ACCULTURATIONACCULTURATION

CARLOS F. CAMARGO, PH.D.CARLOS F. CAMARGO, PH.D. THE NEW AMERICA FOUNDATIONTHE NEW AMERICA FOUNDATION

CROSS-CULTURAL TRAININGCROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING FOR NEWCOMER & FOR NEWCOMER & MICRO-ENTERPRISEMICRO-ENTERPRISE

PRACTIONERSPRACTIONERS

Classic Definition

““ Acculturation comprehends those Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of phenomena which result when groups of

individuals having different cultures come individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact with into continuous first hand contact with

subsequent changes in the original subsequent changes in the original culture patterns culture patterns

of either or both groups.”of either or both groups.”

Redfield, Linton, and Herskovitz (1936)

Measures of Acculturation

• broader world view• reduction in ethnocentrisms• greater self-awareness and self esteem• attitudes toward host culture• psychological distress• perceptual maturity• mood states• health evaluations• feelings of acceptance and satisfaction• nature and extent of interactions with

hosts

Measures of Acculturation

• acquisition of culturally appropriate behaviors and skills

• academic competence• job performance

Models of Adaptation/Acculturation

• Recuperation model—based on culture shock (Oberg)

• Learning model (Guthrie, Taylor)• Journey model—(Bennett)• Equilibrium model ((Grove and Torbiorn)

Anderson’s Types of Adjusters

1. Returnees2. Escapers3. Time servers4. Beavers5. Adjusters6. Participators

DOMINANTDOMINANTGROUPGROUP CONTACTCONTACT ACCULTURATINGACCULTURATING

GROUPGROUP

AcculturationAcculturation

Group-LevelGroup-LevelAcculturationAcculturation

PsychologicalPsychologicalAcculturationAcculturation

Physical changesPhysical changesBiological changesBiological changesPolitical changesPolitical changes

Economic ChangesEconomic ChangesCultural ChangesCultural ChangesSocial ChangesSocial Changes

Behavior changesBehavior changesValue changesValue changes

IdentityIdentityAcculturative stressAcculturative stress

PathologyPathologyAdaptationAdaptation

MOBILITYMOBILITY VOLUNTARINESS OF CONTACTVOLUNTARINESS OF CONTACT

VoluntaryVoluntaryInvoluntaryInvoluntary

SEDENTARYSEDENTARY

MIGRANTMIGRANT

PermanentPermanent

ImmigrantsImmigrants RefugeesRefugees

TemporaryTemporary

Sojourners Sojourners Asylum SeekersAsylum Seekers

The U-curve hypothesis A

dju

stm

en

t

Time

Less

WARD’S FINDINGS:DEPRESSION

LEVELS

SOCIO-CULTURALDIFFICULTIES

HIGH

HIGH LOW

Social Difficulty over Time

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

ENTRY 4 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 12 MONTHS

Time

SCAS

DEPRESSION OVER TIME

14

14.5

15

15.5

16

16.5

17

17.5

18

ENTRY 4 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 12 MONTHS

TIME

SDS

Hammer, Gudykunst, and Wiseman (1978) dimensions of intercultural effectiveness

• Factor I:

Ability to deal with psychological stress• frustration• stress• anxiety• different political systems• pressure to conform• social alienation & marginalization

⊗ financial difficultiesfinancial difficulties⊗ interpersonal conflictinterpersonal conflict

Hammer, Gudykunst, &Wiseman

dimensions of intercultural effectiveness (1978)

• Factor II: Ability to communicate effectively– ability to enter into meaningful dialogue– ability to initiate interaction with a

stranger– ability to deal with communication

misunderstandings– ability to effectively deal with different

communication styles

Hammer, Gudykunst, and Wiseman (1978)

dimensions of intercultural effectiveness

• Factor III: Ability to establish interpersonal relationships

• ability to develop satisfying interpersonal relationships• ability to maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships• ability to accurately understand the feelings of other

people• ability to effectively work with other people

Ward’s 2 factor theoryWard and Chang, IJIR,

1997

• Psychological adjustment: refers to psychological well-being or emotional satisfaction

• socio-cultural adjustment: ability to negotiate the host-culture, or general intercultural competence

Predictors of Ward’s Factors

• Psychological adjustment– personality, life changes, social support

• socio-cultural adjustment– amount of contact with host nationals, length

of residence in a new culture, cultural identity, and cultural distance

Cultural Fit HypothesisWard and Change, 1997

• Distress is a function of the difference between certain personality characteristics of the person and the host country norms

• These levels of distress will be unrelated to socio-cultural difficulties

Psychological Adjustment of Sojourners:

Pred. Of Mood Dist.

Predictors Beta P

Locus of Con .28 .004

Social Diff .28 .004

Rel. Satisf -.24 .01

Contact withHost. Nat

.21 .03

Source: Ware and Kennedy, 1992

Socio-cultural Adjustment of Sojourners:

Predictors of Social Difficulty

Predictors Beta p

Length ofResidence

-.45 .0001

Culturaldistance

.27 .004

MoodDisturbance

.33 .0003

Culturalidentity

.26 .004

Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1992

A test of the cultural fit hypothesis

• Used extraversion measures with American in Singapore

• Used norms of Singaporeans provided by Eysenck

• Measured psychological adjustment by Zung Self-rating Depression Scale

• Measured socio-cultural adjustment using the socio-cultural Adjustment Scale

Results of Culture Fit Study

• r between extraversion and psychological adjustment non-significant (r=-.02) and between extraversion and socio-cultural adjustment (r=-.06)

• r between discrepancy and psychological adjustment significant (r=.23, p<.01), but insignificant against socio-cultural adjustment (r=.07).

John Berry’s Model of Acculturation

Maintain cultural identity?

Yes No

Relationwith

other groups?

Yes

No

Integration

Separation

Assimilation

Marginalization

Ward and Kennedy’s (1994) hypotheses

• Identification with co-nationals is related to less psych.

Adjustment problems

• Endorsing integration is related to lower difficulties in

social adjustment, marginalized will experience the most

psych difficulties

• Identification with host nationals will result in fewer

Socio-cultural problems

• Endorse separation will be related to the level of

difficulties in socio-cultural adaptation, whereas those

that are assimilated will experience the least difficulties

in socio-cultural adaptation.

Depression and Identification

Co-nationalidentification

High Low

High 7.8(3.5) 10.4(6.2)

Low 14.6(6.4) 12.0(6.8)

Host National Identification

Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1994

Social Difficulty and Identification

Co-NationalIdentification

High Low

High 11.1(8.6) 24.8(10.7)

Low 13.4(9.1) 18.4(11.1)

Host National Identification

Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1994

Competing Models of the relationship between linguistic acculturation & ethnic identity

Source: Laroche, Kim, Hui, and Tomiuk, JCCP, 1998.

A measure of linguistic acculturation

• How often do you use (English, Spanish) • with spouse• with children• with relatives• when at work• when watching TV• when listening to radio• when reading newspapers

A measure of linguistic acculturation

• How often do you use (English, Spanish)

– when reading magazines– when shopping– with close friends– when at school

A measure of ethnic identification

– I consider myself to be Anglophone– I consider myself to be Hispanophone– I consider myself to be Salvadoran

American – I consider myself to be Colombian– I consider myself to be American

Factors affecting acculturation

• Society of origin:– Ethnographic characteristics– Political situation– Economic Conditions– Demographic factors (e.g., crowding,

population explosion.)

Factors affecting acculturation

• Society of settlement– Immigration history– Immigration policy– Attitudes toward immigration– Attitudes toward specific groups– Social support (availability, usefulness)

• Group acculturation– changes in acculturating group (physical,

etc.)

Factors affecting cculturation: Psychological Acculturation

• Behavioral shifts– Culture learning– Culture shedding– Culture conflict

• Acculturative stress– Problem appraisal– Stressors– Stress phenomena

Factors affecting acculturation

• Psychopathology– Problems– Crises– Pathological phenomena

• Psychological adaptation– Self-esteem– Identity consolidation– Well-being/satisfaction

Factors affecting acculturation:

Psychological Acculturation

• socio-cultural adaptation:– Cultural knowledge, social skills– Interpersonal and intergroup relations– Family and community relations

Moderating Factors Prior to Acculturation

• Demographic (e.g., age, gender)• Cultural (language, religion, distance)• Economic (e.g., status)• Personal (e.g., health,prior knowledge)• Migration motivation• Expectations

Moderating Factors arising during Acculturation

• Acculturation strategies (I.e. Berry)• Contact/participation• Culture maintenance• Social support• Coping strategies and resources• Prejudice and discrimination