor failing in the Esperanto word-formation system -- that it had no supporting theory to justify it.
(Though Ido's derivational system did not work as well in practice as Esperanto's, it at least had a
theory...)
To answer Couturat, Ren de Saussure, a member of the Lingva Komitato, began to put together a
theoretical basis for the Esperanto word- formation system. His basic theory was expanded by Klmn
Kalocsay, included by Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien in their Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto, and
eventually adopted by the Academy of Esperanto.
The basic idea behind this theory is that every root in Esperanto -- the root, not the word, is the basic unit
of Esperanto -- has an inherent grammatical quality. For example, the root ton' ("stone") is a noun, the
root kur' ("run") is a verb, and the root ru' ("red") is an adjective. Grammatical endings of -O, -I and -A
respectively are therefore redundant.
Not all Esperanto speakers were particularly happy with this essential "westernizing" of the word-
formation system; some (particularly Kalocsay's countryman Istvn Szerdahlyi) continued to insist that,
in fact, roots have no grammatical category whatsoever.
As usual, the truth probably lies somewhere in between. It is possible to categorize Esperanto roots in a
number of ways, but one of these is into the categories of object roots (ton'), action roots (kur') and
attribute roots (ru'). This leaves some questions floating around -- for instance, where do we put roots
that describe states, and which might either fall into the attribute category or be linked together, as we
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often do in the west, with actions? For the nonce, let's leave them hanging loose -- something we could
not do with the rather rigid grammatical-category description.
Still, there seems to be a nice correlation between our three categories and the three grammatical
categories of the Academy, and we can continue to speak, if we wish, of noun roots, verb roots and
adjective roots -- remembering, however, that we are not talking of word categories but simply using a
shorthand for how certain roots describe the universe. Don't forget, however, that all of these things can
be nouns (that's how we're describing them -- as objects, actions, attributes!), verbs or adjectives -- no
grammatical endings are redundant, they are necessary to determine in what grammatical function the
root is being used.
So we have O-roots, I-roots and A-roots (for convenience). What role does this play in word formation
using affixes?
Most affixes take a certain type of stem (a root or root with affixes) and convert it to another type of stem.
The argument has been made, in fact, that certain affixes cannot be attached to certain types of stem
because they simply don't take a stem of that grammatical type. But remember from above that the
grammatical type is determined not by the content of the stem but by the grammatical ending attached to
it. This means that, in fact, every stem is of potentially every grammatical type. Consequently, when you
add an affix to a stem it automatically converts that stem to the needed grammatical type just as a
grammatical ending would.
Let's try an example. The suffix -EC (a characteristic described by the root) wants to take as input a stem
that is an attribute and output something tangible, an object -- in other words A-stem -> O-stem. When we
create the word rueco ("redness"), the use is obvious. On the other hand, consider the word toneco.
Here we have input an object word ... or is it? No, we have simply treated the root as an attribute
(represented in English by the adjective "stony"), and have created the Esperanto equivalent of
"stoniness". Or what about kureco? Here I encounter a problem -- there's no English equivalent that I
know of. But the meaning should be obvious -- the characteristic associated with "to run".
With each affix given below I show what kind of input it wants and what kind of output it provides, as A-
>0 = attribute->object (I = action). X-> means that it will accept any kind of input, while ->X means that
it will accept any kind of output; X->X means that it will be transparent to the input.
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Good tables of affixes are to be found in Teach Yourself Esperanto and in Wells' Esperanto Dictionary.
The following list is culled from Kalocsay and Waringhien's Plena Analiza Gramatiko de Esperanto, 4th
edition (1980). Affixes marked with a star (*) are unofficial and need not be learned; though I would
recommend that the student learn to recognize at least -iv and -esk.
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Participial suffixes
-ant (I->A): present active participle.
fali = to fall falanta = falling.
-int (I->A): past active participle.
fali = to fall falinta = fallen.
-ont (I->A): future active participle.
fali = to fall falonta = going to fall.
-at (I->A): present passive participle.
mani = to eat manata = being eaten.
-it (I->A): past passive participle.
mani = to eat manita = (having been) eaten.
-ot (I->A): future passive participle.
mani = to eat, manota = going to be eaten.
In English, the past participle indicates only something that has already occurred; it may be active
("fallen") or passive ("eaten") depending on the category of the verb; in the latter case, it may be treated
as active (in compounds) by preceding it with the helping verb "to have" instead of "to be." In Esperanto,
there are separate active and passive participles (though the latter exist only for transitive verbs).
EXAMPLES
La arbo estis falinta = The tree was fallen (had fallen).
La arbo estis falanta = The tree was falling.
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La arbo estis falonta = the tree was going to fall.
La arbo estas falinta = The tree is (has) fallen.
La arbo estas falanta = The tree is falling.
La arbo estas falonta = The tree is going to fall.
La arbo estos falinta = The tree will have fallen.
La arbo estos falanta = The tree will be falling.
La arbo estos falonta = The tree will be going to fall.
La viando estis manita = The meat was (had been) eaten.
La viando estis manata = The meat was (being) eaten.
La viando estis manota = the meat was going to be eaten.
La viando estas manita = The meat is (has been) eaten.
La viando estas manata = The meat is being eaten.
La viando estas manota = The meat is going to be eaten.
La viando estos manita = The meat will have been eaten.
La viando estos manata = The meat will be being eaten.
La viando estos manota = The meat will be going to be eaten.
Please watch out for one annoying idiosyncracy of the participial affixes. When used with adjective,
adverb and (occasionally) verb endings, they describe a situation; when used with the noun ending, they
describe a person.
manata = (which is) being eaten
manate = while being eaten
manati = to be in a state of being eaten
but
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manato = a person who is being eaten.
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Category suffixes
-ad (I->O): shows an action or process defined by the root.
marteli = to hammer, martelado = hammering
boji = to bark (like a dog) bojado = barking
ada = continual, ongoing
-a (A->O): shows a concrete, tangible manifestation of the root.
ria = rich, riaoj = riches
havi = to have havaoj = possessions
ao = a thing
-ec (A->O): shows a quality or characteristic defined by the root.
ria = rich, rieco = richness
blua = blue blueco = blue (of something)
eco = a characteristic, quality
The noun formed by simply changing an adjective -a to a noun -o ending is slightly different from that
formed by inserting the suffix -ec; the former refers to an abstraction, the latter to a quality associated
with something. rua = red, ruo = (the color) red, rueco = redness, e.g. of paint.
-ul (A->O): shows a person characterized by the root.
ria = rich, riulo = a rich person
bona = good bonulo = a good person
ulo = a guy, dude
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Noun suffixes
-an (O->O): member, adherent, participant of the root.
komitato = committee komitatano = a committee-member
Budho = the Buddha budhano = a Buddhist
ano = a member
-ar (O->O): a collection of things defined by the root.
arbo = tree arbaro = a forest
afo = a sheep afaro = a flock of sheep
aro = a bunch, group, array
-ej(O->O): a place intended for the thing(s) or action(s) defined by the root.
kuiri = to cook kuirejo = a kitchen
prei = to pray preejo = a church
ejo = a place
-er (O->O): the smallest part or element of a collective defined by the root.
sablo = sand sablero = a grain of sand
neo = snow neero = a snowflake
ero = a unit
-estr (O->O): the boss of whatever is defined by the root.
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komitato = committee komitatestro = chairmain of the
committee
urbo = town urbestro = mayor
estro = a boss
-id (O->O): the offspring of the creature defined in the root.
kato = cat katido = akitten
arbo = tree arbido = a sapling
ido = an offspring
This suffix is often used in a very metaphorical fashion. For instance, Israelites in Esperanto is Izraelidoj;
and it is also used to show the salt produced by a halogenic acid (e.g. klorido).
-il (I->O): a tool for doing whatever is defined by the root.
komputi = to compute komputilo = a computer
trani = to cut tranilo = a knife
ilo = a tool
-in (O->O): the specifically female version of whatever is defined by the root.
filo = son filino = daughter
viro = man virino = woman
ino = a woman, female
These days this suffix is used: (1) with the words viro and knabo; (2) with honorifics; (3) with familyrelationships; (4) with animals (see also vir- below). It is rarely used with professional titles, though it has
been in the past.
-ing (O->O): a holder or sheath for an object defined by the root.
kandelo = candle kandelingo = candle-holder
cigaro = cigar cigaringo = cigar-holder
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ingo = a holder
-ism (O->O): a doctrine, movement, system, etc., for the idea defined by the
root.
Budho = Buddha budhismo = Buddhism
Markso = Karl Marx marksismo = Marxism
isma = having to do with doctrine
-ist (I->O): an individual professionally or avocationally occupied with the
idea or activity defined by the root.
urnalo = newspaper urnalisto = newspaperman,
reporter
lingvo = language lingvisto = a linguist
isto = a professional
There is an unfortunate tendency to use -ist where -an should be used, probably because -ist has this
additional meaning in many Western languages; probably the most egregious such misuse is *esperantisto
instead of esperantano for a speaker of Esperanto. Similarly, we have *marksisto for marksano (Marxist),
*budhisto instead of budhano (Buddhist), etc. Fortunately, the word for a follower of Christ in English
(with cognates in other languages such as French) is Christian; so no one has ever had any trouble saying
kristano instead of *krististo.
-uj (O->O): a container for objects described by the root.
salo = salt salujo = salt-shaker
mono = money monujo = a purse
ujo = a container
Traditionally, -uj has been used to form the names of countries occupied completely or mainly by a single
ethnic group: anglo = Englishman, Anglujo = England. Recently the unofficial or pseudo suffix -i has
been replacing -uj in common parlance. There is a good discussion of the question of country names in
Teach Yourself Esperanto, as well as in the Plena Analiza Gramatiko (the latter is, of course, more
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complete).
*-i (O->O): an unofficial suffix with four different uses:
(1) to form the name of a country from a capitol or river of the same
name.
Meksiko = Mexico City Meksikio = Mexico
Alero = Algiers Alerio = Algeria
(2) to form the name of a country from its inhabitants. See note with
-uj.
(3) to form the name of a science, etc., from its practitioner.
astronomo = astronomer astronomio = astronomy
toksikologo = toxicologist toksikologio = toxicology
(4) to form the name of a flower from that of its inventor or the
person to whom it was dedicated.
fuksio = fuchsia, from Fuchs
*-ik (O->O): an unofficial suffix to form the name of a science, etc., from its
practitioner.
poeto = poet poetiko = poetics
lingvo = language lingviko = linguistics
This is identical, and interchangeable, with use (3) of -i.
-ik is also used to show the higher of two valences with which a metal can combine. In this it contrasts
with one use of -oz.
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*-it (O->O): an unofficial suffix to describe an inflamation of the organ
described by the root.
laringo = larynx laringito = laryngitis
hepato = liver hepatito = hepatitis
-it and -at are used as special chemical suffixes to show salts produced by non-halogenic acids (see also
-id).
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Adjective suffixes
-ebl (I->A): suitable for having whatever is described by the root done to it.
legi = to read legebla = readable, legible
fari = to do farebla = doable
ebla = possible
ebli = to be possible
-ebl (able to be done) should not be confused with -iv (able to do), which is essentially a synonym for the
root pov'. Many English-speaking beginners tend to make this mistake and substitute the verb eblas (is
possible) for povas (is able to).
-em (I->A): having an inclination or tendency towards whatever is described by
the root.
ami = to love amema = loving
labori = to work laborema = industrious
emi = to have a tendency to
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-end (I->A): must have whatever is described by the root done to it.
fari = to do farenda = must be done
sendi = to send sendenda = must be sent
enda = mandatory
-ind (I->A): worth having whatever is described by the root done to it.
ami = to love aminda = loveable
fari = to do farinda = worth doing
indi = to be worthwhile
*-al (O->A): used to create the adjective form of a noun formed directly from
an adjective.
varma = hot varmo = heat varmala = thermal
rua = red ruo = red (color) ruala = having to do with
the color red
*-esk (O->A): similar to, or in the manner of, whatever is described by the
root.
japano = a Japanese japaneska = Japanesque
statuo = a statue statueska = statuesque
*-iv (I->A): capable of doing whatever is described by the root.
pagi = to pay pagiva = solvent
fari = to do fariva = able to do
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See the note with the description of -ebl.
*-oid (O->A): with the form of whatever is described by the root.
homo = human being homoida = humanoid
urso = a bear ursoida = ursoid
*-oz (O->A): used with noun roots to show the presence of a large quantity of
whatever is described by the root.
poro = pore poroza = porous
sablo = sand sabloza = full of sand
-oz is also used in a medical sense for several different types of pathology, where it usually corresponds
to the suffix osis in English medical terminology. It need not, however, be used only with Greek roots;
see the Esperanto horzonozo, jet lag. In chemistry it is used in contrast with -ik to show the lower of two
valences with which a metal can combine.
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Verb suffixes
-ig (A->I): to cause something to be in the state described by the root.
rua = red ruigi = to (cause to) turn red
fari = to do (something) farigi = to have (something) done
igi = to cause to
-i (A->I): to become in the state described by the root.
rua = red ruii = to become red
fari = to do farii = to become (done)
ii = to become
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-ig and -i are probably the two most important affixes in Esperanto. It behooves you, as a student, to
devote a lot of time to making sure that you understand their uses perfectly.
*-iz (O->I): to apply something (physically or metaphorically) to an object.
plumo = feather plumizi = to fletch
stano = tin stanizi = to tin (as in soldering)
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Quasi suffixes
These are common Esperanto roots which are relatively short and used so often as the second part of a
two-part conjoined word that they may be treated almost as suffixes.
-art (I->O): the art of whatever is described by the root.
kuiri = to cook kuirarto = cuisine
navigi = to navigate navigarto = navigation (the art)
-am (O->A): loving whatever is described by the root.
gasto = guest gastama = hospitable
mono = money monama = avaricious
-hav (O->A): possessing whatever is described by the root.
flugilo = wing flugilhava = winged
oro = gold orhava = possessing gold
-plen (O->A): full of whatever is described by the root.
oro = gold orplena = full of gold.
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humila = humble humilplena = full of humility
See *-oz.
-pov (I->A): capable of whatever is described by the root.
esprimi = to express esprimpova = expressive
pagi = to pay pagipova = solvent
This is essentially the same as *-iv.
-ri (O->A): rich with whatever is described by the root.
karbo = coal karbria = rich in coal
grasa = fat grasria = fatty
See *-oz.
-ajn (A->A): seeming to be whatever is described by the root.
vera = true verajne = apparently
blua = blue bluajna = blue-seeming
-aspekt (O->A): having the appearance of whatever is described by the root.
reo = king reaspekta = with the seeming
of a king, kingly
hundo = large hundaspekta = looking like a dog
See *-oid.
-simil (O->A): being similar to whatever is described by the root.
floro = flower florsimila = like a flower
tono = stone tonsimila = like a stone
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See *-esk.
-manier (O->A): with the manner of whatever is described by the root.
besto = animal bestmaniera = with the manner of
an animal
hundo = dog hundmaniera = dog-like
See *-esk.
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Pseudosuffixes
For etymological reasons (i.e., having to do with the origins of words in Latin and Greek), we often find
what appear to be identical suffixes on the ends of several Esperanto roots. Since the parts before these
"pseudosuffixes" are not themselves Esperanto roots, these are not real suffixes. However, it happens
from time to time that the detached "pseudosuffixes" are attached to real Esperanto words, by analogy,
and therefore they occasionally act like real suffixes. Kalocsay and Waringhien list a number of possible
pseudosuffixes, of which only -logi (showing a science) seems to have any chance at all of being more
widely used.
Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out, under this rubric, the interesting tendency of the pseudosuffixes-ci, -aci and -ici in nouns taken by Zamenhof from Latin's third declension to disappear in favor of
simpler, more purely Esperanto verb forms as time goes on. For instance, Zamenhof's navigacio =
navigation has largely yielded to navigi = to navigate, from which we get the purely Esperanto form
navigado = navigation.
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Adverb prefixes
dis- (I->I): having to do with separation, in all possible directions.
sendi = to send dissendi = to broadcast
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semi = to sow (seeds) dissemi = to scatter (seeds)
disaj = scattered
ek- (I->I): the beginning of an action described by the root.
iri = to go ekiri = to set out
vidi = to see ekvidi = to catch sight of
ek! = move it! get the lead out!
for- (I->I): away.
iri = to go foriri = to depart, leave
lasi = to leave forlasi = to abandon
fora = distant
mis- (I->I): wrongly, incorrectly, off the mark.
kompreni = to understand miskompreni = to misunderstand
eti = to throw miseti = to throw wide of the
mark
misi = to miss, to err
A Japanese friend of mine once told me that she hoped I was right in my use of the word misiloj to
describe nuclear-armed missiles. See also the suffix -il.
re- (I->I): back to the beginning again.
veni = to come reveni = to return
vidi = to see revidi = to see again
venki = to conquer revenki = to reconquer
ree = again
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*retro- (I->I): in the opposite direction.
iri = to go retroiri = to go in the opposite
direction
pai = to step retropai = to step back
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Root prefixes
ef- (O->O): greatest or most important.
ministro = minister (cabinet type) efministro = Prime Minister,
Premier
urbo = city efurbo = capitol
efa = main
vir- (O->O): male equivalent of -in for beings whose sex is usually not
considered important (except, of course, to themselves...),
and whose root form is therefore considered neuter.
kato = cat virkato = tomcat
blato = cockroach virblato = buck cockroach
viro = man, male human
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Prepositional prefixes
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Most prepositions can be used as prefixes, and commonly are. For example, veni = to come, enveni = to
enter; diri = to say, antadiri = to foretell. Worth mentioning here only because it is unofficial and rarely
used:
*cis- (O->A): on this side of.
luno = moon cisluna = cislunar, between earth and moon
limo = border cislima = on this side of the border
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Pseudoprefixes
In this category we find, occasionally, ato- (equivalent of mem-, self-) and pre-. pre- is sometimes
(rarely) used instead of the temporal meaning of anta-.
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True suffixes
Kalocsay and Waringhien distinguish between suffixoids and prefixoids (which is what, up to now, I've
called suffixes and prefixes) and genuine suffixes and prefixes. This is, I am sure, a very important
grammatical distinction for the professional linguist, but not one that an ordinary speaker will be called
upon to worry about.
-a (X->X): gives the word a shading of contempt, detestation.
evalo = horse evalao = nag
domo = house domao = hovel
aa = contemptible, disgusting
This is the affix that may be used to create pejoratives, as nigra = black, nigrulo = a black person,
nigrulao = nigger. Since such words are very uncommon in Esperanto, you will have to create them as
you go along, and accept 100% responsibility for your use of them, not blame them on your upbringing or
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your teachers.
-eg (X->X): augments or strengthens the idea shown by the root.
domo = house domego = mansion
varma = hot varmega = boiling hot
ega = huge
-et (X->X): the opposite of -eg, it diminishes the idea shown by the root.
domo = house dometo = cottage
varma = hot varmeta = warm
eta = tiny
-um (Any to any): the affix equivalent of the preposition je, it has no definite
meaning; words with -um must almost be learned separately.
vento = wind ventumi = to ventilate
aminda = lovable amindumi = to pitch woo
umo = doohicky
*-if (O->I): to turn something into the root.
varma = hot varmifi = to thermalize
-j (O->O): takes a man's name and turns it into an intimate form.
frato = brother frajo = little brother
Johano = John Jojo = Jack
-nj (O->O): the female equivalent of the above.
frato = brother franjo = little sister
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Johana = Joan Jonjo = Joanie
Note that these two forms do not function like ordinary suffixes, but are usually attached after one of the
first five letters of the name or word. The Japanese Esperantist author Miyamoto Masao once described
the "beautiful people" as the jo-njo-popolo -- an interesting use of these affixes.
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True prefixes
bo- (O->O): related through marriage.
patro = father bopatro = father-in-law
kuzo = cousin bokuzo = cousin-in-law
boa = related by marriage
eks- (O->O): former.
reo = king eksreo = former (abdicated) king
Sovetio = Soviet Union ekssovetio = former USSR
eksa = former
ge- (O->O): both sexes taken together.
patro = father gepatroj = parents
Sinjoro = Mr. gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs.
gea = male+female
Although this is not sanctioned by any grammatical rule, ge- is also used with the singular to show a
human relative of unspecified gender: gepatro = parent.
mal- (X->X): turns a word into its opposite.
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bela = beautiful malbela = ugly
amiko = friend malamiko = enemy
mala = opposite
pra- (X->X): distant in time (usually in the past) or relationship.
arbaro = forest praarbaro = forest primeval
nepo = grandson pranepo = great-grandson
patro = father prapatroj = forefathers
praa = before the dawn of...
*psedo- (O->O): false.
scienco = science psedoscienco = pseudoscience
nomo = name psedonomo = pseudonym
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Quasi prefixes
Many roots can be used as prefixes. This is particularly true of adjectives; Kalocsay and Waringhien list
34 of these. I will not repeat this list here, being tired of typing, but will simply give two examples of how
an adjective can be used as a prefix, and how its use as a prefix differs from its use as an adjective.
nov-: has to do with newness.
edzino = wife nova edzino = new wife novedzino = bride.
The difference between nova edzino and novedzino is that, in the first, the most important idea is that of
wife; the newness is simply a descriptor. In novedzino, however, the idea of newness has come to have
almost equal importance with the idea of wife; a bride is not just a new wife, she is someone who has just
become a wife, who has crossed the threshhold from maidenhood (?) to marriage. In effect, the newness
of her wifehood is so great that it distinguishes her, for the moment, from all other wives, even novaj
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edzinoj.
dik-: thick.
fingro = finger dika fingro = thick finger dikfingro = thumb
Again, the thickness has become so important that it serves to distinguish the thumb from all other
fingers, no matter how thick they may be; it is the thumb's distinguishing characteristic.
Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out that fractions (reciprocals) can be used as prefixes, e.g.
duon-: half.
frato = brother duonfrato = half-brother
In addition to adjective and fractional quasi prefixes, we have the following four:
fi- (X->X): expressing indignation or disgust.
virino = woman fivirino = slut
bildo = picture fibildo = pornographic picture
fia = shameful
fu- (X->X): screwed up.
verki = to write (to compose fuverki = to make it come
a work of art) out all wrong
fui = to screw up
ne- (X->X): creates the negative (not, however, the opposite) of the root.
bona = good nebona = ungood malbona = bad
Many people believed for a long time that George Orwell based his Newspeak -- the thought-control
language of Oceania in the novel 1984 -- on Esperanto, based largely on Esperanto's use of the prefix
mal- to create opposites. The above list should indicate that the spectrum between a word and its opposite
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is not totally empty in Esperanto, as it is in Newspeak; we might, for instance, add boneta and malboneta.
Recent evidence indicates that Newspeak was in fact a parody of Basic English, which Orwell apparently
despised as a corruption of real English.
vic- (O->O): second in rank, acting as regent for.
reo = king vicreo = viceroy
prezidento = president vicprezidento = vice-president
vico = line, place in line
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This list is, I think, more complete than the ones mentioned in Teach Yourself Esperanto and TheEsperanto Dictionary; but you may find those easier to use, since they are completely alphabetized and
don't go into quite as much detail.
There are also a number of specialized technical affixes which are not covered here.