Doiumentof TheWorld Bank FOR OFFMCIAL USE ONLY Itp, N.. 591 1-SU SUDAN FORESTRY SECTCR REVIEW April 16, 1986 Eastern and Southern Africa Region Northern Agriculture Division This document has a restricteddistributionand may be used by recipiei:ts only Ln the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosedwithout World Bank, United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment, Overseas DevelopmentAdministration(U.K.), Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency, Gesellschaftfur TechnischeZusammenarbeit(West :ermany) and Netherland Ministry of Foreign Affairs authorization. Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
Transcript
Doiument of
The World Bank
FOR OFFMCIAL USE ONLY
Itp, N.. 591 1-SU
SUDAN
FORESTRY SECTCR REVIEW
April 16, 1986
Eastern and Southern Africa RegionNorthern Agriculture Division
This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipiei:ts onlyLn the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise bedisclosed without World Bank, United States Agency for International Development,Overseas Development Administration (U.K.), Canadian International DevelopmentAgency, Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (West :ermany) and NetherlandMinistry of Foreign Affairs authorization.
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CURRENCY EQUI!ALENTS
US$1.00 - LSd2.5LSdl.0O US$0.40
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Metric System
ABBREVIATIONS
AAC - Annual Allowable CutARC - Agricultural Research CorporationCFA - Central Forest AdministrationDM - Dry MatterFRC - Forest Research CenterGDP - Gross Domestic ProductGOS - Government of SudanICRAF - International Council for AgroforestryIMOC - Imatong Mountains Development
CorporationLSU - Livestock UnitMAI - Mean Annual IncrementNEA - National Energy AdministrationNDR - net Discounted RevenueNGO - Non-Government OrganizationSREP - Sudan Renewable Eaergy ProjectTOE - Tons of Oil Equivalent
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR OFFXCIAL USE ONLY
Page No.
SU?INARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............... i - xxiii
I. BACKGROUND ............................................... 1
II. THE FORESTRY SECTOR ...................................... 3
Wood Resources ......... .......... a.a.....................ea........... 3Distribution of Forests and Population ................... 5Forestry Institutions .............. .................. 6Importance of Forestry to the Economy .................... 6Budgetary Allocations to the Forestry Sector ............. 7
III. THE ROLE OF FORESTRY IN INCREASING AGRICULTURALPRODUCTION AND FARM INCOME .................o........... 12
A. Direct Effects of Forestry on AgriculturalProduction ......... . . e........ee 13
The Role of Shelterbelts ............................. 13Trees Planted Along Canal Banks ....................... 13The Role of Forestry in Providing Fodder Supplies .... * 14Value of Trees in Increasing Soil Fertility ........... 15Birds, Crop Damage and Forestry ..................... o 16
B. Income Generation from Non-Wood Producing Activity .... 17
Gum Arabic Production .................... . 17The Role of Forests in Providing Minor ForestProducts is........ .............. 1
C. Th.e Role of Forests in Environmental Protection *...... 18
Control of Desertification .eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 18-he Role of Forestry in Dune Fixation ................. 21The Role of Forestry in Watershed Protection .......... 21
D. Farm and Village Forestry ........................... 22
Experience with Technical Designs and Appropriate ForestManagement Systems for Farm and Village ForestrySystems .............. 24
Sociological Aspects of Farm and Village Foresrry ..... 26Effects of Land Tenure on Farm and Village Forestry ... 28
IV. FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR AGRICULTURALPRODUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIONS ............... 29
Shelterbelts to Increase Yields in MechanizedFarming Schemes ............... 30
Shelterbelts to Increase Yields in Irrigated Schemes ..... 31Mechanized Farming Operations *eeeeeeeee.eeeeeee.eeeeeee.e 32Watershed Protection .... o .. ......... cc...ee ..........e*...O.c 34Alternative Institutional Approaches to RuralReforestation ee.... ee-.--e ec- e e.eeeece - 35
This document bh restricted distributon and may be ued by recipients only in thepeformanceof the officia dties Its contents may not ohrwise be discosed without World BDnk autdiztion.
Page No.
V. THE ROLE OF FORESTRY AS AN ENERGY SOURCE ................. 37
Role of Forestry in the Supply of Fuelwood and Charcoal .. 37Projections of Total Fuelwood Consumption: the Emerging
Fuelwood Supply .............................. 37Environmental implications of Fuelvood Harvesting ... .... 40Recommendations of the UNDP/World Bank Energy
Assessment Survey Relevant to Forestry .................. 42
VI. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO SATISFY FUTURE DEMAND FOR ENERGYAND WOOD PRODUCTS WITHOUT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION .... 42
Technical Aspects of New Fuelvood Resource Creation ...... 53Pricing Policy Issues .................................... 54
VII. COMMERCIAL FORESTRY ..................... ................. 58
Constraints to the Development of Commercial Forestry .... 59Scope for Rehabilitation of the Sawmill Industry .. ....... 61Sawmill Rehabilitation Through Existing Projects ......... 62Greenfield Development Projects ....................... *.... 64Estimated Future Production .............................. 65Infrastructure Rehabilitation Requirements ... ............ 66Action Program ..... 68
other Investments in Commercial Forestry .. ............... 69
VIII. INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES .... ......... ......... 71
Forestry Planning and Coordination ........ ............... 71Support to Non-Government Agencies .................. ..... 73Forestry Research ......... ........................ me. 73Forestry Extension .... ................................ 74
Education and Training *.................................. 77
IX. ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR FORESTRY DEVELOPMENTINVESTMENTS AND PROPOSED INVESTMENT PROGRAM ............ 78
Proper Use of Trees on Land to be Cleared ................ 79Strategy for Conservation of Fuelwood and Charcoal ....... 80Wood Production from Forests and Plantations ............. 81Industrial Plantations .me...... ......... e...., me...... 98
Improvement of Infrastructure Support ................. 09... -100Pricing of Wood Products .e.e.e..e ..................... 104
Budgetary Implications of Increased Forestry Investment .. 104Issues and Constraints Requiring Additional Study ........ 106Summary of Recommended Development Program for the
Five Year Period 1987-91 ................. g.e ........ em. 109
LIST OF ANNEXES
Annex I Forest Research in SudanAnnex II Forestry Education and TrainingAnnex III Forestry Extension ServiceAnnex IV Shelterbelts: Potential Benefits, Constraints and Design
Approaches for SudanAnnex V Irrigation Fuelvood Plantation OptionsAnnex VI Community ForestryAnnex VII Watershed Protection in the SudanAnnex VIII Stumpage Price in Sudan for Woodfuel TreesAnnex IX Economic Model 1: The Management of Natural Savannah
WoodlandsAnnex x Economic Model 2: Plantations or Planted Farm Trees Grown
in the Savannah AreasAnnex XI Economic Model 3: Tree Planting on Irrigation SchemesAnnex XII Economic Model 4: Mechanized Agriculture and the Role of
TreesAnnex XIII Economic Model 5: Benefits of Shelterbelts on Irrigated
LandAnnex XIV Economic Model 6: Industrial Wood
Maps: 1892118922189231892418925
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SUDAN
FORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW
SUMMARYOF
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Deteriorating Forestry Situation in Sudan and its Causes
1. The forestry sub-sector has, in the past, been seriouslyneglected and under-funded. This is inspite of its important role inmaintaining agricultural productivity, providing the fuelwood and charcoalneeds of about 75Z of Sudans' population and meeting a significant part ofindustrial timber needs. Decentralization of forestry which occurred in1966 led to a tendency for the Regions to "mine' their forest resources asa way of generating quick revenues. Reforestation and forest protectionpolicies throughout the last two decades have lagged behind the levelneeded to ensure that the forest capital is maintained. Mechanized farmingschemes have taken up some 4 million hectares (ha) of former forest land,some of which after three or four years of continuous sorghum cropping hasbeen abandoned and is now lying idle. Steady deforestation that hasoccurred over the last twenty years under the combined effects ofagricultural encroachment, fuelvood harvesting, and over-grazing hasreduced the forest area by 20% and has been a contributory cause ofaccelerated desertification. The savannah woodlands surrounding Xhartounand other major urban centers have been largel- eliminated by increasedpressure for fuelvood cutting. Charcoal is now being transported 500 kmsor more to the main towns. Not only does this involve an unnecessary drainon foreign exchange (because of the gasoline and diesel needed to transportthis fuelwood to the cities), but also it adversely affects the urban poorwho are forced to spend an ever increasinig proportion of income on woodfuelpurchases.
2. Against a background of rising human and livestock populationpressure on the forest resources, the Central Forest Administration (CPA)has been powerless to play an effective role in forest conservation andmanagement. On average budgetary allocations for forestry have averagedless than 1% of the Government's development budget for the last twodecades. Forestry is a small sub-division of the Agriculture budget anddoes not appear in the development budget as a separate item. In addition,the forestry service as a whole was badly demoralized by the decision todecentralize control and management of forestry resources.
Economic Justification for Investment in the Forestry Sub-Sector
3. In common with the situation which prevails in many other Africancountries, one of the underlying causes of the decline of forestry in Sudanbas been the lack of quantified data and economic studies that can help todemonstrate to the Finance and Economic Planning Ministry the vital rolethat forestry plays in economic development and in protecting theenvironment. For example, using conventional national accountingmethodology for measuring the contribution of forestry to the economy,Sudan's forests make a 1% contribution to GDP. This calculation refers
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solely to the quantified value of traded forest production (mainly timbereminating from Government forest reservev that constitute less thsu2% of the total forest area). This approach fails to take account of thefact that some 40 million cubic meters of fuelvood a year are produced fromSudan's natural savannah woodlands which supply the basic fuel needs ofabout 75Z of the population and account for 82% of Sudan's total energyconsumption.
4. Similarly, national accounting techniques fail to take intoaccount the fact that naturally occurring trees form a vital and integralpart of the farming system and can increase crop yields by as nuch as15% protect the soil from wind erosion and provide about 33% of the dryweather feed requirements of Sudan's 20 million goats, camels and sheep.Also, the vital role that forests and trees play in protecting uplandwatersheds, reducing run-off and downstream sedimentation of dams andreserviors is largely ignored. Additional and quite modest investment inincreased sawmill capacity and industrial forest ranagement in the southcould eliminate the current timber imports that cost about US$0 millionannually, yet nowhere is this issue discussel in national developmentplans. The contribution that forestry makes or could make to the economyis greatly understated.
Fuelvood Prices and Control of Fuelvood Harvesting
5. Because in some areas the natural wood supply is apparently stillabundant, an impending fuelwood crisis in the north of Sudan is not yetobvious. Continued over-cutting of the forest capital and the resultingfuelwood scarcity will precipitate the crisis. One of the more complex anddifficult underlying policy issues that has not been effectively addressedin the past is that at prevailing fuelwood prices, it does not pay farxersor private sector companies to invest in fuelvood production. Fuelwoodcutters and charcoal producers pay either nothing or an extremely low feefor the naturally occurring savannah wood. This low stumpage fee isinsufficient to cover the cost of replacement of the trees. It is cheaperto gather wood and produce charcoal from unprotected forests severalhundred kilometers away from the towns than to invest in its productionnearer to the market. IC short, government interventions such as increasedstumpage fees, incentives for forest protection, fines for over-cutting orreforestation subsidies will be needed if adequate fuelwood supplies are tobe assured for future generations. Past forest policy has given scantattention to this critical issue. Only political commitment from the toplevel of government can change this situation.
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Objectives of the Forestry Sector Review
5. The primary objectives of this forestry sector review which haswas carried out by a joint team consisting of representatives from theGovernment of Sudan and overseas aid agencies 1/ was, firstly, to assistthe Government (GOS) in developing appropriate forest developmentstrategies for systematically addressing the formidable forest policyissues cited above; secondly, to demonstrate that the costs and positivebenefits to be anticipated from accelerated investment in the forestrysub-sector can be scientifically zeasured and readily quantified; andthirdly, to outline an Action Program for the coming five years, togetherrith an indication of the broad order of magnitude of investments needed toimplement that program.
6. The report examines in some depth the role of forestry inrelation to agricultural productivlty and as a source of energy andindustrial forest products, concentrating on assembling the scientific andquantifiable information on which development could be based. The reportalso reviews institutional issues and presents the economic cost andbeneflts from alternative forestry and agro-forestry conservation andproduction options. Supporting material for all the main reportconclusions is given in Annexes.
7. Because of a very recent decision by GOS to recentralize forestmanagement policy under CFA, the review comes at a particularly criticalpoint in time. Today CFA is suddenly faced with additionalresponsibilities that will require a major restructuring of itsorganization and a reassessment of its future role. This report is partlyintended to help CFA to adjust to these changes.
8. In developing its strategy recommendations for the future, thesector review mission was greatly handicapped by the lack of base data onthe exact extent of past deforestation and of the current rates of fuelwoodconsumption and over-cutting. Accordingly, three alternative developmentstrategies are presented, particularly, as these relate to the futurefuelwood supply and demand situation. The important conclusion underlyingall the assumptions and recommendations made is that regardless of the rateof fuelwood consumption and cutting assumed, it is clear that overall theforests are being cut at a much fast rate than they are being replaced andthat an increased level of investment and greater political commitment toforest protection and reforestation will be needed over the coming decadeif a serious future wood crisis is to be avoided.
9. In formulating its recommendations for future action, the reviewMission also took into account the ve-y long 2ast experience that has beengained by the Sudanese professional forestry staff in developing technical
1/ Including representatives of World Bank, USAID, FAO; and ofNetherland, Canadian, West German and U.K. bilateral aid agencies.
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solutions to some of these problems. Despite the Inhibiting effects ofpast decentralization and the low level of budget allocations on the CFA'soperational effectiveness, Sudan has had in place for more than 20 years atleast 150 professional and technical forest staff. Notwithstanding therelatively small area of forest under government control (about 1 millionha), within those forest reserves the government foresters have developedmany of the technologies that will be required for increasing theproductivity of the remaining woodlands of the country. Techniques ofshelterbe't planting in agricultural areas, reforesting abandonedagricultural lands by direct re-seeding with faster growing, leguminoustree species, agro-forestry techniques for incorporating trees such asAcacia senegal (gum arabic) as an integral component of the farming system,and many other forestry techniques are well known and technically proven.During the last decade, CFA and Regional Forest Departments have received acontinuous stream of overseas technical assistance aid supported projects,particularly from FAO, that have helped to tackle some of the newlyemerging issues and to develop pilot scale projects for testing newapproaches.
10. In preparing its proposals for future action, the review missionrecognized that the single and most significant change that CFA will haveto make in the coming years will be building up its capability to provideeffective extension and servicing support to the many other government,non-government and private sector agencies that will be involved inimplementing wood based energy, forest protection and reforestationprograms. It is also recognized that social and economic, as well astechnical, constraints will have to be overcome if forestry is to succeed.
Likely Future Impact on the Economy of Failure to Protect and ManageSudan's Forest Resources
11. The starting point for the review mission's analysis of actionsneeded in the next five years to begin to contain the worst effects ofdeforestation was an examination of the likely situation by year 2000 ifnothing is done to raise current levels of investment in forestconservation, forest protection management and reforestation. Threealternative physical intervention and investment strategies are presentedassuming various levels and wood conservation, forest protection andreforestation (from zero to 25 and 50%). Not surprisingly, the conclusionsemerged that, firstly the average annual levels of investment that would beneeded between now and the turn of the century to avoid the worst effectsof a continued process of deforestation greatly exceed the current levelsof annual investuent allocation to forestry and secondly, that averageannual physical scale of operations needed exceeds what could realisticallybe achieved in practical terms over the coming five years with presentstaff resources and socio-economic constraints. A five-year developmentplan for the period 1987-91 is proposed which outlines the maximumplausible development program that could be undertaken assuming that theconservation and protection and reforestation effort is shared among allsections of the community, with the CFA providing the technical leadershipand extension support.
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The Likely Forestry Situation in Year 2000
12. The failure to control the process of deforestation in Sudan islikely to have _he following serious consequences:
(a) At least 40,000. ha of former mechanized farming land will remainunutilized. Some of this is in the higher rainfall (above 600mm)belt. If reclaimed it could make a significant contribution tofuture fodder and fuelvood supplies.
(b) An additional 10 million ha of savannah woodland in the northwill be lost as a result of unconstrained fuelvood and charcoalharvesting, representing about two-thirds of the remainingresources of the north.
(c) The loss of that 10 million ha of savannah woodland would meanthe displacement of at least 30,000 nomadi. families and theirlivestock (6% of the total nomadic population).
(d) The average haulage distance for fuelwood and charcoal to themain urban townships in Khartoum and Central Province wouldincrease from 500 to 1000 kms. This would raise the average costof charcoal to the urban poor.
(e) Elimination of on-farm trees would make it necessary to usecrop residues for fuel. These would otherwise have provided asource of livestock feed and soil organic matters. Total removalof farm trees, tree fodder and shade in semi-arid zone conditionssuch as those prevailing in Sudan will reduce crop and livestockyields by about 15%.
(f) Total removal of trees and shelterbelts from the farming areaswill also further contribute to increased wind erosion of topsoil and desertification. In upland watersheds such as thoseabove the Roseires dam, this would contribute to increasedrun-off and sedimentation of downstream dams.
(g) Imports of manufactured industrial wood products will escalate toover US$50 million a year.
13. The key to success in avoiding a future fuelwood crisis, ensuringthat forestry plays an effective role in maintaining agriculturalproductivity, and maintaining the supply of industrial forest products liesIn more effective protection and management of the existing forestresources. If nothing is done to more effectively protect and utilize theexistiag forest resources, Sudan will in the future be faced with anenormous investment program to replace the forests being presently cutdown. It has been estimated that by the year 2000 about 20.0 million hawill have been lost, the replacement of which will require at least aninvestment of about LS1500 million. These figures assume a conversionfactor of 12 cubic meters per ton of charcoal. More recent Sudan RenewableEnergy Project (SREP) and FAO studies suggest that already many charcoalproducers are achieving far higher levels of efficiency (about 6 cubicmeters per ton of charcoal). This level of efficiency could reduce thearea of forest lost by about 50% but investment costs would still be beyondthe financial resources of GOS.
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Taml I
Costs an Biefits of Pi, -Ie ('w onevat1in and Tree PaiAgi~ !nter.tf
14. Table I summarizes the total investment that will be neededbetween now and year 2000 assuming a medium 'evel of intervention and a 25%saving in wood can be achieved throughout the country through theintroduction of more effective conservation measures but that continuedcutting of natural forest will make it necessary to undertake reforestationof at least 1 million ha in northern Sudan by 2000. This increase wouldrequire an average annual Government investment program of about LS 33million a year which is more than double the current annual level ofdevelopment investment in the sub-sector.
15. Whilst the benefits from this investment strategy wouldconsiderably outweigh the costs, two important points have to be made:
(a) the social and logistical constraints to achieving this medianievel of investment will be formidable. (It requires theestablishment of 67,000 ha of new planting a year, i.e., morethan seventy times what is currently being achieved).
(b) the need for investment in new fuelwood plantations (whichaccounts for 20% of the cost of the program) could be almostentirely eliminated if there were sufficient governmentcommitment to protection of existing resources and if a way couldbe found to resolve the fundamental grazing versus forestryconflict.
Recommended Development Program for the -:ive-Year Period 1987-91
16. The recommended development program for the coming five years isas follows:
(a) First pr_ority has been given to conserving existing woodsupplies through a combination of continued efforts to improvethe efficiency of charcoal production throughout the country andto improve recovery of waste wood from land cleared foragriculture.
(b) Second priority has been given to bringing existing forestresources under more effective protection and management and toincreasing the level of stumpage tax collection on fuelwood andtimber harvesting operations both outside and inside governmentowned forest reserves.
(c) Third priority goes to establishing new fuelwood resourceswith special emphasis on low cost technologies such as directreseeding of abandoned mechanized farming or degraded forestlands and on involvement of farmers in cash crop tree farming.Because it will take time to raise fuelwood prices to the levelneeded to trigger off large scale spontaneous investment byfarmers in fuelwood crops, strong emphasis is given to plantingmultipurpose trees (providing fodder, pole and fuelvood) fromwhich the financial rates of return would be much higher than forfuelwood alone, and which are more likely to be in line withfarmers' currently perceived needs.
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(d) Fourth priority has been given to agro-forestry: planting treesas an integral part of the farming system, both in order toprotect crops and soils and to provide essential needs likefruit, fodder, fuelvood and poles, but also in appropriatesituations, to provide an additional source of farm Income, e.g,from gum arabic. This also includes investment in acceleratedshelterbelt planting particularly along canal banks and aroundmechanized farming schemes and pilot scale reforestation works inupland watershed catchments and sand dune fixation works aimed atprotecting high value infrastructure investment or fertileagricultural lands that are threatened by dune encroachment.
(e) Fifth in order of priority is industrial forest management andestablishment and protection of new plantations, purchase ofspare parts for existing sawmills and logging operations,expansion of new sawmilling capacity and improved transportaccess into forest areas.
17. To support these developments (and the most critical element ofall in terms of effective implementation of the program), investment isneeded in the human, institutional, and research services of CFA andassociated agencies. Essentially this covers three main areas:
(a) Re-creation of a strong CPA with the capacity to plan, monitorand provide effective extension support to the many agencies andfarmers that will be involved in inplementation of the forestryprogram.
(b) Strengthening forestry research, education and training which arecurrently under ARC and the Ministry of Education. The reviewmission supports the recent decision to strengthen the SobaResearch Centre under GrA'a iurisdiction so that it can build upeffective extension support capability and basic forestryresearch. It is recommended that agro-%forestry research shouldremain the responsibility of ARC.
(c) Provision for a series of intensive planning and economic studiesincluding, in particular, foresc and biomass inventories that canprovide detailed in.ormation on the resource base andI improve theeffectiveness of future investment strategy.
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THE PROPOSED FIVE-YEAR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
A. Conservation actions aimed at- increasina the efficiency of wood use,particularly through adoption of improved charcoal burning techniques andImproved stoves.
18. Work carried out by SREP, NEA and iAO has clearly demonstratedthat already many Sudanese charcoal producers are using improved earth kilntechniques that are leading to a 25% and in same cases as high as50% saving in wood over traditional earth kilns using undried wood.Significant savings are also being achieved with improved charcoal stoves.It is recommended that the highest priority be given to technicalassistance and possibly credit assisted programs that can help to ensurethe adoption of these improved technologies by the majority of charcoalproducers and stove users. NEA and SREP have already made a start on thisimportant work and should be assisted further to expand it.
B. Conservation actions aimed at improving the recovery of wood from areasbeing cleared for agricultural development.
19. Work already carried out by, for example, the Arab Sudan Company(para. 4.14), has demonstrated that up to 50 cubic meters of utilizablefuelwood can be recovered per hectare from land being cleared foragriculture. To do so requires more careful advance planning of landclearance operations and a conscious effort to introduce a fuelwoodextraction or charcoal burning operation prior to agriculturalcultivation. Additional investment required is low. The main requirementsare incentives to the land owner and administration, and governmentpolitical commitment to ensure that this waste wood is recovered ratherthan being burned off as at present. It is recommended that the land rentfor mechanized farming land be increased to a level that reflects the valueof the natural wood standing in the area, that CFA be given the additionalresources needed adequately to survey and to value the areas to be clearedand that GOS tighten up its regulations relating to uncontrolled burning ofwaste wood (it should consider introduction of a severe fine system forfarmers or companies who burn-off waste wood).
C. Measures aimed at more effective protection and management of existingsavannah woodland.
20. (a) Areas already under the control of CFA and Regional ForestDepartments.
CFA has under its control about 600,000 ha of woodland in theCentral and Northern regionis. Much of this has been wellprotected and the technical packages for improving itsproductivity are well known (essentially a combination of fireprotection, keeping out grazing animals, organizing cutting atthe right time of year to stimulate new growth and, wherenecessary, directly reseeding by mechanical means). Suchmeasures can double the yield to be expected from naturalwoodland. Over the next five years, it is recommended that CFAbe provided with the resources needed to protect and upgrade afurther 25,000 ha of the area still remaining.
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(b) Areas not under the control of CFA.
21. There are at present about 37 million ha of savannah woodland inthe north outside the control of CPA of which 10 million arelocated within a 500 km. radius of Khartoum (the main urbanfuelwood/charcoal market). The problems of bringing this area ofwoodland under sustained yield management and protection areformidable. They are currently communally owned and areextensively used by nomadic graziers who depend on thesewoodlands to a high degree for their livestock feed andsubsistence. Despite many past attempts in both Sudan andelsewhere to co-op nomadic people into protection and managementof such woodlands for sustaining both fodder and fuelwoodproduction, there have been no large scale successes. There isno easy and immediate solution to this dilemma, but thepossibility of increasing the area of managed savannah forest isgiven the highest priority of all the supply tide strategiesdiscussed in this report simply because it is the least costoption for ensuring future fuelwood supplies. To illustrate: ifthe 10 million ha of woodland within a 500 km/radius of Khartoumcould be brought under intensive protection and management i.e.,by building a network of government run Forest ProtectionDistricts, cutting firebreaks around the managed areas ancorganizing harvesting operations and revenue collection in asystematic way, then the investment cost of installing such anadministrative system and maintaining staff in the field (aninitial investment of about LSlU, million spread of 5 years andan annual maintenance cost of LS20 million per year) is less thanone-seventh of the investment cost that GOS will race to replacethe forest which because of the current lack of managementcontrol is certain to be destroyed between now; and 200.However, in the event that the political will and popular supportfor such a policy could be generated, the annual cost ofmaintaining such a forest management protection scheme cculd befully covered by a LS2.0 per cubic meter stumpage fee to privatefuelwood and charcoal producers. This 'LS double the presentstumpage fee but would add less than 10% to the price of a bag ofcharcoal in Khartoum.
22. It is therefore recommended that a concentrated effort be wade toincrease the area of savannah woodland under managed control by 3eekinglocal village and community participation in pilot schemes such as thosecurrently being tried in Umm Belut village in Darfur (para. 4.25), and byvigorously exploring the possibility of increasing the area of forestreserves under government control in areas where to do this would not causemajor sociological problems (e.g., in more isolated areas away from stockroutes). A target area of 100,000 ha is suggested for the development planperiod.
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23. KeEardless of whether these areas can be brought under moreeffective management, GOS should initiate an immediate study of the scopefor raising the current stumpage fees charged for harvesting this naturalwood resource and also for raising the level of charcoal taxes collectedalong major highways. The purposes would be to raise the incentive forgrowing wood closer to the marketplace and to raise the level of totalforest revenues so that these more adequately cover the costs of forestprotection 1 administration and management.
The studies should include an assessment of the possibility of theretention by CFA of forestry revenues for the purpose of reinvestment inreforestation and protection rather than being used by the regionalgovernments for non-forest telated development expenditures.
(D) Development of New Fuelwood/Pole Plantations
(a) Direct Reseeding of Abandoned Mechanized Farming Land
24. Because there is ar. already proven technical package and because,given access to the land and equipment, large scale reforestationoperations could be carried out at relatively low cost, this is one of theleast cost options for ensuring future fuelwood and fodder supplies. Thereare reported to be at least 40,000 ha of abandoned or semi-abandonedmechanized farming land that could be taken up for reforestation givenresolution of the very formidable land tenure constraints. Notwithstandingthe fact that these areas have been apparently abandoned (most of theowners are absentee landlords living iu the cities), nevertheless theprocess of reacquiring the land would be difficult. One of the mainproblems in reforesting such land is that under current pricing policiesand with current technology and growth rates, the growing of fuelwood cropson such land is only profitable in areas of higher rainfall where thegrowing of the fuelwood can be combined with production of agriculturallyImportant crops, for example, prosopis pods for livestock feed. Only partof the land falls into this category.
25. There are two possible approaches, both of which should bevigorously explored. The first is to examine the level of incentives andsubsidies that would be required to trigger spontaneous private sectorinvestment in such reforestation programs. The second is to app'yGovernment pressure for reacquisition of unutilized land and to accelerateCFA financed reforestation operations on such lands based on the argumentthat the economic rates of return to Sudan of such investment alreadjjustify GOS proceeding with an accelerated p-rogram of reforestation (para.9.37 and Annex X). If in the short to medium term it will not be possibleto induce the private sector to carry out such work, Government sponsoredoperations could initiate reseeding activities. Even though CFA would beadministering the program, the actual ploughing, harrowing and reseedingcould be carried out by private contractors.
26. To recommend a realistic scale five year program of such activityis difficult without further study of the complex land tenure and otherissues. Based on information avtailable at this time, it is recommendedthat a target of at least 25,000 ha of such planting be attempted in thenext five years.
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(b) Irrigated fuelsood and pole plantations using waste effluent water
27. The economic viability of large scale irrigated fuelwoodplantations where forestry is paying for the cost of the irrigationinfrastructure is doubtful (paras.9.31). Nevertheless, schemes where thecanal costs have been largely covered by the agricultural crops deserveconsideration (para. 9.32). An obvious potential area for such plantationswould be on the land already owned by the sugar companies in New Halfa andSennar. There are reported to be about 96,000 ha of such land suitable forforestry. Daring the coming fire-year period, it is recommended that about15,000 ha of plantations be established and the costs and returns carefullymonitored. Should further investigation substantiate the validity ofpreliminary conclusions, the area should be expanded to about 100,000 ha(i.e. about 7% of total irrigated agricultural crop area). This couldsupply about 13% of anticipated fuelwood/charcoal requirements of Khartoumand Central Province in the year 2000.
(c) Rainfed cash crop fuelvood/pole crops grown on private farmland
28. The review mission's economic analysis of various fuelwoodoptions suggests that for tree crops to be financially attractive tofarmers, they would probably all have to be situated within a 100 km radiusof the townships. If they are further away, the transport costs to marketwould render the enterprise unprofitable (see para. 9.33). The farmlandwould have to be sited within an area of higher rainfall (over 600 mm) sothat reasonable yields could be expected, and it would probably benecessary to combine the growing of fuelwood with poles and possibly treefodder to make the financial returns high enough to trigger off spontaneousinvestment.
29. Given these somewhat stringent requirements and taking intoaccount the fact that trees on such land will be competing with morevaluable and shorter-term agricultural crops, it is recommended that in-thefirst instance this option be pursued on a pilot scale (5,000 ha in total)over the next f-:ve years. Assuming average farm size of 20 ha (of which atany one time 5 ha conld be under food crops and 15 ha under trees), about250 farmers would be involved.
30. CFA should play a lead role in developing extension messages forthe Agricultural Department extension staff, who would provide the maincontact point with the farmers. In designing such pilot schemes a widerange of incentives for encouraging farmer participation should be tested,ranging from subsidized or free tree seedlings to provision of credit orcash grants for tree farming. A key element would be a systematicsociological study to test farmers' likely response before such a projectis launched.
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(E) Agro-forestry for multi-purpose uses on private or comunally ownedfarmland or on agricultural wastelands
31. The positive impact of incorporating trees, particularlyleguminous species, into farming systems is scientifically proven and itseffect can be economically quantified (paras. 3.17, 3.22, and Annex IV).Many Sudanese farmers have practiced agro-forestry in the past especiallywith multi-purpose tree species such as lemon, grapefruit, Balanites,Acacia (senegal seyal and nilotica), Eucalyptus, Tararix and Azadirachta.Many of these trees have been planted by fanoers u-ing tree seedlingscollected from under existing mature trees or frou privately ownednurseries. There is much the CFA could do to encourage such spontaneousplanting; e.g., by providing grants, free seed and inputs to encourage theestablishment of more private nurseries; by organizing seed collection anddistribution of preferred species; by building more nurseries in strategiclocations; by working more actively with village communities and NGO's tosupport tree planting efforts; and by greatly strengthening forestryextension services. It is recomended that high priority be given toextending this type of activity in the coming 5-year period with a targetof involving an additional 10,000 farmers or organizations.
32. Part of the effort directed towards agro-forestry at present isbeing devoted to encouraging village or community woodlot planting. It isrecommended that this be continued on a pilot scale. Experience both inSudan and elsewhere in the region with village woodlots has beendisappointing, primarily because of the 'commons' problem and thedifficulty or protecting communally owned woodlots from grazing animals.
(F) Shelterbelt plantingon irrigated and mechanized farming schemes
33. In view of the considerable controversy that has existed in thepast about the relative merits and disadvantages of shelterbelts inagricultural schemes, the sector mission carried out a review of pastexperience and examined the economic costs and benefits of suchshelterbelts. The results are summarized in para. 3.05-3.11 and Annex IV.It is concluded that appropriately designed shelterbelts grown in narrowstrips around both irrigated and mechanized farming schemes can reduce windvelocity and lead to improved moisture retention, and result in increasedcrop yields (about 15X). The strips of trees grown along canal banks orirrigation ditches can help to bind the soil and prevent collapse of thecanal banks and loss of scarce irrigation water, and therefore help toreduce irrigation scheme maintenance costs. Properly managed shelterbeltsalso produce sustainable supplies of tree fodder, poles and fuelwood.
34. The practical implementation of a shelterbelt planting andmaintenance program depends partly on political commitment by GOS toenforce a policy by which farmers taking up mechanized farming are obligedto leave strips of uncut natural savannah woodland around their fields. Inthe case of the irrigation production corporations, it will be necessary topersuade management of the technical and economic benefits of shelterbeltplanting. To both mechanized and irrigated farmers, the apparent iunediateeffects of taking part of their crop land out of production for trees are aloss of net cropped area, inconvenience and higher cost involved in
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ploughing, planting, spraying and harvesting crops that are interspersedwith lines of trees and, in the crop rows iumediately adjacent to theshelterbelt, loss of crop volume. It is only after a number of years ofshelterbelt experience on a fairly large scale that the economic costs andbenefits become obvious. Accordingly, it is recommended that GOS publiclyannounce its strong political commitment to enforcing existing policyregarding shelterbelt replanting in association with mechanized farmingschemes. CFA's Extension Services should be strengthened to assist in theplanning and layout of shelterbelts. Incentives such as subsidizedseedlings or cash grants for shelterbelt establishment or maintenanceshould be introduced and steps should be taken to introduce a system offining land-owners who ignore Government legislation requiring theincorporation of shelterbelts as an Integral part of the farming pattern onlarge scale schemes. Finally, assistance should be sought from technicalassistance agencies to finance the cost of sending groups of leadingSudanese agricultural and forestry managers on overseas study tours tostudy the shelterbelt experience of other countries (e.g., Egypt, U.S.A.,Denmark, etc.).
35. In terms of a realistic scale of development for the next fiveyears, the review missions recomends a modest program comprising of about150 km. of canal bank planting and 5,000 ha of shelterbelt strips retainedin nechanized farming schemes (i.e., 15X of a gross farming area of166,000 ha). CFA should take a lead role in negotiating the implementationof this proposed program in the mechanized farming and productioncorporations and, if necessary, be prepared to second technical staff tothe corporations to enable the rate of implementation of this type offorestry work to be accelerated.
G. Rehabilitation of degraded watersheds
36. Information is required on the extent to which past deforestationand excessive cultivation of steep slopes and over-grazing in the uplandwatersheds of both the Blue and White Nile areas could be responsible fordownstream sedimentation and siltation of reservoirs and the effect thatthis is having on downstream agriculture. The extent to which ameliorativeaction within Sudan could really bring the problem under control is indoubt mainly because a large part of the catchment area for both rivers isoutside Sudan, in neighbouring Ethiopia and Uganda. Nevertheless, withinthe catchment areas that do lie within Sudan, there is not doubt that moreattention to soil conservation, reforestation and land protection measurescould have a beneficial effect or the productivity of agriculture withinthe watersheds. It is recomended that integrated watershed rehabilitationprojects be supported as a matter of some urgency, particularly in theRoseries catchment. Clearly this Is not only a forestry related issue.For such rehabilitation programs to be effective the closest possiblecooperation between agriculture, irrigation, forestry and energy planninggroups will be needed and a mechanism will have to be set up for channelingfunds through the watershed authority that has the responsibility forcoordinating actions and for monitoring and evaluation of results. Similarintegrated schemes have been successfully carried out in India, Uganda,Kenya and Australia. Overseas study tours to examine experience of othercountries could be very beneficial. A modest watershed/forestry componentof 1,000 ha has been included in the cost estimates for the proposedfive-year development program.
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R. Sand dune fixation
37. Sand dune fixation works Involving afforestation can play auseful role in protecting threatened high value infrastructure works(highways, canals, etc.) and In preventing the inundation of fertileagricultural valleys along the desert fringe. There are several examplesof successful interventions in Sudan. It is recommended that theseprograms be continued and that CFA be given the resources needed toimplement an additional program of sand dune fisation actIvIties. A targetarea of 1,000 ha over the next five years has been included in thedevelopment plan pending a more detailed survey of areas directly underthreat.
I. Industrial forest management and plantation establishment
38. A relatively small investment in additional saumill capacity andindustrial forest management and plantation establishment could largelyeliminate timber imports currently costing about LS60 million(US$20 million) a year. The techniques for natural hardwood forestmanagement are being developed with Canadian and West German bilateral aidassistance in the south. The economic viability of applying more intensiveindustrial forest management technology has been reviewed and found to besatisfactory (paras. 9.51 and Table 28). It is recommended that the paceof industrial forest management be accelerated during the next 5 years. Inview of the time needed to build up the institutional capacity to ensurethe successful implementation of this activity, a target of only 2,500 haof softwoods and 2,500 ha of improved hardwood forest plantation isproposed.
J. Forest Inventories
39. A major handicap in the formulation of national forestdevelopment policies is the lack of recent survey data on the exact extentof past deforestation and on growing stock volume in the remaining forestarea. The various figures reviewed by the mission relating to fuelwoodreserves in the savannah areas, for example, differ by a factor of three.It is recommended that in the coming fiveyear development period highpriority be given to the implementation of systematic fuelvood andindustrial wood inventories for the whole country, building on theexperience already gained with Canadian assistance in the Centre andSouth. In carrying out fuelwood surveys, use should be made of LANDSAT andsimilar technologies that can produce rapid results at relatively low cost.
(K) Sawmilling and Industrlal Forest Policies
40. In order to rehabilitate existing sawmills in the south and toincrease the rate of extraction of industrial logs, the review missionsurveyed the industrial equipment needs and levels of additional loancapital needed to get these sawmill operations moving. Details given inpara. 7.41 include additional spare parts and operating equipment forexisting Government owned mills of Loka and Bahr El Ghazal (which are beingrun with the aid of West German and Canadlan aid respectively). Additionalmarket feasibility, pitsawing industry and mill rehabilitation studies arealso recommended as an integral part of this program.
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(L) Forestry Research
41. The present institutional set up for forestry research isinadequate to support the work program required. The Forestry ResearchCenter (FRC) located at Soba is a weak organization with facilities midbudget too meagre to enable it to function effectively. It Is in need ofcomprehensive rehabilitation and strengthening.
42. FRC is currently part of the Agricultural Research Corpori:ion.It is recommended that forestry research in Sudan should come under thecontrol of a strengthened CFA, but that research on agro-forestry shouldremain with ARC. Agro-forestry research has much to gain from closeassociation with the larger research organization, provided however thatthe status of agro-forestry research in ARC is raised and that the researchprograms themselves are revised and become more applied in nature andproblem oriented. It is recommended that an Agro-Forestry ResearchCoordinator, equivalent in rank to coordinators for other crop basedresearch programs, should be appointed at ARC headquarters (para.8.11).Program priorities, progress and budgets should then be reviewed annuallyas part of the normal ARC monitoring and evaluation process. It is furtherrecommended that a Forestry Research Advisory Committee be established withrepresentatives from CFA, FRC, ARC and other relevant agencies, with powersto periodically review the progress of research, to coordinate researchactivities, to advise on program priorities and to evaluate researchresults.
43. The most pressing need in the immediate future is for greaterconcentration of forestry research on a few selected high priority topicsthat will make a significant and early impact on farmer's incomes andfuelvood availability. Examples would be tree breeding and improvementprograms, improved establishment techniques for arid-zone planting, closeedpacement biomass planting combined with short rotations for increasingfuelwood yields, and the possible need to incorporate fertilizers intoshort rotation tree crop farming systems. In the area of agro- forestrythe priority areas include sociological research aimed at testing farmersperceived needs and preferences, and research into optimal combinations oftrees and crops that can make better use of soil nutrients and increasecrop yields. Of paramount concern in the savannah woodland areas isresearch into improved fodder yields from trees and browse species. In theindustrial forests of the south, research is needed into means of makingmore effective use of the many secondary hardwood species that arecurrently regarded as commercially unmarketable.
44. Attempts are currently being made with World Bank assistance tobuild up forest research networks in Africa in some of these priority areasof research through support to IUFRO's special Program for StrengtheningForestry Research in Developing Countries. The World Bank, together withother donors, is also currently examining the feasibility of providingsupport to a regional forestry research center to be located in West Africathat would concentrate on tree breeding and improvement of arid zonespecies and the possible -ise of biotechnology for accelerating growth ratesand improving survival. It is recommended that Sudan should become anintegral part of the research network that is expected to emerge from thisinitiative.
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M. Forestry education and training
45. Lack of appropriate trained professional and technical manpover.will be a constraint to implementation of the recommended developmentprogram. It is therefore recommended that:
(a) A manpower section should be established in the centralplanning division of CFA with responsibility for forwarddetailed manpower planning for the coming five years andbroad manpower planning responsibility beyond that period.
(b) A forest education advisory committee should be establishedcomprising representatives of all associated agenciesresponsible for ensuring that training curriculae areappropriate to the country's needs and for examining, inconjunction with the Public Service Commission, the need formore attractive terms of service, particularly for fieldstaff and for specialist research career oriented staff.
(c) A special effort should be made to redesign trainingcurriculae at all levels to give more emphasis to agro-forestry and energy related forestry techniques and issues.Special attention should be paid to devising appropriatetraining approaches for forestry extension subject matterspecialists.
(d) The forestry facilities at both the Universities of Khartoumand Juba should be expanded to allow for increased intakeand for better laboratory and other training equipmentneeds.
(e) Assistance should be provided for relocation of the Yambiotraining school in Kagelu.
(f) The technicel training facilities at the Soba forestryresearch center should be greatly strengthened. This workshould be coordinated with building up the extensioncapability of CFA.
46. The capital and recurrent costs for implementing theserecommendations over the next five years have been included as part of theproposed development program.
N. Reorganization and strengthening of the Central ForestMAWdiistration.
47. The sector review mission endorses the recent GOS decision toplace the responsibility for overall forest reservation, protection, andmanagement under the jurisdiction of CFA. Because this decision has onlyjust been taken, the exact details of an appropriate division ofresponsibilities between the Centre and the Regions and of the optimalorganizational structure of the future CFA are still being discussed.Pending finalization, the sector review mission has concentrated on two
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likely main areas of concern in the near future: (a) the establishment ofan effective forestry extension service; and (b) strengthening forestryplanning, moniLoring and evaluation capability.
48. In relation to strengthening of CFA's extension staff it is clearthat CFA alone would be unable to achieve the scale of activity required tobring Sudan's forests under control and management and to ensure futurewood energy supplies, nor would this be the most cost effective solution.Large scale forest protection and reforestation can only be achieved byinvolving small farmers, village communities and private sector companiesin a wide ranging forestry program. To support such a program CPA will, onthe one hand, need to build up its extension capability, and on the other,it will have to begin to work closely with the Agriculture and EnergyMinistries. In relation to extension programs, for example, whilst CFA'sstaff will provide the technical leadership and guidance to theRegional Agriculture Ministry, the Mechanized Farming Corporation andirrigation production corporations, it is the latter's existingagricultural extension workers who will in turn provide the main directpoint of contact with the individual farmers who will be the target ofextension. Similarly, in future wood based energy strategy, it is bothlogical and desirable that the Ministry of Energy should continue to play alead role in carrying out overall energy supply and demand analyses and inimplementing investment programs that aim at relieving pressure on forests(e.g., by encouraging use of alternative fuels such as electricity,kerosene, or briquette charcoal and agricultural crop residues). Sincesuch programs directly affect the level of forestry investment needed toresolve the future fuelwood supply constraints, it is essential thateffective coordination and planning mechanisms be established between theForestry and Energy departments.
49. The review mission's more detailed recommendations relating tothe staff housing, vehicle and equipment needs for creating an effectiveextension and training service are contained in Annex III and were preparedIn close conjunction with FAO staff who have been assisting CFA to developthese proposals. These preliminary estimates and broad order of investmentrequirements will require further refinement to take into account the morerecent work of the CFA/FAO team before any project proposals areImplemented.
50. The whole issue of the relationship between CFA and the Regionshas still to be defined and it would be premature to anticipate theoutcome. However, based on experience of similar problems elsewhere thefollowing observations are put forward for discussion and possible futuredialogue. It should be re-emphasized that the GOS decision to centralizethe responsibility for forest reservation, protection, and managementpolicies parallels actions proven to be necessary in many other countries.Essentially the management of forests is a long-term undertaking and if theforests are to be protected and interests of future generationssafeguarded, it is almost inevitable that the central government will haveto take a lead role in protecting these resources. It shtould also be notedthat because stumpage prices for wood extracted from the natural forests donot reflect their replacement cost and there is currently little incentivefor the private sector to invest in reforestation, some measure ofgovernment intervention is essential, initially to ensure that the forest
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resources are not being "mined" (e.g., for easily obtained localdevelopment revenues), but also to ensure that the necessary legislativeand other actions are taken (e.g., increased stumpage taxes, use ofincentives or subsidies to encourage tree planting, etc.). Past experiencesuggests that where such issues are left to local authorities with littleforestry experience, the forests rapidly disappear.
51. Experience in many countries has already demonstrated thatvesting forest control in a central forest authority need not necessarilyresult in friction between the Regional and the Central governmentsprovided that legislation is flexible and a mechanism exists for ensuringthat Regional administrations and people benefit from sustained yieldmanagement and systematic replacement of the local forest resource. Thereare several countries where provision exists for the Central Forestauthority to manage forests on behalf of Regional authorities, with dueprovision for local people to participate in decision making and for a flowof locally generated forest revenues back to the Region. Under the CentralAuthority system now to be introduced into Sudan, there will be a muchbetter chance than in the past to ensure that a higher proportion offorestry derived revenues is re-invested in forests, protection,management, and reforestation instead of being diverted for use in othershort-term and not always essential development needs. The review missionsupports the concept currently under discussion that CFA be constituted asa semi autonomous "Forestry Commission" with a legal constitution enablingit to retain forest revenues subject to treasury audit and to the annualsubmissior. to Central Government of a Forestry Development Plan thatclearly demonstrates utilization of forest revenues for improvement,conservation and protection of the country's forest estate.
52. The risk associated with an overly centralized forestadministration is that bureaucratic forest administration will develop atthe Center that is out of touch with Regicrql aspirations and inparticular, with the people who live in, or adjacent to, the forests, andwho are dependent on them for survival. Cognisance must be taken of theviews of local villagers and farmers in formulating forest policies, andlocal district mechanisms should be established to ensure that forestpolicies incorporate what the people themselves perceive as beingimportant. These are not new issues to forestry. Countries such asSweden, Finland, U.S.A., Korea and China have succeeded in setting up localconsultation mechanisms that combine the need for strong central control offorest resources with involvement of local people in decision making andforest program implementation. It is recomended that forestry leadersfrom both the Center and the Regions should be given an opportunity tovisit some of the countries that have achieved this balance and to studythe legal and administrative mechanisms required for its success. GOS hasrecently negotiated FAO assistance for developing more specific legislationrelating to the CFA's future structure and responsibilities. It isrecommended that follow-up project related development work should takethis more detailed study into account.
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Issues avd Constraints requiring additional study
53. The following are important issues meriting more indepth study.
(a) Re-organization of the management, operation and structure of CFAwith special reference to ensuring an appropriate balance betweenthe interests of the country as a whole and those of the regionsand local people in the operation of the forest resource.
(b) Controlling fuelwood harvesting and levying increased stumpagecharges on freely gathered wood from natural forests. Thisshould be coupled with a study of the likely implications to therural ard urban poor of the increase in fuelwood prices thatcould be expected if stumpage fees are raised and with anassessment of the extent to which such increased fees would makeinvestment in fuelwood and tree growing more profitable to theprivate sector.
(c) Taking into account the results of the above study, the range ofincentives that should be tried in order to encourage people'sparticipation iD forest protection and accelerated olantingshould be examined. This should be coupled witb the systematictesting of alternative incentive approaches and pilot schemes forinvolving the private sector which are recommended for the comingfive-year period.
(d) The impact of various land tenure systems on people's willingnessto protect and plant trees.
(e) Taking into account the results of the recommeuded forestinventory and biomass studies, the results of more detailedhousehold energy consumption studies being undertaken by NEA, andof the pilot scale reforestation programs undertaken by CFA,further refinement of the future optimal long range supply sideinvestment program for resolving possible fuelwood shortages.
(f) Ways and means of improving the north/south transportationnetwork as this relates to the shipment of forest products(particularly of timber).
(g) The staff salary and career structure of both professional andtechnical forestry staff to ensure adequate incentives to remainin the service and to avoid the drain of experienced personneloverseas.
Summary of recommended development program for 1987-91
54. Table 2 'summarizes the recommended development program whichenvisages a total incremental investment in forestry over the next fiveyears of LS140 million. Of this, about LS70 million (50Z) would bechannelled through CFA, LS5.7 million to the Ministry of Education forstrengthening professional forestry education in Khartoum and Juba, andLS30 million to sawmilling enterprises. The balance would be generated
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Table 2
SUMMARY OF PROPOSED 5 YEARS FOREST CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM1987 - 1991
Likely CostResponsible Tagt Area (5 Years)
ITEM Agency (000 ha) LB.'OOO
1. Strengthening CFA tosupport above programincluding new naturalforest protection andmanagement staff andcreation of a newForest Extension Division(including vehicleand equipment needs) CPA 18600
2. Pilot schemes for increas-ing area of savannahforest reserves to be Villagebrought under protection Communitiesand management CFA 1Q0 2000
3. Forest inventory andfuelwood (biomass) wholesurveys CFA and MOE country 2500
4. Strengthening offorestry research ARC and CFA - 5400
5_ Forest education andtraining at Universityof Xhartoum/Juba and Ministry ofSoba Education - 5700
6. Planning, economicand other studies CFA 3000
I. Conservation of Wood Energy(more efficient charcoalstoves, etc.) MOE/CFA - 225
8. Improved recovery ofwood from agriculture CFA 30 171
9. Improved protection andmanagement of savannahwoodlands already nnderCFA control (includingriverine forests) CFA 25 425
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10. New fuelvood poleplantations(a) mechanical reseeding
of abandoned farmland CFA 25 3975
(b) irrigated plantations Irrigatedusing waste water Corporation 10 15260
(c) rainfed farmers grow-ing poles/fuelvood/ Farmers 1/fodder as a cash crop 5 2405
11. Industrial forest manage-ment protection andplantation developmentin the South CFA 5 8057
12. Pilot program forreforestation in degradedwatersheds CFA 1 1526
15. Shelterbelt planting in Farmers andirrigazed and mechanized agriculturefarms corporations 25 3325
16. Sawmill and logging CFA and 3/equipment private sector 23000-
Grand Total 96450
Physical and pricecontingencies 139852
(say) LS140 million
1/ Would involve about 330 farming families each with 20 ha of land ofwhich at anyone time 15 ha would be under trees and 5 ha under food orother crops.
2/ Would involve about 10,000 small farms each with 160 trees.Translated into plantations, this would equate to an area of 1000 ha.
3/ Including LS20 million in working capital needed for Imatong.
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from the private sector. The economic viability of the individualcomponents of the program have been analyzed, and details appear in AnnexesIX to XIV. The benefits of the program would be the production of 8.0million cubic meters of fuelwood and 1.8 million cubic meters of industrialround-wood. More importantly, this investm-"i would help to test a rangeof options for ensuring greater private sector participation in forestryand would put in place some of the institutional framework needed for amuch larger forestry program in the 1990's.
55. This Incremental inveatment (i.e., addicional to CFA's presentbudgetary ellocation) implies about a three-fold increase over thecurrently plarned 1985 development budget. Key issues for further dialoguewill be (a) the ability of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning tosustain this increase; (b) Lhe extent to which external donors couldsupport the program; and (c) the extent to which the recurrent costs ofthis proposal could be carried by raising fuelwood forestry revenues.
SUDAN
FORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW
Is BACKGROUND
1.01 At the request of the Government of Sudan (GOS), in 1982 theWorld Bank undertook an assessment of the issues and options in thecountry's energy sector. The subsequent report 1/.highlighted the seriousover-cutting of fuelwood resources and its implications in view of Sudan'sheavy dependence o, fuelwood and charcoal for domestic energy. A series ofrecommendations directed at alleviating this problem were put forward (para5.10). Sinice then, GOS has initiated a number of policy measures anddevelopment programs aimed at rationalizing the utilization of forestresources. However, owing to adverse economic conditions, GOS has beenunable to implement these programs at a rapid rate. Continued progressdepends on GOS's ability to mobilize adequate financial and otherresources, both national and international, to sustain the developmentprogram.
1.02 Mindful of the importance of forest resources in the nationalenergy budget, and increasingly concerned with the effects of drought andthe impact of over-cutting and land clearing on increasing desertification,in 1984 GOS requested the World Bank, in cooperation with a number of aidagencies to undertake a review of the forestry sector. This report isbased on the findings of a review mission with representatives from theWorld Bank, FAO and the governments of Canada, Federal Republic of Germany,the Netherlands, United Kingdom and the United States, 2/ which visitedSudan from November 18 to December 16, 1984. The mission worked in closecollaboration with GOS, and in particular with the staff of the CentralForest Administration (CFA) and with the guidance of the Ministry ofFinance and Economic Planning.
1.03 The objectives of the review were to:
(i) examine the role oG forestry in the over-all context of land-usesystems in Sudan, focussing on both its production andenvirome.;ta protection functions;
(ii) review the needs, opportunities and constraints to forestrysector development;
1/ Sudan: Issues and Options in the Energy Sector. Report of the JointUNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Assessment - 4511-SU, July 1983.
2/ Mission members were: A. Pritchard, J. Spears (World Bank), T.Catterson, C. Tapp, Abul Gassim Seif El Din, K. Openshaw, J. Seyler(USAID), P. Dodd (ODA) B. Armitage (FAO), I. Bird, C. Smith (CIDA), E.Pelinck (Netherlands Ministry of Development), M. Faller, E. Shonfelder(GTZ).
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(iii) develop a comprehensive long-term strategy and an indicativeinvestment rationale for forentry sector development forconsideration by GOS for incltsion in the next NationalDevelopment Plan; and
(iv) achieve through active donor pttrticipation in the preparation ofthis report, coordinated donor support for the identifiedinvestment priorities, on a scale commensurate with the needs.
1.04 During the mission, the following were identified as the majorissues to be addressed:
(i) the role of forestry in relation to sustaining and increasingfood production and agricultural productivity, and in helping tocombat desertification;
(ii) the demand for fuelwood to meet the domestic energy budget;
(iii) industrial forestry development aimed at reducing dependence onimports and therefore reducing fore.tgn exchange expenditures;
(iv) sectoral, institutional and policy aspects, including the needto:
(a) strengthen forestry education, training, research andextension;
Cb) improve planning and coordination of forestry programs andprojects, between GOS and the Govtrnments of regions andprovinces, between GOS and its various agencies involvedwith forestry development, and between government and non-government agencies.
(v) the economic justification for increased investment and technicalassistance support for forestry, and recommendations for anaction program for the coming three-year Development Period.
1.05 Many of the issues examined in the report have been the subjectof past studies and seminars in Sudan. Likewise, they have been both largeand small projects in Sudan directed at forestry development. The missionreviewed many of these projects with a view to using the more successful asmodels for larger-scale development programs which could have an earlyimpact on rural incomes, agricultural productivity and environmentalprotection.
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II. THE FORESTRY SECTOR
Wood Resources
2.01 Early estimates made during the 1950's and 1960's indicated aproductive forest area of 45.5 million ha. A later revision indicatedbetween 44.5 and 58.5 million ha. The smaller figure was estimated tocontain a growing stock (stem) volume of 1,280 million m3 of fuelwood andbuilding poles and 52 million m3 of timber. The overall stocking based onthese filgures would be between 23 and 29 m3/ha of productive forest, withactual values ranging from 150 m3/ha in the montane forests of the southernregions to less than 1 m3/ha in the northern bushlands. However. the term'productive" was interpreted in the narrow fcrestry sense of containingcommercially exploitable trees in areas where the tree cover is greaterthan about 40%, and the volume cuoted was stem volume with no account takenof branchwood. From a woodfuel point of view, all woody bicmass, includingbranchwood, is burnable irrespective of percentage tree cover. Insituations where woody biomass is scarce, people can and do burn grass,leaves, crop residues and dung.
2.02 Forests and woodlands in Sudan range from bushland, in areas ofannual rainfall of about 400 mm, to tropical high forests which aregenerally found in the southern mountains (map 18921). Within the savannahwoodlands are patches of savann!ah grasslands that have been maintainedthrough constant burning. These areas woula revert to savannah woodlandsif the annual burning could be controlled. Table 1 gives an approximatebreakdown of the land area of Sudan by region and category. The forestarea is about 94 million ha but this includes 21 million ha of savannahgrasslands containing only scattered trees and about 3 million ha of treesin swampy vegetation (Table 2).
2.03 No national forest inventory has been made to verify these data,and only limited surveys for specific purposes (usually resource estimationfor the sawmilling industry) have been carried out. T'he early completionof a national forest inventory should be a high priority item. TheNational Energy Administration (NEA) did commission a study by CFA using1972 landeat imagery to revise the estimates. The satellite imagery wasvisually interpreted in 13 strata. A growing stock inventory at lowintensity to provide ground truth was carried out In selected areasincluding Blue Nile, White Nile and Kassala Provinces. The average growingstock stem volume was found to be about 24 m3/ha and total above groundvolume about 33 m3/ha. Preliminary data from these surveys indicate atotal annual allowable cut (AAC) 3/ of 15 million m3 for the northernregions and 29 million m3 for the southern regions.
2.04 In addition to trees irn woodlands and forests, woody biomass ispresent in semi-desert and scrubland. Farmers also leave or plant trees intheir fields, and there are some trees on mechanized agricultural schemesand in shelterbelts on irrigated achemes. The wood supply on agricultural
3/ The amount of wood thac can be removed annually without reducing thecapital stock.
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Tabe 1smm
19r3 LAW c ir N
vmtw/ pI- od3wx Semb G^FRin Dm_rt U_m k n ture RySbl t Ibtal
1.Tnvirig for Escmad StaMlizatxio. aud Stlx#idrna QI.Ue 3551.a-, Feubriuy 16, 19822. Aplcultural Secor S%Wny 1836.S60, Nay 18, 19793. iims aad options In tle uimew Se±or, 4511-6U, July 19834. !isui eimtes
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land was estimated by categorizing the agricultural area (Table 3) andcalculating growing stock from available information (Tables 2 and 3)ammended data from the NEA landsat study and information from tree cover onagricultural lands in neighboring countries. The total above groundgrowing stock in Sudan for all types of land-use category and thetheoretical MAC (see para. 2.09) were estimated to be 2,860 and 90 millionm3 respectively (Table 4).
2.05 The present area of gazetted forest estate is estimated to be1.05 million ha or 1.1X of the total estimated area of forest andwoodlands (Table 2 and map 18922). If the areas of forest which are inthe process of reservation i.e. not gazetted but suggested for reservationor under reconnaissance, is included, the total forest estate would beabout 1.98 million ha or 2.12 of the area of forest and woodlands, or 0.8Zof the total land area of Sudan.
Distribution of Forests and Population
2.06 The available growing stock is unevenly distributed, both betweennorth and south 4/ and between provinces within regions. Thus, 32Z of thetotal growing stock occurs in the north and 68% in the south (Table 4).Within the 12 northern provinces, 922 of the total available growing stockoccurs in the area occupied by Southern Darfur and Southern Kordofanprovinces. The Northern and Eastern regions have 1% of the growing stock.In the south, the Provinces of Bahr el Ghazal and West Equatoria togethercarry 60% of the growing stock. The smallest resource of 3% occurs inJonglei Province of the Upper Nile region, but even so this provifrecontains more growing stock than Northern, Eastern and Central Regionscombined.
2.07 The populatior distribution pattern between northern and southernregions presents the opposite case. In 1983, 742 of the total population(estimated at 21.6 million in 1984) was concentrated in the north and only262 in the southern regions. There is thus a considerable imbalancebetween fuelwood resources and population.
2.08 . Table 5 gives the forecast of the country's population to theyear 2000 assuming an annual growth rate of 2.9Z. Overall the population
4/ The north is defined as the following regions: Northern, Eastern,Central, Kordofan, Darfur and Khartoum, within which there are twelveprovinces; total area 186 million ha. The south is defined as thefollowing regions: Equatoria, Bahr el Ghazal and Upper Nile withinwhich, there are six provinces; total area 65 million ha (Table 1).
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is expected to grow by 631 between 1983 and 2000, with the north/southshares remaining more or less constant. There are great disparitiesbetween urban and rural population growth rates. It is anticipated thatafter growing by 132 by 1995, the rural population will start to decline.However, the urban population is anticipated to grow by 274Z by the yearW000. It is this anticipated large increase in urban population (to about46Z of total population by 2000) that could have an enormous influence onconsumption of woodfuel. The urban population mainly consume charcoalwhich, because of the waste in the conversion process, puts a much largerdemand on wood raw material than does the use of fuelwood.
2.09 In terms of growing stock and theoretical MAC in m3 of roundwoodper capita, the average figures for the north are 57 and 1.9 respectively,and 352 and 10.4 respectively for the south. Mhuch of this growing stock istoo remote from demand centers to be exploited economically without a muchimproved transport network and an increased selling price. These figuresemphasize the uneven distribution of the resource. As far as the north isconcerned, allowing for the fact that about half the resource is tooremote, there is insufficient sustainable supply to meet consumerrequirements for firewood and charcoal, quite apart from other demands onthe resource for poles and timber.
Forestry Institutions
2.10 Under the forestry legislation, enacted in 1932, all forestreserves and all land not used for cultivation is managed and controlled byCPA. ToAay, both central and regional governments are involved in themanagement of forest lands. CFA, which is part of the Ministry ofAgriculture, is located in Khartoum, and consists of Afforestation,Inventory and Management, Utilization, Gum Arabic and Administration andFinance Sections. It is responsible for management of the nationalforestry resources. The Regional Forestry Departments are usually part ofthe Regional Ministries of Natural Resources and are responsible forprovincial and regional forestry reserves. The regionalization legislationof 1980 increased the control xherted by the Regional Governments overforestry activities but since ts contents were unspecific, de facto, theregional governments assumed control of almost all forest areas anduncultivated land. In mid 1985, GOS issued a decree recentralizingresponsibility for forestry under CFA. The organization and management ofthis administrative set-up is now being defined.
2.11 Forestry research is under the Agricultural Research Corporation(ARC). The main research center is the Forestry Research Center (FRC) atSoba near Khartoum. Forestry education to BSc level is provided at theUniversities of Khartoum and Juba. Ranger level training is available atthe Yambio and Soba Ranger Training Colleges. There are no facilities forin-service training. Forestry extension is weak but steps have beeninitiated for improvement under the leadership of CPA and FAO.
importance of Forestry to the Economy
2.12 Agriculture is the mainstay of Sudan's economy, accounting for30% of GDP, 85' of exports (valued at LS758 million in 1984 and consistingmainly of cotton, gum arabic, sesame, sorghum, groundnuts, vegetable oils
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and cattle cake) and 65Z of employment. In 1984 livestock accounted for12X of the country's total export earnings (valued at LS1O8 million).
2.13 Wood Ls a high-bulk low-cost product, but it can be turned into amultitude of nore valuable products (fuelvood, charcoal, poles, sawnwood,plywood etc.) the selling prices of which are uch greater than thestanding value of the tree. By using the selling pric' of finishedproducts and assuming a smlilar price for freely collected woodfuel andpoles, the value of standing trees can be valued at rbout LS700 million.Based on these data, the misslon estimates that forestry contributed about82 of GDP In 1984.
2.14 The 1985 estimated consumption of wood products is about 48million m3 (34 million tons), of which all but 1.0 million m3 is locallyproduced. Of this total, 45 milllon m3 is used for woodfuel, which is theprincipal energy form in Sudan, accounting for 822 of energy re;lirements.The use of woodfuel saves a considerable amount of foreign exchange. Thevalue of charcoal production alone, in kerosene equivalent terms, andtaking into account the efficiency difference, is about US$570 million orabout 20Z of the total import bill.
2.15 The Forests provide direct employment for about 170,000 people(excluding self-collected fuelwood and poles) and are the source of gumarabic, a product of Acacia senegal, the export value of which was aboutUS$ 65 million in 1984 from a production of 43,000 tons.
2.16 Trees provide other direct and indirect benefits. Animal browsefrom shrubs and trees is estimated to provide about 302 of the feedrequirements of Sudan's livestock population. Other forest products ofimportance to the rural communities, are honey, fruit, fibers andmedicines. Trees also improve micro-climates, thereby leading to Increasedcrop production, and help in soil erosion control.
Budgetary Allocations to the Forestry Sector
2.17 Support for the forestry sector in Sudan has long beenneglected. Out of a total development budget over the last plan period ofLS 2,300 million, agriculture received LS 754 million (about LS 274 millionannually). Forestry was not mentioned in the plan, but examination of thedevelopment budgetary allocations for forestry for the years 1981/82,1982/83 and 1983/84 reveals that only 0.6, 0.7 and 1.1% respectively of thetotal allocation for agricultural development were for forestry. Theimportance of forestry development activities is begimning to be recognizedand allocations to forestry of at least 5.0X of the-agriculturaldevelopment budget are being discuAsed for future plans. A major purposeof this review Is to provide the Ministry of Finuace and Economic Planningwith information on the social and economic benefits to be anticipated froma policy of more intensive forest conservation and development and to helpjustify increased resource allocations to the forestry sector.
EWtty E MI
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III. THE ROLE OF FORESTRY IN INCREASING AGRICULTURALPRODUCTION AND FARM INCOME
3.01 Sudan's traditio-nl rainfed agricultural sector is largelysubsistence oriented and eronomic growth has been mainly derived fromirrigated cotton, groundr.uts, wheat and sugarcane, and from sorghumproduced by the mechanized rainfed farming schemes. In the irrigatedsector, crop production has oscillated over the years, mainly as a resultof variation in the supply of foreign exchange and essential inputs, andonly recently have yields improved to their historical levels. In themechanized rainfed sector, yields of sorghum, groundnuts and millet havedeclined over the years, again as a result of poor input supply and morerecently lack of rainfall. Yields and production in the traditional sectorhave stagnated. The overall result has been a decline in the share of GDPgenerated by agriculture.
3.02 Food supply in years of ad-quate rainfall is generally sufficientfor Sudan's needs, although variations in nutritior vary between incomegroups and geographical areas, with hardship occurring in the arid areas.Because of the extensive area of cultivated soils and adequate rainfall, inthe early 1970's Sudan was regarded as the potential "breadbasketw for theMiddle East. Some food exports were possible in the past but these wereachieved through the liberal use of available laud and water resources.The situation is changing as these resources become scarcer and in years ofpoor rainfall the nation suffers a negative food import balance.
3.03 Sudan's large livestock resource is concentrated in thetraditional sector, mainly in the eastern, western and southern parts ofthe country. It plays a vital role in subsistence farming and over half ofthe farming families own some livestock. Off-take is low (10 catle, 18%sheep) and grazing resources have become a limiting factor for livestocksector develop'ment, especially in the north, where desertification inducedby overgrazing, fires and land clearance for cropping has severelydiminished the natural resource base. Increased livestock production couldbe realized by improved range management and development and the controlledintroduction and use of tree brcame.
3.04 Prospects for growth of the Sudanese economy are dependent onincreasing agricultural and livestock production. raising the efficiency ofproduction, price incentives for agricultura produce and improvedtechnology and infrastructure. Subsistence farmers have benefitted littlefrom past investments in the agricultural sector and witih %bstantialincreases in population and stagnant or declining crop yields, concentratedgovernment action is now needed to improve living standard& and farmincomes. Tree planting and forestry have roles to play in this endeavourby building greater resilience into traditional farming systems throughImproved soil and water conservation and by improving income generationfrom the sale of tree products.
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A. Direct Effects of Forestry on Agricultural Productlon
The Role nf Shelterbslts
3.05 A considerable literature records the beneficial effects ofshelterbelts on crop yields and on the well-being of people and animals,particularly in areas subjected to strong persistent winds, moisturedeficiency and drought. Much of the research was conducted iv West Africabut the results are applicable to Sudan.
3.06 Shelterbelts reduce wind velocity. When this falls below 17km/hour, sand being carried by the wind is dropped. The cumulative effectis the reduction of wind erosion, abrasion of crop plants, lodging,siltation of water chaunels and burial of farm lands and buildings.Shelterbelts also increase relative humidity and reduce evaporatlon fromopen water surfaces. The effects of shelterbelts on teupersture can bepositive or negative depending on the configuration and orientation of thebelt.
3.07 Shelterbelts affect crop yields. Negative effects on crop rowsin the imediate vicinity of shelterbelts are the result of depleted soilmoisture, shading and competition for nutrients. Iucreased yields over theprotected crop as a whole, which can be 100Z greater than unprotected cropsmore then compensate for these losses (annex IV). Minor beneficial effectsfrom shelterbelts include Improved soil organic matter, recycling plantnutrients, improved rainfall infiltration, caetchuent protection and theprovision of wild-life habitats.
3.08 Large-scale shelterbelts in Sudan can be erpected to incrrusecrop yields, besides providing fuelwood, poles, fodder etc. Jucreases incrop yielis, based on information available (Annex IV) may be .Is high as 1Ipercent but this needs to be verified by trials within Sudan. The alledgedproolems arising from interference with aerial crop spraying and providinghavens for crop pests (especially birds) can be overcome by propershelterbelt design (Anaex IV).
Trees Planted Along Canal Banks
3.09 In some parts of Sudan, e.g., the Gezira irrigated agriculturescheme, trees are not planted along canals because it Is elleged that tlayinterfere with canal maintenance (dredging) and cause canals to 'leak."The allegation concerning leaking is also ralsed in Darfur and Kordofan, in-relation to trees planted round dug weter reservoirs. Other oblections arethat trees interfere with crop spraying and harbor or encoura6e birds andother crop pests (para 3.23). However, trees also attract useful insectssuch as bees which besides producing honey, are vital for pollinating aomeagricultural c'ops. It is clear that plantation design and crop breedfrgoptions are available and should be used to mitigate, if not completelysolve bird problems in view of the benefits that can and do result fromtree growing along canals.
3.10 The allegation that the roots of trees grown along canals causeleaking has been refuted, e.g., at Rahad where it is claimed (as it is alsoin comparable situations in Egyvt, India and Pakistan, where canalsideplanting is done on a considerable scale) that, on the contrary, providedthe trees are well placed and that there are no dead and rotting roots, thetree roots are actually beneficial in binding the soil, preventing it from
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being washed into the canal by rain, or blown there by wind. The fr2quencyand costs of dredging canal sections protected by shelterbelts near theNile in the Northern Region have been reduced in some canes by 50X.Canal-side shelterbelts are being established on the recommendation oflocal Ministry of Irrigation officials in the Abdul Majid area in NorthernGezira to enable the rehabilitation of canals (including one major canal)that have been filled in by blown sand, and to protect them fromrecurrences of such damage. Appropriate designs have been used to overcomethe objection to plantings hased or their Interference with dredging.
3.11 Other benefits of growing trees along canals are that they exertprotective shelterbelt influences that, through reduction of windvelocities, reduce evaporation from open canal water surfaces, enhance cropyields in the adjacent areas protected, yield poles, fuelwood and, whereappropriate species are grown, tree fodder (Ahnex TV).
The Role of Forestry in Providing Fodder Supplies
3.12 Browse plants, such as the tree and bush legumes that are presentin Sudan's woodlands, are important and cheap sources of protein, vitamins,and minerals for stock. With the exception of goats, brow-e is a.upplement to grass fodder and should not be considered In isolation fromthis feed source. It is however a particularly important reserve duringdroughts and dry seasons. Data available indicate that during dry seasors,ruminantsi cannot meet their maintenance needs from grass alone and dependon browse to balance their diet. Although in Senegal some browse is takeneven at the height of the wet season, it has been shown that browse intakerises from 5Z of the diet at the beginning of the dry season to 45% at theend. The general figure for browse from trees in tropical Africa is 20% oflivestock feed, but it can be as high as 30% in the dry season, in drierareas.
3.13 Browse management needs to be based on the ecology of the range.A high intensity, low frequency pattel:. of grazing and browsing seems to beappropriate. This is seldom followed. In Sudan, over the lasc 60 yearsthere has been an 8-21 fold increase in stock numbers, which combined witha lack of control over management of the range lands and depredation ca -dby fuelwood collection has caused serious depletion of woodlands,especially within the 87 million ha of dry woodlandc and scrub/semi-desertin central Sudan.
3.14 Data on forage yields in Sudan from trees and shrubs arelimited. Extrapolation from data collected elsewhere is not alwayspossible since different measures have been used for fodder production.Typically, these are either the total crown, the amount within reach ofstock, or the amouw.t made available after human intervention (lopping). Inthe Ivory Coast, it was estimated that shrub land produced 0.7 - 1.7 t/haof dry matter (DH) annually. In acacia scrub yields were measured of 668kg/DM/ha and it was suggested that the maximum would be about 1,500 kg/ha,the higher figures being obtainable with increased rainfall. However, onlypart of this would be available (within reach) depending on the height ofthe tree; thus only 7X of the foliage of 7m trees is within reach. A yieldof 1.7 ton/ha in Cameroon was estimated to produce only 120 kg/ha of fodderbecause of accessibility and the low number of palatable species.
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3.15 Compared to grass yields, browse yields are low. Chemicalanalyses have shown that browse is low in energy but high in protein,minerals and vitamins at critical times of the year. At times, when drygrass was devoid of digestible crude protein, crude protein levels of leafand pods of Acacia senegal and Prosopis juliflora have been measured at 22%and 19% respectively. A dry matter yield of 120 kg/ha would be expected toprovide about 20 kg of digestible crude protein under Sudanese conditions.
3.16 The effect of the total removal of browse would be far greaterthan is intimated from the data on amount of feed provided (pars. 3.15),since in the absence of any concentrate feed or planted leguminous foddercrops, the browse is essential for livestock health and without it stocknumbers in the drier areas of Sudan would be substantially reduced.
Value of Trees in Increasing Soil Fertility
".17 There are a few reliable data on the effects of trees on soilfertility in Sudan. Farmers' experience indicates that soil fertility isincreased under some trees, resulting in "islands of fertility" in desertecosystems. Measures of soil fertility have shown increased levels ofnitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter under Acacia trees. Data forAcacia albida in the Sahel showed that shed leaves added the equivalent of50 ton/ha/year of farmyard manure in a stand of 50 trees/ha. This isequivalent to 75 kg nitrogen, 12 kg phosphorous, 13 kg potasium, 20 kgsulphur, 25 kg magnesium and 120 kgs of calcium.
3.18 Nitrogen fixation by leguminous trees is also important. Underfavorable conditions, Leucaena has been shown to fix about 600kg/N/ha/year. Its eficiency under dryland conditions is not known. Undersimilar favorable conditions, A. mearnsii in Southern Africa fixed 200kg/N/ha and Prosopis tamarugo in Chile, with no rain but plenty of groundwater, fixed 198/kg/ha/year. It has been estimated that where rainfall isabout 500 mm/year, leguminous trees could be expected to fix about 100kg/N/ha/year, which would be equivalent to the present GOS nitrogenfertilizer recommendations for wheat and sorghum.
3.19 Data on the effects of this increased ferti'ity on crop yieldsare few. In Senegal, wheat yields have been shown to be 250% greater andprotein 350% greater in crops grown under A. albida compared with thosegrown in the open. In West Africa, yields of range grasses can be doubledby growing under trees of Prosopis cinerera. Yields of groundnuts havebeen doubled in crops grown under A. albida.
3.20 More research is needed but it is apparent that beneficialeffects on crop yields from increased fertility resulting from trees havebeen recorded over the years. These effects are likely to be much greaterthan the beneficial effects of windbreaks (Annex XII).
3.21 Trees play an important role in restoring fertility in thebush-fallow farming system which is the basis of Sudanese traditionaldry-land 1-arming. Under this system, land is cropped until fertility isexhausted and then allowed to revert to bush which includes a significantamount of woody vegetation. Fertility is gradually restored. The bushfallow period can be as long as 20 years, especially in the drier, more
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fragile environments. It is not an efficient production system. Theanimal feed produced during the fallow period is usually of poor quality,and the whole system is only practical where unlimited land areas areavailable and inputs are expensive. With the increase in populationpressure in Sudan, pressure on the land is increasing so that the fallowrestorative period has been gradually decreasing.
3.22 In the past, there has been little research to measure thebeneficial effects of the bush fallow. Reports of soil fertility under anAcacia senegal bush fallow near El Obeid showed twice as much nitrogen andcarbon in the soil of a long term bush fallow than in an adjacent arablearea. GOS is now supporting research aimed at increasing the period undercrops (cultivation methods, intercropping with legumes, mulching,fertilizers, plant protection etc.) and at the same time introducing afallow based on planted legumes and grasses. Although this research isnew, there are indications that appropriate technologies will emerge whichwill enable land to be more or less continuously productive. As thistechnology becomes accepted, the role of the bush fallow system inmaintaining soil fertility is likely to be reduced.
Birds, Crop Damage and Forestry
3.23 The issue of damage to crops by grain eating birds such asfinches, weaver birds, Queleas and Spanish sparrows, causes many farmersand agriculturalists to view trees in or near crop areas, especially in theproximity of water, with disfavor. Mechanized Farming Corporationrepresentatives state that the desire to remove bird shelter and nestingsites from crop areas is one reason for not honoring the lease conditionrequiring 15% of cropping areas to be left uncleared. Sociological studieshave given prominence to people's reservations about bird damage to cropsand any developments that exacerbate the situation. 5/ There is noquestion that birds regularly cause serious crop losses and annual lossesin mechanized farming areas have been estimated at 20%.
3.24 The strong views held by many in the farming community areconsidered by others, including some foresters, to be unwarranted. Theexclusion of trees from cropping areas would not solve the problem sincesome birds fly long distances daily to and from feeding grounds. In theabsence of trees, some damaging bird species nest on crop plant stems andmany farming schemes are already partly surrounded or traversed by riverswhich are lined with trees and therefore provide roosting sites.
3.25 Among the devices tried (with limited effect) to control theproblem have been various means cf dynamiting, poisoning, broadcasting bLrddistress sounds across fields and roosting areas, and planting only treespecies such as Eucalyptus that have no appeal as nesting sites. Oneimportant strategy which has not yet been tried in Sudan Is breedingvarieties of grain crops resistant to birds.
5/ A recent survey in West Africa showed that only 5% of the populationliving near a large shelterbelt area complained about crop damage bybirds.
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3.26 When the intertropical convergence zone moves north each year, itbrings the main rains. It is followed closely by large numbers ofmigrating insects, which are followed in their turn by the birds which preyon the insects and in so doing help to reduce agricultural pests. Thisecological pattern, as well as the fact that grain eating birds areaffected by and can adjust to habitat modification, may offer opportunitiesfor the development of control measures. The International Council forResearch in Agro-forestry (ICRAF) in Nairobi is devoting attention to theproblem. Forestry should follow the lead of the Western SavannahAgricultural Research Project in monitoring this development. In any case,an attempt should be made to assess the economic importance of the problemin specific ̂ases.
B. Income Generation from Non-Wood Producing Activities
Gum Arabic Production
3.27 Sudan produces 85% of the World's supply of gum arabic, eitherfrom privately owned gum gardens which typically form part of thetraditional bush-fallow farming system on the sandy soils, or from naturalstands of Acacia senegal. Production declined in the early 1980's as thehigh world price set by Sudan encouraged users to seek syntheticsubstitutes, and low producer prices effectively removed productionincentives. Production increased in 1984, but this was a result of thedrought and crop failure resulting in a need for some cash income forsurvival, rather than a long term reversal of the production trend.
3.28 Marketing is arranged by merchants who buy at auctions, clean,grade and pack, and deliver to the warehouses of the Gum ArabicCorporation. The floor price is set by extrapolation from theinternational price. This depends on supply and demand aind theavailability of substitutes. Taxes on gum arabic are higher than for anyother product in Sudan, and the price available to the producer is only30-38% of the export price, which is too low to encourage production. In1984, it was more profitable for farmers in Kordofan and Darfur to removetrees for woodfuel than to use them to produce gum.
3.29 Gum arabic collection provides employment during the summermonths when alternatives were unavailable. In the early 1970's, gumaccounted for 50% of farmers' income, compared to 10today. Given the highprices now being paid for aergh , auiet and sesane, faroers are removinggum gard-= and growing annual crops, apractice which will result indesertification since the recuperative effects of the long term fallow onsoil fertility are being lost.
3.30 The gum belt stretches across Sudan between 10° and 14°N. Thearea has been badly affected by drought, over-grazing and over-cultivation. In the face of adversity, many people in the north of thebelt have been forced to migrate permanently to the south and in doing so,have used the remaining gum trees for charcoal before leaving. Migrationhas also disrupted the customary land tenure system which was previouslyenforced by the land sheikh of the village and upheld by the nomads, sothat the trees have become regarded as a "free good." The result is thatin some previousiy productive areas, no commercial stands of A. senegal
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remain. The widespread deforestation that has occurred is located inecological zones in which regrowth and re-establishment of forest cover isslow and difficult and likely to be impossible if top soil has been eroded.
3.31 GOS views the restocking of the gum belt and the establishment ofa transnational green belt based on A. senegal as a means of controllingland degradation, combating desertificaion, providing export income,generating employment and farm income, sustaining crop yields and providingwoodfuel. In the eastern Sudan, efforts are being made to replantabandoned agricultural land or to plant within forestry reserves. In theBlue Nile, 14,000 ha have been planted, and 21,000 ha in Kassala by directsowing. A different strategy has been followed in western Sudan, where gumgardens are part of the rotation. Farmers have been provided withseedlings to plant on their own land, and extension and other services havebeen provided by the Forestry Departments. These efforts are beingsupported by various 4nternational aid agencies. The World Food Program isproviding food until the trees come into bearing and are income producing.
3.32 In order to ensure the success of the GOS initiatives aimed atre-stocking the gum belt it will be necessary to revise the present pricestructure for gum arabic and also the land tenure system that regulates therights to trees. A reduction of the current rate of taxation and/or a 60%increase in producer prices would be sufficient incentive for farmers toplant, tend and protect gum trees. In such circumstances, replanting wouldproceed without the ne2d for GOS sponsored restocking projects and theassociated incentives (food rations).
The Role of Forests in Providing Miror Forest Products
3.33 The forests are valuable sources of many useful products rangingthrough fruit and shoots, medicinal plants, fibers, tanning compounds, andgums. In addition, forests improve the environment by providing shade,increased soil fertility and erosion control, and are sources of honey andother animal products.
3.34 Except for guimi arabic, the value of these products has not beenquantified. They are mostly consumed by the gatherer and although fruit isin demand in the market, little is traded. A survey of the Abu Gahl marketrecorded about 19 "sacks" of fruit marketed per year, valued at LS 78 andmainly from Balanites aegyptica, Tamarindus indicus and Adaxsonia digitata.
3.35 In all about 46 different medicinal and aromatic plants have beenidentified in Sudan. Of these, 13 are either cultivated or introducedspecies and of the remainder, nine are trees, five are shrubs and the restherbs and grasses.
C. Role of Forestry in Environmental Protection
Control of Desertification
3.36 Desertification is the continuous and sustained diminution ordestruction of the biological potential of the land in arid or semi-aridenvironments. It is a result of many contributing factors, eracerbated bydrought but mostly controlled by man and related directly to inappropriate
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land use practices. The results of abuse of the land resources are lowagricultural productivity, shifting dunes, shortage of woodfuel, poorenvironmental quality (dust storms) and deterioration of range lands.
3.37 The following factors contribute to desertification:
(1) Fuelwood harvesting especially around towns and villages whereindigenous woodland has been cut. Fuelwood harvesting in theNorth of Sudan between now and the end of the century will resultin significant reduction of the remaining bushland and woodlandsand about 20 million ha may be lost (para 5.05). Erosion anddegradation processes follow the removal of the tree cover. Thesize of the problem is demonstrated by the woodfuel supply forKhartoum which is now brought from distances of over 100 km,whereas previously it was available within 5-10 km of the city.Charcoal now comes from up to 500 km from Khartoum and thedistance is increasing yearly.
(ii) Increased rural population has placed pressure on land resourcesused for agriculture, resulting in shortened fallow periods andinadequate restitution of fertility. Crop yields have beenreduced over time and exhausted land has been totally abandoned.With the loss of the more productive areas, marginal land whichis prone to erosion has been cultivated, often with disastrousconsequences. As an example, in Porth Darfur there are about250,000 families. Assuming each family fells thirty treesannually for cultivation, fuel, poles etc., 7.5 million trees arelost each year, equivalent to 60,000 ha at a stocking rate of 21trees/ha. This has resulted in complete clearance of largeareas. Between El Fasher and Nyala the removal of thestabilizing effect of trees has set ancient and once stable sanddunes in motion.
(iii) Livestock pressure and grazing management. The nomadicpopulation owns about 85X of the livestock in Sudan. Withregulation of the livestock numbers, nomadism Is an efficientsystem of land use. However, the current livestock population of27 million livestock units (LSU) is far in excess of theestimated 22.1 million carrying capacity of the rangeland areas,based on total forage production. Overgrazing results in thedestruction of the vegetative cover, including trees which areoften lopped to provide feed. It also prevents the regenerationof bush cover since animals browse the emerging seedlings. Theprocess of desertification is particularly evident in patches ofhigh utilization, for instance near water points. These nucleuspoints for desertification can be rapidly expanded where theprovision of additional water points allows the degraded areas tooverlap.
(iv) Fires. The savannah grass areas were created and maintatned bynaturally occurring fires. Except as a deliberate controlledmeasure to increase the proportion of woody elements in thevegetation, the use of fire as a management tool by man is
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wasteful and destructive. It exposes the soil to erosion andresults in an annual loss of up to 30X of the available grazingresource. It also prevents the regeneration of seedlings ofperennial species and leads to a decline in the productivity ofthe rangelands by encouraging quick maturing annuals andfire-climatic species at the -xpense of the more desirable forageplants.
(v) Mechanized farming. The actual area under mechanized farming isnot accurately known since the area of unplanned (undemarcated)land is uncertain. Future plans for clearing are also unclear.An urgent task should be to assess the land under mechanizedagriculture and monitor it closely. Tentative estimates are thatabout 4.0 million ha of Sudan's central plains have been clearedfor mechanized farming although only about half is cultivated atany one time. About 3.0 million ha are cultivated by individualfarmers in demarcated areas (under the supervision of theMechanized Farming Corporation) or in undemarcated areas and theremainder is farmed by large companies. The occupation of landfor mechanized farming has had adverse sociological effects bydisplacing smallholders and removing the availability of grazingland and stock routes to the traditional nomads, therebyincreasing pressure on the surrounding areas. It has alsoadversely affected the environment through encouraging soilerosion and desertification, especially in areas of inadequateand unreliable rainfall. Environmental degradation is a directresult of the failure to apply sound husbandry practices, such ascorrect crop rotation, and the failure to comply with GOS'stenancy rules regarding the use and protection of shelterbeltsand trees. Large areas of land have become degraded and barrenand about 42,000 ha have been abandoned. The regeneration ofvegetative cover on these areas is delayed by the lack of seedsources which were removed during clearance. In spite of thegeneral exploitive nature of the enterprise and GOS policy toslow down expansion, areas are continually being opened up formechanized farming at a annual rate of about 147,000 ha (para5.04).
3.38 Sudan is in an area of aridity and variable rainfall.Desertification is accentuated by drought and unreliable rainfall whichhave resulted in a southward extension of the zone of desertification since1950 (map 18925). There is however no evidence of either significantpermanent changes in climate or reduction in rainfall resulting from theremoval of trees. The main problems in the desertification process arerelated to lAnd use of which forestry is only one factor. The solution ofthe problem requires a comprehensive program of land use management whichwould involve the livestock, agriculture, education, transport and energysectors as well as forestry. There is a lack of reliable data on theextent of desertification and the associated losses of agriculturalproduction, grazing land and forest products and areas of land removal fromproduction. It has been calculated that the present lack of a resource usepolicy and the unbalanced use of land results in a loss of 5 million hafrom production annually. In total, 65 million ha are affected by someform of environmental degradation, which is eqnivalent to 60% of Sudan'spotentially useful land area (Table 1).
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The Role of Forestry in Dune Fixation
3.39 In the west and north of Sudan, long stable sand dunes haverecently begun to move and are threatening agricultural land. The Nilebanks are now threatened by drifting sand between Delgo and Karima andpermanent water supplies in Kordofan are likely to be lost.
3.40 The actual areas threatened have not been measured but the sitesin which it would be economically justifiable to engage in dune fix;ationprocedures are probably quite small. The technologies are well known andhave been used in Northern Region for some years, and are based onre-vegetation, shelterbelts and windbreaks. Where sand dunes threaten toengulf whole villages, canals, fertile agricultural land and wateringpoints, political and sociological considerations will necessitate directaction to stabilize them. However at this stage, it is much more importantto remove the causes of drifting sands, such as overgrazing and bushclearing, than to attempt extensive programs of dune stabilization.
The Role of Forestry in Watershed Protection
3.41 Excessive sedimentation in Sudan's reservoirs (the Roseires andSennar reservoirs on the Blue Nile and the Rhashm el Girba Dam on theAtbara River) has significantly reduced their efficiency in providing waterfor the major irrigation schemes (Gezira, Rahad, Khashm el Girba andManagil). Additionally, reduced storage capacity in the Roseires due tosiltation has greatly reduced this reservoir's hydroelectric output.Debris accurtulation at the hydroelectric turbine intakes at the Roseiresduring peak flood periods reduces the reservoir's hydroelectric output byas much as 80Z, seriously affecting the greater Khartoum area.
3.42 Silt deposition in Sudan's rivers (White and Blue Niles, theArbara and the Khor Baraka) has interfered with their flow regimes. Thishas resulted in the migration of primary water channels within thefloodplain and away from established agricultural areas and water capturepoints. This migration, along with intensive agriculture along the riversand their tributaries, has increased bank erosion and contributed toincreased sedimentation. Excessive siltation in the irrigation canalsresulting in part from reduced water flows, has further decreased wateravailability to the schemes and has favored aquatic weed establishmentwhich in turn reduces the velocity of water flow and increasessedimentation. The recurrent costs involved in cleaning silt deposits fromthe reservoirs and irrigation canals are enormous.
3.43 Only about 6% of the Roseires catchment area lies within theSudan (and even less of the Rhashm el Girba catchment). Most experts whohave looked at the situation agree that 95Z of the silt originates in thehighly populated intensively cropped Ethiopian highlands. Loss in storagecapacity is therefore primarily due to material coming into the reservoirsfrom outside the country.
3.44 There is great controversy in the Sudan as to the source ofdebris accumulation on the Roseires. One hypothesis is that debris fromagricultural activity and charcoal production in the catchment area aroundthe reservoir is primarily responsible for blocking the intake screens.
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However, a study conducted by NUA in March 1983 maintains that most of thedebris affecting the intake screens comes from Ethiopia and that Sudan'sactions to overcome the problem must be of an engineering nature. In orderto control sedimentation, there must be much more inter-governmentalcooperation and international agencies should play an active role.
3.45 Information available on the above problems tends to bequalitative and very theoretical in nature and, therefore, verysubjective. Specific quantitative data on erosion in the watersheds (bothin Sudan and Ethiopia), siltation in the reservoirs and canals and debrisaccumulation, are either sporadic, outdated or non-existant. Consequently,the precise origins/causes of the above problems are not known. Similarly,the magnitude of the problems as they affect agricultural productivity arenot known.
D. Farm and Village Forestry
3.46 Farm and village forestry are efficient means of improvingagricultural production, protecting the environment and producing salableitems such as fuelwood and poles. In the past, farm forestry and villageforestry have been largely identified with the traditional gum arabicproduction system. Only recently have a few programs started activities toencourage individual farmers and villages to plant trees and establishwoodlots.
3.47 The technical aspects of producing seedlings and establishingplantations are well known for those species which were traditionally grownby the Forest Departments for commercial purposes. Bowever, thisinformation is not always available at the village level and the choice ofspecies for different uses has been limited. A few exotics, like neen,have been introduced in the past, but there is considerable scopc fortrying species which are successful and useful in other dryland arease.g. in India and Pakistan.
3.48 The economics of different farm and village forestry activitieshave not been studied in detail although 'I seems that savings inestablishment and protection costs make private forestry financiallyattractive. The benefits from improved micro-climate, green manure, andfodder should more than pay for the time, money and effort involved inraising and tending farm trees (Annexes X to XIII). Any money or benefitsderived from the wood itself would be an additional bonus.
3.49 All the present projects with a component for the distribution ofseedlings have difficulties in meeting the demand of the villagers. Thefew surveys carried out so far confirm that people have a very positiveattitude towards initiatives In village forestry, particularly in relationto private tree planting.
3.50 It is too early to identify confirmed successes in farm andvillage forestry which would be easily replicable throughout the country.So far, success has been determined by six factors: (i) scarcity offuelwood, fodder and poles; (ii) awareness of desertification; (iii)intensive consultation with potential beneficiaries; (iv) strong extensioneffort; (v) grassroot level operations of project staff; and (vi) security
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of tenure. Failures have been experienced where rainfall was extremely lowor where follow-up activities in extension and information on protectiocwere lacking.
3.51 The main constraints to farm and village forestry as perceived byvillagers are: (i) lack of sufficient water to raise seedlings and/or plantand maintain them; (ii) protection against goats (unpalatable speciesand/or cheap methods of protection of individual trees are needed); ('li)people's perception that trees harbor harmful birds, particularly (Z-elea;(iv) unavailability of seedlings of preferred specleo, (v) conflicts inland use and forest use/protection between sedentary and nomadic populationgroups; (vi) forest regulations in the country preventing ownership oftrees by individuals.
3.52 The following projects have been launched to encourage treeplanting -n farms and in village woodlots (see map 18922):
(a) GOS/CARE Re-forestation Project. In its first year, the projecthas established 420 ha of dryland plantations and distributed160,000 seedlings for private planting. Demand for seedlings forprivate planting has far exceeded expectations. Three monthsafter planting estimated surviva; was 902 In plantations and 75Xin private planting. A sociological survey indicates that peoplehave a great interest in planting trees in their own compounds;461 gave fruit trees as their first preference and 54Z non-fruittrees. The extension programme is very intensive and localvillagers are employed as part-time extension worxers.Identifying areas for village woodlots initially met with somedifficulties, but these have now been overcome. The initialsuccess of these plantations has convinced village leaders of thepotential benefits. Village forestry committees are beingformed.
(b) GOS/USAID Renewable Energy Project. The project has met withgreat interest from different groups of people who want tc planttrees for different reasons.
(1) Seleit Scheme. A privately owned irrigation scheme isestablishing a nursery, has established 1.6 km ofshelterbelt, and 21 ha woodlot. A separate forestry v.nithas been formed within the scheme.
(ii) Farmers. 15 farmers are involved in growing shelterbelts aswindbreaks for sorghum and for production of poles forsale. However, this program has been hampered bydifficulties in contacting farmers who do not live on thefarm.
(iii) Nurseries. For distribution of seedlings, both through theForest Department and by forest committees. In Semiravillage, the forest committee has decided to sell trees tocover costs of producing seedlings. Costs are kept low byusing voluntary labor from a boys' school.
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(iv) Village Forestry. In Um Andaraba villagers have formed aforest committee and have established a nursery, 1.25 ha offorest woodlot, 1.25 ha of wadi protection and encouragedprivate planting. A strong social organization exists. Asystem has been devised to penalize persons whose trees havedied. Species cnosen are mesquite and Acacia tortilis.
(c) Restczing the Gum Belt for Desertification Control. This projecthas been operational for 3 years and has had success in producingand distributing nearly 4 million seedlings of Acacia senegal.Lack of statistically reliable monitorir.g and evaluation hasprevented a clear assessment of the success of the project inestablish..ng the 11,300 ha targeted. The price of gum arabic isno longer favorable and many trees are being cut for woodfuel.
(d) New Halfa and Rahad Irrigation Schemes. These schemes produceseedlings both for blocs plantations and private distribution.There is great interest among the villagers in the schemes togrow trees. However, villagers do not always get preferredspecies and need proper instruction on planting and protectiontechniques. The management of the schemes does not yet allowtrees to be planted as windbreaks, as they would interfere withcrop spraying.
Experience with Technical Designs and Appropriate Forest Management Systemsfor Farm and Village Forestry Systems
3.53 Three basic alternative spatial arrangements of trees (which arenot mutually exclusive) are available for farm and village plantationschemes. In the first, one or two lines of free growing or nearly freegrowing trees or hedge plants are planted on the boundaries of the farm orfield, or around the homestead. In the second, single trees or individualrows of trees are planted in the field and grown on short rotations ofabout 1-5 years, annual crops being grown among and under the trees orbetween the rows. In the third alternative the trees are planted inconventional, close spaced block plantatiotLs, those on farms often beingsmaller than communal village woodlots. Village woodlots are usuallyplanted, managed and protected by a village forestry committee as theorganizing agency.
3.54 Silvicultural management and harvesting alternatives for the freegrowing trees or trees in single rows include coppicing (i.e. felling thetree and then tending the regrowth from the stump to produce a new crop),pollarding (removing the crown of the tree 1-2 m above the ground andtending the regrowth from that point); and lopping (pollarding individualbranches, one or more at a time, and leaving the remainder to sustaincontinued growth of the tree). An advantage of pollarding and lopping isthat if cutting is done far enough above ground level the regrowth isbeyond the reach of goats. Trees could also be managed primarily forfodder or green manure production with wood being a secondary product.
3.55 Block or shelterbelt plantations are usually closely spaced fromthe beginning to ensure early, full occupation of the site by the treecrop. Thinning of block plautations at intervals (ideally before the stand
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begins to stagnate) permits continuing growth of the trees left whilstproducing intermediate yields. When fodder or small wood for fuel areneeded, initial planting or seeding can be done at very close spacing andthinning begins correspondingly early. Harvesting of the final crop isfollowed by regenerating of a new crop. When coppicing species such asAcacia, Prosopis or Eucalyptus species are used, the whole stand is usuallyharvested at once to obviate the complexities of managing a mixed-agedcrop. These trees can be coppiced many times from the same parent stockwhich greatly reduces establishment costs.
3.56 The grower will select the system(s) to use according to manyfactors, including the extent to which agricultural and tree cropping areto be combined. One of the criteria used is the number of trees (orplantation area) that would be required under each feasible alternative togive the quantities of produce (poles, fuelwood, fodder) that are neededand the frequency of such yields. The matter is relatively straightforward in the case of block plantation designs. ;ilse are commonly usedto produce poles and fuelwood as cash crops and for the grower's selfsufficiency. The technologies are well known and documented and yieldforecast tables usually available, whether rotations subsequent to thefirst are grown by coppice or replanting. Unfortunately, with rareexceptions, these aids to system selection and planning are not as freelyavailable for free growing trees, whether they are harvested once as wholetrees or by pollarding or lopping. Research to develop 'standard"techniques and the basis for yield prediction in these cases is clearlyneeded. It is also required for a range of agro-forestry applicationsinvolving different crop designs, species and silviculture treatments.Extrapolations from one system for which data are available to another forwhich there is no information might be a reasonable interim measure. Theresearch is necessary however because, for example, in a good agro-forestrysystem, the sum of the yields from the individual crops that make up thesystem are greater than they would be if grown separately.
3.57 Growth data have been recorded for open grown neem trees in anavenue on a good sandy soil site at Maiduguri, northern Nigeria Where theaverage annual rainfall Is 500-600 mm. The trees were pollarded at age 13years. At this age, the average total mean annual increment (HAI) per treewas 0.16m3 of which branchwood represented 0.15m3. At Kano somewhat slowergrowing, open grown, and therefore heavily branched Acacia albida farmtrees were found to have total volume MAI's averaging O.llm3 of vhich thebranchwood, by inference from the neem data, might have comprised O.1m3.No growth rates for branch growth following pollarding, or for whole treevolumes at other ages were collected. The indications were that pollardingcould begin at 5-7 years after planting and be repeated on rotations ofabout 5 years.
3.58 Indicative yields from individual quasi-free grown trees havebeen derived by extrapolating from experimental growth data for Eucalyptussaligna/grandis in subtropical areas in South Africa. The mean annualvolume increment per tree was found to be three times that of normalplantation grown trees on poorer sites and six times higher on primesites. To provide 3.5 m3 of wood per year on a sustained basis from freegrowing trees would thus require 88 trees on poorer sites (MAI of timberand branchwood volume 8 m3/ha) ranging through 44 trees (MAI 20 m3/ha) on
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medium quality sites to 35 trees (MAI 30 m3/ha) on the best sites.Although the increment per tree is greater for free growing trees than forplantation trees, the greatest increment per ha is given by high standdensities.
3.59 The information available suggests that provided the trees areprotected from browsing for about 10 years or 3-7 years for faster growingspecies, a family's fuelwood needs could probably be met from about 70trees in savannah woodland areas and 100 or more in bushland/low rainfallsavannah. In practice, most farmers would grow trees of several species ona range of rotations of from say, 4-10 or more years, the variouscategorles yielding different quantities of wood per tree each year.
3.60 Quantified data for lopping are even more meagre. A 1980 FAOpublication noted that lopping Prosopis cineraria every year from 15-20years in a semiarid area yielded 3 kg of leaf fodder and 80 kg of branchesand small wood for fuel per year. Guidelines for lopping Acacia niloticaplanted at 4 m x 4 a in Pakistan are available for the production of smallfuelwood as well as fodder for stall fed stock. The trees should beunderplanted with a ground cover of regularly cropped forage legumes. Thetrees should be lopped regularly from the fifth year and clear cuttlgshould be done by taking 20X of the stems each year- from the 16th year.Saplings and small poles should not be lopped; the top one third of thecrown should always be left intact; brancbes more than 7.5 cm in diameterin the lower two thirds of the crown should not be cut; a tree should berested (not cut) for two seasons after lopping.
Sociological Aspects of Farm and Village Forestry
3.61 The success of efforts to involve individual and communities intree planting and afforestation activities depends on a clear understandingof the reaction of the rural population to tree and forest end theirrelationship with Forestry Departments. Very few studies have been carriedout in Sudan on the relationship between trees and people. Nearly all ofthem concentrate on the agroforestry techniques employed in gum arabicproduction or on wood as a source of energy.
3.62 In 1981-82, NEA, supported by the USAID funded 'Sudan EnergyPolicy and Planning Project', conducted over 1,200 rural and urbanhousehold surveys in all but Darfur Region of Sudan. These surveys werethe first national domestic energy surveys conducted in Sudan and showedthat rural households consumed approximately 0.5 tons of fuelwood and 100kg of charcoal per capita per annum. Urban household per capita annualconsumption was about 0.25 tons of fuelwood and 0.20 tons of charcoal.
3.63 Within the framework of this survey, the most thorough domesticenergy survey was conducted in Gezira. All those interviewed were aware ofan 'energy problem' but most associated this with the costs of fuel andability t- purchase energy, rather than a shortage of trees. The lowerincome strata did not purchase fuels of any sort and used crop residues andanimal wastes as energy sources. Those in the middle income bracketpurchased fuel, mainly charcoal, and viewed energy problems in terms of the
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cost of woodfuels. The upper inccme groups purchased all their fuel needsand relied heavily on charcoal, gas oil, kerosene, liquid propane gas andelectricity for their energy requirements.
3.64 The NEA's Kassala Province household energy survey covered theKhashm el Girba agricultural schame, several refugee camps, Kassala andGedaref towns and several rural communities. The sample consisted of 1'3rural and 26 urban households. As in Gezira, energy problems wereperceived in terms of the availability and prices of kerosene, wood andcharcoal rather than in terms of trees.
3.65 According to available field data, it is estimated that 21-43% ofcotal income is being spent on energy, the poorer groups spending a largerpercentage than the more affluent. With regard to the perception of whatcaused desertification and what could be done about it, the main reasonggiven were people's overexploitation of the land (more grazing, increasedareas for cultivation and uncontrolled extensive cutting of trees for fuel)and low rainfall. All those interviewed suggested planting trees asshelterbelts, even suggesting species (Acacia senegal, Leptadeniapyrotechnica, Acacia tortilis, Balanites aegyptiaca and fast growingEucalyptus).
3.66 A comprehensive and statistically reliable sociological surveyabout people - tree relationships in Sudan was carried out in 1983/1984 forthe Easterr Region. The survey covered 5 refugee settlements and 8Sudanese villages with a total population of 29,000 people. A 10% samplewas taken and many diffccent aspects of people-tree relationship wereassessed; 77% bought some or all of their wood, 95% said the local supplyof wood had decreased in the last 5 years, 22Z had planted trees in tnelast 3 years of which ,,X survived. Only 35% of seedlings planted had beenobtained from the Forest Department. Lack of water was cited as the mainconstraint to tree planting by 81%, followed by lack of seedlings (54%),lack of money (42%) and eating by aaimals (40%). Preferred species wereneem (76%), lemon (72%), Acacia mellifera (27%), grapefruit (21Z), andEucalyptus (19X). If given seedlings, 92% indicated they would provideiencing and 75% said they would provide water. There was no experience ofgrowing crops and trees together (agroforestry) and the reasons given werenot enough land (58%), attract birds (57%), trees absorb water (43%), treescast shade (39%), trees increases pests/diseases (20%) and other reasons(15%). Based on this survey the extension program will respond withparticular activities. Unfortunately, this study does not contain anassessment of wood consumption.
3.67 Information from the Gezira irrigation scheme showed that peopleprefer multipurpose trees, having a strong preference for fruit and shadetrees around homesteado and for Eucalyptus under irrigation.
3.68 These studies indicate the great difference in perception,preferences and solution in different ecological zones. The surveys aredifficult to compare as they were quite different in objective andcontent. They did however play an important role in defining actual needsfor reforestation and tree planting in limited areas.
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3.69 Experience in developing cooperation within communitles is beinggained through the Sudan Renewable Energy Project. Forestry Committeeshave been established in Kordofan. By operating through traditionalreligious and political leaders it has been possible in some instancea toarrange for the protection of local forests.
3.70 The studies referred to above have been useful for projects inparticular areas, but only the NEA survey attempted to provide a completepicture for the whole country with regard to the use and availability offorest products, people's interest in planting trees, species preferences,etc. More information is essential to draw up large scale reforestationprograms, which depend on people's participation. Socio-economic surveysare especially required for the nomadic population whose cooperation wouldbe essential for the widespread rehabilitation of natural woodland. Thesesurveys could be supported through CFA and executed by the Institute ofEnvironmental studies or the Geography Department of the University ofKhartoum.
Effects of Land Tenure on Farm and Village Forestry
3.71 Experience in many developing countries has demonstrated thedifficulty of fostering communal approaches to refurestation and forestprotection and mat.agement. On the other hand, the successful establishmencof trees on individual holdings in Niger, Mali, Upper Volta and Kenya hasbeen a decisive factor in addressing the communities' needs for woodproducts. However, trees are considered ro be a long term inviestment andit is difficult to encourage the farmer to plant trees unless security oftenure enables him to be certain of benefiting from his investment.
3.72 There is little freehold land in Sudan. Settlers on demarcatedmechanized farming schemes are granted leases of 25 years and similarleases have been granted to large companies which have been allocatedtracts of land for cultivation. These leases are normally renewable. Acontract is agreed between MFC and the fArmer or company in which both theconditions of the lease and the details of the farming system to befollowed are specified. These are frequently not followed. A rent ofLSl.O per feddan 6/ is charged annually. Settlers in undemarcated areaswhich are not cortirolled by MFC claim usage rights under the traditionalsysteme (para 3.75) and gain some legal standing by paying taxes to theregional governments. However, many are illegally cultivating land withinforest reserves and game parks.
3.73 On the irrigation schemes, tenants hold the rights to the land invirtual perpetuity and can pass on the rights to their descendants. Theymust however follow the regulations set out by the irrigation board and canbe evicted if they fail to comply. The boards control all agricultural andforestry operations within the schemes and individuals are able to planttrees only around their houses, which are outside the irrigated areas, or,in the case of Rahad, in specific plots set aside for horticulture.
6/ One ha is equivalent te 2.38 feddans.
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3.74 Under the traditional system of land tenure, the right to use theland, but not the ownership, belongs to the person who cultivates it. Allnon-cultivated land belongs to GOS. This has not encouraged farmers tomake long term investments in cultivated land by planting trees or usingfertilizers to build up soil fertility. Since the 1932 forestrylegislation also made it impossible for individua's to own trees, farmersbelieved that by planting trees they would loose the right to cultivate theland. The legislation has since been etlarified, but even today a farmershould obtain Forest Department permission before he cuts a tree on hisland. Suspicions remain and a considerable extension effort is stillrequir;.. to convince farmers of their rights to the trees planted.
3.75 Land tenure problems have caused disputes between nomads andcu.tivators (especially in the gum belt), I,indered resettlement schemes andprevented tree planting. GOS has recognised the problems of 'and tenurerights in agricultural development and has established a task force torecommend reforms. This task force should address the question of leasedforests (for more efficient production by private entrepreneurs). The needfor some form of local administration for communal forests and thenecessity to link the replanting of gum gardens to tenural rights, need :be specifically addressed.
IV. FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONAND ENVIRCNHENTAL PROTECTION
4.01 A long-term national land-use plan is a basic requirement for thefuture development of the natural resources cf Sudan. This plan must becomprehensive. Its preparation should involve the active participation ofall relevant agencies of Governemnt and it should outline a strategy forthe integration of different forms of land management in GOS developmentplans. Under these plans, appropriate provision should be made to includecomponents for forestry conservation and rural reforestation schemes in alldevelopment projects involving land use, regardless of the type of projector the executing agency.
4.02 Desertification can be contained by mobilizing the local farmers,by encouraging community cooperation in tree planting programs and by largescale investments for a wide range of projects. Many of the forestryinitiatives described below which are aimed at the small farmer could besufficiently profitable to trigger off farm forestry. The majorconstraints to these developments are lack of resources, unsuitable landtenure systems, inappropriate pricing policies, inadequate support forsmall farmer initiatives, lack of viable extension services, and shortageof the inputs needed to make the more promising technical and economicallyviable solutions to deforestation acceptable to the farmers and localcommunities.
4.03 The production of animal browse can be a by-product from theplantings of trees for other purposes. Depending on the choice of species,browse can be an output of shelterbelts and farm and village forestry. Theincreased production of browse from natural savannah woodlands is moredifficult to accomplish since it depends on the adoption of improvedmanagement practices which require agreements between livestock owners onstocking rate and grazing intensity- These agreements are difficult to
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arrange and supervise. GOS has recently proposed on a pilot scale, theintroduction of improved browse and fodder species into rangelands, fallowsand enclosures in Darfur. More pilot schemes of chis type will be requiredbefore large scale savannah and rangeland improvement programs areundertaken.
Shelterbelts to Increase Yields in Mechanized Farming Schemes
4.04 Mechanized agricultural schemes have expanded greatly since the1960's. Both the controlled a-.d uncontrolled schemes are characterized bycomplete clearance and all vegetation (including tree stumps) from verylarge areas in spite of the law requiring that mechanized farming operatorsretain 15 of the land under natural forest cover as shelterbelts orwoodlots etc., and the avoidance of clearing on fragile soils (on theadvice of the Forest Department). All new schemes should be obliged toapply these conditions under penalty for failure. Existing schemes shouldalso be obliged to establish shelterbelts and woodlots for employees'domestic wood requirements.
4.05 The aim should be to establish shelterbelts with a density in thevertical plane of about 60% as rapidly as possible in an east-westorientation across the direction of the prevailing winds. They should bespaced at intervals of about 20H (H being used here to denote the heightthat would be attained when the belt is mature). Two principal designapproaches would be entailed. The first would be to augment, as necessary,uncleared strips of natural woodland where these exist in terms of leasearrangements that apply. At present, these conditions require thatuncleared strips be 20. wide and represent 15% of the total area. Thespacing between then would thus be about 110m, resulting in series of beltsin many cases spaced at less than the 201 guidelines noted above. Providedthat permeability is as it should be and depending on the expected height,this spacing could result in an unnecessary frequency of belts. However,if the trees are used to produce green manure as well as acting asshelterbelts, 15% tree cover may be too little (Annex XII). Experimentsshould be established to determine the optimum density for green manureproduction and shelterbelt protection that will give a sustainableagricultural system. It is of little use to have shelterbelts ifagricultural crops are only able to be grown for three or four years.Augmentation in the interests of density could be achieved by planting arow of evergreen trees at 3 or 4m, depending on the expected crown form ofthe species used near maturity, along each margin of the barrier. Two rowsare proposed in the expectation that in most cases, the density of theratural strip would otherwise fall short of 50X and that a vertical edgewould be desirable to leeward in relation to both winter and summerprevailing wind directions. Shrubby species should be planted between andbehind the planted trees, i.e. into the belt, if the density of the naturalwoodland strip is particularly light.
4.06 The second design approach would be used where unclearedprotection strips do not exist. Here the design would provide for two orthree staggered rows of tall growing evergreens spaced 3 or 4n apartdepending on the dimensions and form they ale expected to attain. Lowgrowing bushy or shrubby species should be planted in a row on each side ofthe central core of tall growing species. Alternatively, two rows of the
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latter could be planted at 3-4m spacing within the rows, sufficientlywidely spaced to provide for one or two central rows of lower growing densespecies to achieve the required density.
4.07 The difficulty of attaining the requisite densIty of barriervould increase with degree of aridi:y and lightness of the soil. Ifnecessary, an additional row or rows of trees should be built into thedesign as an insurance against the difficulty of eotablishment and survivalof pla:ced trees. Species should be selected according to theenvironmental characteristics of the area as well as their suitability asshelterbelt components. Taller growing species might be Azadirechtalndica, Melia azedarach, hardy evergreen Auscralian Acacia species, localAcacia species that have adequately dense foliage, hardy Casuarina species,Balaniter! agjptica, hardy Eucalyptuw specles, Pithecollobium dulce.Bushy, lower growing species could include Prosopls spp., Australian Acaciaspp., Leucaena spp., Tamarix aphylla, hardy bamboo species, Zizyphusspecies, and Euphorbia tirucalli.
4.08 To ensure high survival rates and rapid growth, the beattechnology shsould be applied in establishment: high quality, vigorousnursery stock or seed; thorough site preparation, including, whereappropriate, contour furrows, sub-soiling or deep ploughed strips tocapture rainfall; timely replacement of failures; protection from browsinguntil the trees are able to survive light defoliation by animals. Whereappropriate, arrangements should be made for establishment under thetaungya system.
4.09 Management should consist of protection as necess.try to preventdeterioration due to felling or browsing, rotational crqpping, pollarding,removing of leaves and twigs for green manure, trimming or replanting whennecessary, and monitoring and evaluation of impacts on crops in theprotected areas. In the early phases of development of a shelterbeltestablishment program, possible or intended configurations andestablishment and management methods should be tested under full protectionand control in Forest Reserves.
Shelterbelts to Increase Yields in Irrigated Schemes
4.10 In an area of 63,000 ha in the northern sector of the Gezirascheme, there are 110 km of major canals, 54 km of branch canals and 3,000km of minor canals. If shelterbelts, were grown in this system, the extentof tree growing and of their benefits in the area would be considerable.Shelterbelt designs are available, (some of them demonstrated at Rahad andalong the Nile in the Northern Region), for such applications to fit inwith the 4-6 year cycles of dredging that epply to branch and minor canalsand the 8-12 year cycles of branch and major channels. The shelterbeltdesigns, rotations and management regimes would entail appropriateselections of species (multipurpose species would usually be emphasizedwherever feasible); siting of tree rows along canal berms and/or outsidesilt mounds so that movement of dredgers along the tops of silt mounds isnot impeded; the timing of harvesting of trees between the silt mounds andcanals immediately before dredging is done (followed by coppice regrowthwhere coppiclng species are used). A model has been drawn up outlining thebenefits of shelterbelts on the Gezira Irrigation Scheme. It has been
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shown (Annex XIII) that shelterbelts more than pay for themselves eitherthrough the saving of water or through improvement of crop yield. If thesetwo effects are combined, the economic benefits could be considerable.There is also the prospect of settling aore farmers because more area couldbe farmed as a result of the water saving effect. An important applicationof canalside planting has been proposed for each side of the JongleiCanal. This, if implemented, would yield considerable benefits in all theforms discussed in Annex IV.
4.11 Applications of shelterbelt practice along canals should beplanned jointly by the farmers, foresters, irrigation specialiscs andagricultural officials to ensure that the shelterbelt designs, management,maintenance and harvesting regimes are integrated properly with those ofthe irrigationists. Joint operating in this way is fully feasible andacceptable to 'rrigation engineers and officials with whom it was discussedin the field. However, it requires policy backing by higher administrativeechelons of both sectors so that misunderstandings are obviated at theworking level.
Mechanized Farming Operations
4.12 GOS has decided as a matter of policy, that the expansion ofmechanized farming areas should be slowed down and that in future effortsshould concen.trate on increi.sing agricultural production per unit area.Forestry can assist in increasing agricultural production throughshelterbelts and by restoring fertility and rehabilitating degraded areas.
4.13 Under present conditions, land converted to agriculture can beabandoned. Regeneration of tree growth is slow and the soils are exposedto drying wind and sun, wind and water erosion and declining naturalfertility. The Forestry Administration calculated that by 1982 probablynot more than 28,500 ha of land had been reforested. Abandoned land shouldeither be handed over to the forest authority, NGO's, and private forestrycompanies for reforestation, probably by mechanized direct sowing, or thisoperation made an obligation of the land user immediately prior toabandonment.
4.14 Under the operations of some of the companies, an orderlyexploitation of resources has been commenced. The Arab Sudan IntegratedCompany has a lease for 105,000 ha in the Blue Nile Province, with somedesirable timber species. They are developing the area in blocks (2 km x 2km) and have cleared 42,000 ha of which 28,000 ha were cropped in 1983.Cleared timber was burned but 25 m x 2 km strips were left under forest andall trees left in gulleys and along stream beds. Desirable species weremade into charcoal (600 sacks) and poles and posts produced from a smallsaw mill.
4.15 Land Rehabilitation. Large areas of land have been laid wastethrough the exploitive nature of the mechanized farming operations. Theseareas have not regained their vegetative cover after being abandoned, sincemuch of the top soil has been eroded and land clearance operations havecompletely removed the trees, including those which might have provided aseed source. Agricultural cropping of these areas, mostly in the drierareas, should be forbidden and reforestation undertaken. Mechanized
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farming practices could be applied to forestry establishment if tree seedssuch as Prosopis and Leucaena were directly sown. The rotation of suchplantations may be as little as 1 to 3 years for fodder and green manureproduction or 3 to 6 years if wood is the main end product. Trial plotsshould be established to discover the feasibility of such practices inSudan and their likely costs and returns. These areas could providebiomass for fuel and, under proper management, could also be grazed by thenomadic herds. The proposed National Land Use plan should identify theareas to be reforested and outline systems of management applicable tothem. The technology for reseeding is available and would be unlikely tocost more than about LS 240 per ha.
4.16 Fertility Restoration. There is evidence from conscientious andprogressive farmers operating in the mechanized farming areas with adequaterainfall that it is possible to crop some of the mechanized farming areas,more or less continuously if proper rotations and good husbandry practicesare followed. The long-term bush fallow in these situations could bereplaced by a short-term grass/legumes ley or tree legume (Annex XII).This approach will need an active extension service to provide advice tofarmers and legislation to enforce adherence to the specified rotationpatterns. This should be possible with tenants in the demarcated areas.The problem of farmers in undemarcated areas is much more intractableespecially in view of their protection from the Regional Governments whichcollect 'Usha- taxes, and the antagonism towards trees of farmers who viewthem as hinderances to their operations.
4.17 A model has been drawn up (Annex XII) using tree legumes toprovide green manure on either 15% or 33% of mechanized agricultural land.This is compared to the application of artificial fertilizer with andwithout an annual green manure crop every fourth year. The resultsindicate that green manure from tree legumes gives the best economicreturns even without taking into account the positive shelterbelt effect oftrees which could increase crop production between 10 and 20%. From aforeign exchange viewpoint, using tree legumes instead of artificialfertilizers, reduces costs by a factor between 12 and 30 times. Such asystem could sustain an agricultural crop on the same piece of land over aconsiderabOa period of time and thus reduce the need to clear additionalland for mechanized agriculture. A similar system could also be applied totraditic-nal agricultural land and thus slow down the shifting cultivationcycle.
4.18 Close cooperation is required between Regional forestryauthorities and the Mechanized Farming Corporation to promote and extendforestry on mechanized farming schemes. This has begun, under the thirdMechanized Farming Project, with increases in research and demonstrationprograms for agriculture and an associated increase in extensionactivities. Forestry should be added to these programs at minimal ar'q byproviding the services of a trained forestry subject matter specialist tofunction as part of the research/extension team. The establishment ofdemonstration areas in which tree legumes are incorporated into theagricultural systems should be undertaken. The economics, sustainabilityand foreign exchange savings prospects appear to be favorable (Annex XII).
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Watershed Protection
4.19 Permanent erosion and siltatior, monitoring points are needed inthe watersheds of the Roseires, Sennar and Khashm el Girba reservoirs andirrigation canals in order to quantify the extent and origins of thesiltation problem as a basis for remedial action. Study/monitoring isneeded of debris at the intakes of the Roseires at peak flood conditions in:,rder to determine species composition and origin. Land use studies(similar to the one for the Roseires but with a greater socio-economicemphasis), should be undertake on the Sennar and Khashm el Girba watershedswhich would identify the information available, the information gaps thatneed to be filled and the activities thar could be used to promote improvedland use practices in thase wazersheds.
4.20 On completion of th: monitoring of the silt/debris accumulationarl land use surveys, a review workshop should be held leading todevelopment of a plan of action for resolution of non-engineering watershedmanagement problems. In the worst case scenario, these studies wayindicate that most of the problems are indeed international and may beexceedingly difficult to resolve. Nevertheless, at least 6% of theproblems lies within Sudan's borders and there are actions which can be andshould be undertaken to ensure that the 6X of the watersheds concerned areproperly managed. The actions required are:
- restriction of mechanized agriculture to the flatter slopeswithin the watersheds;
- encouraging contour plowing on new and existing mechanizedrainfed schemes wherever there are noticeable slopes;
- avoiding other forms of land degradation resulting frommechanized agriculture by encouraging rotation of a wider varietyof crops and ensuring adequate fallow periods with occasionalsub-surface plowing;
- restriction of tree cutting, charcoal-making, traditionalagriculture, and grazing on the steeper slopes of the watershedsand promoting the introduction of improved traditional farmingsystems involving appropriate soil conservation measures on themore moderate slopes;
- restriction of agriculture and tree cutting around the reservoirsand along major tributaries;
- establishment of trees and permanent vegetation belts in areaswhere none exist;
- establishment of windbreaks, shelterbelts and canal sideplantings in the irrigation schemes in order to reduce waterevaporation and siltation.
4.21 While it is easy to recommend technical solutions to watershedproblems within the Sudan, their implementation in the short term will beproblematic. The mechanized farmer's overriding interest is in quick
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profits, and he is reluctant to make long term investments In land that isrented at a nominal fee. An ine'fectual Mechanized Farming Corporation,makes soil conservation a difficult problem on the rainfed schemes. Thetraditional agriculture sector har not yet significantly reduced thefertility of the land, but farmers are hesitant to invest scarce time andresources in what are seen as .unproven' technologies. Thus, any effortsto improve land use practices in these watersheds will requlre fieldoriented efforts that include ltrong education and training components forboth the farmers and the implementors, along with improved landuse management and farming systeis technologies.
Alternative Institutional Approaches to Rural Reforestation
4.22 Reforestation and tre2 planting in the rural situation can beapproached through:
(iii) protection and management of natural woodlands and forests.
4.23 Farm Forestry and Village Woodlots. The technologies for farmforestry based on discrete blocks for the production of saleable productsand on the traditional system of production in gum gardens are well known.More research is needed on intercropping and agroforestry, especially theeffects on agricultural crops of different tree species, spacing andmanagement techniques.
4.24 The technologies for village woodlot establishment and managementare also well known. The key issues for successful community plantationsare protection of young seedlings from grazing animals, clearly definedmanagement plans, and community agreement on the use and disposition offorest products. Communal village woodlots in the Sahel zone have had poorsucces and involvement in such woodlots should be initially attempted on apilot scale and carefully phased and monitored.
4.25 Protection and Management of Natural Forest Resources. Naturalwoodland savannah is the major source of woodfuel in Sudan. Itsproductivity can be increased by management involving fire protection andcontrolled cutting to ensure coppice regrowth. The major difficulty inSudan in bringing the savannah woodland areas under controlled managementis the conflicting land use practices in the areas concerned, especiallythe excessive pressure on rangelands and savanDnah from the nomadic herdswhich exceed the carrying capacity of these areas (para 3.37). Traditionalcomunity approaches to protection and controlled use are now largelyineffective and the chances of bringing large areas of savannah underforest 'management' are poor. Attempts to involve nomadic people inrotation grazing and bush management schemes have met with little success.When the rains are good and there is a reasonable amount of feed for stock,management controls are possible, but in drought years, which occurregularly in the Sudanese environment controlled forest or grazingmanagement schemes invariably break down under the pressure of human and
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liviestock populations seeking survival. In spite of these problems, insome areas of Kordofan village committees are taking action to introducesome control of grazing lands. A recent pilot scheme in Darfur at thevillage of Umm Belut has resulted In a series of enclosures for controlledgrazing in agreement with local nomadic populations. This scheme could beexpanded to cover larger areas, particularly where the sedentary andnomadic populations have traditional sociological ties. Intensivesociological research, additional pilot projects and close monitoring ofthese voluntary initiatives are recommended. The regeneration or plantingof fodder producing trees should also be encouraged. The role of naturalforest management in meeting fuelwood supplies is discussed in paras.6.16and 6.17.
4.26 Provision of Planting Haterials. All these options are dependentupon a reliable and sustained supply of good quality planting material.Experience with reforestation programs based on rural participation hasclearly shown that a well distributed nursery network and the use of lowcost seedling production techniques have been key factors in successfulprojects. For instance, in Gujarat, increasing the ratio of nurseries tovillages from 1:83 to 1:10 over a five year period had a dramatic positiveeffect on the rate of uptake of seedlings. Similarly the use of the lowcost "basket' technique of raising seedlings, as opposed to the higher costsystem based on polythene pots, facilitated the distribution of seedlingsto remote villages. Encouraging farmers to have ,heir own kitchennurseries using waste water is also a cheap and effective solution to theproblem of seedling production and distribution. Sowing seeds directly inthe field is the cheapest option and is appropriate for species likeProsopis. In this case, only seed distribution points are required.
4.27 At present, there are only 111 nurseries serving the entire needsof Sudan. Many of these are providing seedlings only to GOS projects andschemes and individuals are not usually aware of seedling availability. Inother countries, it has been possible to increase the density of nurseriesby involving schools, non-government organizations (NGO) and privateindividuals in tree nursery operations. In India, this requires ForestryDepartments to establish a guaranteed price for seedlings and to providesupport to those wishing to raise seedlings as a business. The Governmentbuys the Eeedlings raised and provides them at a subsidized rate to thefarmers and communities in the area where tree planting is being promoted.Where cash crop tree farming is a profitable business, eg. for poleproduction in the vicinity of towns, seedlings are sold for the fulleconomic cost. The school nursery approach has been particularlysuccessful in Gujarat where the number of participating schools hasincreased from 50 to 600 over the past 3 years.
4.28 The Forestry Department- in Sudan are beginning to experimentwith similar approaches. The Sudan Renewable Energy Project (SREP) hasestablished a nursery at one school in Gezira, and is providing pumps,polythene tubes and tools to others interested in the nursery business. Itis too early to assess the success of these limited initiatives butindications are that, with some concentrated extension efforts, a nurserysystem could be established to cater for rural needs in Sudan.
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V. THE ROLE OF FORESTRY AS ANJ ENERGY SOURCE
5.01 The contribution of forestry to the energy naeds of Sudan wasreviewed by a Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Assessment Program in1983. This review dois not attempt to repeat this work, but rather toupdate some of the information in the light of more recently aquired data.
Role of Forestry in the Supply of Fuelwood and Charccoal.
5.02 in 1981, Sudan's energy consumption totallad 6 million tons ofoil equivalent (toe), of which 82% was in the form of fuelwood, charcoaland biomass and 18X was provided by imported oil and hydro-electricity (seeTable 6). The largest consuming sector was households (77.8 Z), followedby transport (11Z) and industry (5.8%). The per capita consumption of allforms of energy in 1981 amounted to about 324 kg of oil equivalent and iscomparable to levels in other developing countries at similar levels of percapita lncome. The gross supply of primary energy in 1931, on the otherhand, amounted to 9.7 million toe, made up as follows (in thousands oftoe): fuelwood 7,765 (80.2X), biomass 526 (5.42) hydro-electricLty 188(1.9%), crude oil 874 (9.0%), and Imported petroleum products, 334 (3.5%).The difference between supply and demand is mainly due to the lossesincurred in converting fuelwood to charcoal.
Table 6
Final Energy Coumption (1981)('000 tons oil equivalent)
Char- Bio- Elec- Petro- ShareWood coal mass tricity leum Total (X)
Source: Sudan Issues and Options in the Energy Sector. July 1983: p. 3.
Projections of Total 'uelwood Consumption: The Emerging Fuelwood SupplyCrisis
5.03 The revised estimate for growing stock volume of the nationalforest resource for 1983 is about 2,860 million .3. The annual allowablecut from this resource is estimated at 90 million m3, i.e. a growth rate ofapproximately 3.1Z (Table 4). This level of annual allowable cut would besufficient to meet Sudan's 1983 estimated consumption of 46 million m3 ofgrowing stoc' equivalent (inclusive of all fuelwood and other woodconsumption for domestic, commercial and industrial purpose) (Table 7), ifthe forest resources were equitably distributed throughout Sudan. In
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practice the south is a wood surplus area while the north is facing anemerging fuelwood supply crisis. Table 8 forecasts consumption of woodproducts assuming that little effort is made to introduce woodfuelL.nservation such as improved cooking stoves and more efficient ckarcoalkilnlng techniques. It also assumes that there will be a 1% increase inreal vealth per year per capita, that is an average annual increase ofabout 3.932 in GDP. Total consumption is estimated. to increase from 46
million m3 in 1983 to 68 million ,3 by the turn of the century, of which99Z will be supplied from domestic sources. The north-south consumption isfairly constant over the period vith the north taking nearly 78 of ttetotal, an estimated 53 million m3 in 2000. In the Northern, Eastern,Central, Khartoum or Kordofan Regions, no really productive woodland areawill remain at the end of the century at the present rate of usagz assuminga consumption pattern as per Table 8. Forestry growing stock in the southwill decrease by only 101 over the same period. The flow of wood productsfrom resource areas to centers of consumption is virtually non-existent Interms of south-north movement due to the very poor state of comunicationsand long haulage distances which are the main economic constraint. Theriver transport system operating on the White Nile is not capable ofhandliag large quantities of low value fuelwood and the railway link to Wauhas suffered interruptions.
5.04 The north has therefore been obliged to rely on its localresources. These have been further depleted by extensive clearing for bothcontrolled and uncontrolled mechanised farming operations. In 1982, NEAestimated that some 147,000 ha of forest was being cleared each year formechanized agriculture. The areas of expansion of this activity have nowmoved to Kordofan and Darfur, where the estimated annual clearance rateover the last three years is 88,200 ha.
5.05 Tables 8 and 9 show projections of supply, losses and consumptionbalances at intervals from 1983 to the year 2000, assuming present trendscontinue. Thus, by the year 2000, the forest resource of Sudan (and theannual allowable cut) will have been reduced by 221 of the 1983 base yearfigure, while consumption of all forest products is expected to rise by 49Zfrom 46 mil].ion m3 to 68 million m3- The forest resource in the north willbecome a wasting asset at cn increasing rate and proje=tions indicate thatthe total area of forest could be reduced from its present level of 37million ha to only 17 million ha, all of which would he in Darfur region(Table 9). Increasing fuelwood costs, due to scarcity and transport overlong distances, will impose a limit on canasu5. demand in the areas withscarce wood resources and therefore introduce errors into the analysis.Nevertheless, the figures indicate the serious depletion of the northernresources under present regimes of supply and demnd. To provide forwoodiuel and pole needs by the end of the century would require theequivalent of 7.8 million ha of rainfed plantations or 1.6 mill 4 .on ha ofirrigated plantations. These are impossible targets which itself emphasizethe need for swift action to reduce current consumption and to controlcutting.
5.06 The reservation of areas in the vicinity of townships for thesupply of fuel tn the urban areas in the future is of the greatestimportance (see map 18924). The recent denudation of forest around towns,eg. Khartoum, Juba and Wau, now necessitates long and costly haulage of
Sawnwood includes a supressed demandof about 0.2 million m3 of sawnwood or0.5 million m3 of saw logsPanel products include ver.eer, plywood etcall of which are importedAll paper products are imported
Source NEA Energy Surveys and missionestimates
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fuels. The wood production area for Khartoum for charcoalln 1 aow w llmouth of El DemazIn, towards the Lugessena Hills in Blue Nile Prolince, andin Southern Kordofan. In fact, some charcoal for thartoum I brought fromKassala proviice and southern Kordofan. Haulage dlstancea m_y be in excessof 400 ko. The Lonsumption of poles, fuelwood end charcoal In KhartoumProvince (includlig the three towns) in 1983 is estimated at 22 milllon aof roun4wood, equivailent to about 5.5 million tons of oil. Ylelds of 5 o3of dry fuelvood per hertace in well-managed energy plantations are notunreallstic. A feasibility study has been recommended of the economicviabillty of energy plantations on a fairly large scale around urban areas,partlcularly Khartoum. This stiLdy is to be carried out with World Bankassist"ce In early 1986. Such plantations could provlde fuelvood andcharcoal to urban households. Additional benefits would be thepreservation of the forest resource and elimination of long haulage of lowvalue fuels using high value petroleum fuels. However, especlally In thenorth where rainfall is low, preliminary results indicate that perl-urbanlrrigated plantations may be uneconomic unless they can be either combLnedvith crop or fodder production, or can use vaste water (para.6.24) or thegovernment is willing to subsidize part of the establishment costs.
EnvLronmental Implications of Fuelvood Harvesting
5.07 The deforestation that has resulted from past fuelwoodharvesting, and which is likely to continue in the future, is acontributory cause of desertification. The situatlon is most serlous as ltaffects the area immediately adjacent to urban townships (map 18924) wherethe increasing demand for charcoal acts as a stimulus to the harvesting offorest resources within an economic radlus of the towns. With earth kilnsin Sudan, about 12 .3 of wood are required to make 1 ton of charcoal 7/and since most of the charcoal is consumed in urban areas, the urban 'gemandfor charcoal is a major driving force in the deforestation process.Examples of this phenomenon are already apparent around many Sudantownships. Of total woodfuel consumption of 43 m3 million in 1983, 16milllon m3 was in the form of fuelwood and 27 million m3 (63%) was used forcharcoal production, the latter to satisfy 30-40% of woodfuel users.
5.08 The human and environmental consequences are a serious lssue. Ifthe natural savannah woodland is constantly cut back, it dies and theresultant landscape, bared of trees, rapidly loses topsoil due primarily tovindblow. The end result is desertification and permanent loss of some ofthe land to agriculture. Where this happens on a large scale theindigenous population is forced to migrate to other areas, frequently wlththe end result that resources elsewhere are put under excessive human andlivestock pressure. It has been noted (para. 3.37) that the number oflivetock in Sudan (27 million LSU) already exceeds the carrying capacity ofthe range-land areas by some 5 illIlon LSU. By implication any Zurtherloss of potential grazing land vill further exacerbate this overstockingsituation.
5.09 Unless remedial action is taken to reduce per capita consumptionand to increase wood supplies, the area of natural woodland and forest willdecline from 94 million ha to about 73 million ha by year 2000 (Table 9).The 22 million ha of savannah woodlands that will be lost contains apotential sustainable livestock feed in excess of 10 million tons oL dry
7/ The range of conversion factors is enormous (from less than 6.3 per tonin carefully controlled kilne to ever 2om3 in earth kilas using wetwood.
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Table 8Sudan
Forestry Sector Revieu
Estimated Consuoption of Mood Products1993-2000 with few ConservationMeasures Adopted
(Product Units: sillion o3 roundwmod equivalent)
1993 1995 1990 1995 2000
Population (Millions) 21.59 22.89 26.41 30.46 35.15
Total 10.65 10.91 12.07 13.56 15.40Percent of Sudan Tot 23.19 22.54 21.95 22.06 22.57
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matter (worth about US$l billion per annum). Earller studies suggest thatthe carrying capacity of savannah woodlands in areas with 300 to 800 mmrainfall, is about 25 LSU and one person per square kilometer. Based onthe above assumptions, the elimination of 22 million ha of woodlands as aresult of excessive fuelwood harvesting implies the displacement of about250,000 people and 5.5 million LSU. Transhumants who own 80% of thenational livestock herd comprise 2.3 million people today and, according toprojections, the nomads will still comprise 2 million people by year 2000.Elimination of this woodland area implies disruption of the way of life ofabout 12% of that population by the turn of the century.
Recommendations of the UNDP/World Bank Energy Assessment SurveyRelevant to Forestry
5.10 The following package of overseas technical assistance,admiulstrative action, Government budgetary support and enforcement ofregulations was recommended in the UNDP/World Bank Energy AssessmentReport: (a) provide technical assistance to study the feasibility, cost andeconomic viability of large-scale multi-purpose energy plantations,especially near urban areas and to set up demonstration and Pilot projects;(b) provlde technical assistance to study ways of improving theproductivity of natural woodlands, plantations and forests, therebyincreasing the annual allowvble cut relative to the growing stock volume,through better management practices (including forest protection), thecontrol of cutting, and the improvement and extension of silviculturalpractices; (c) increase the central budget allocation to forestry; (d)provide Government support and technical assistance to design, test,produce and introduce improved firewood cooking stoves, charcoal stoves andcharcoal kilns; (e) enforce the requirements that abandoned agriculturalland be returned to the Forestry Administration and that at least 15X ofthe land area of agricultural schemes be retained under trees; (f) carryout a program to increase public awareness of the deforestation problem, byestablishing village-level committees for environmental protection; (g)encourage community forestry, through better extension services, communitywoodlots and homestead plantings; (h) Incorporate the concept of maximumconversion of wood material into charcoal in all land clearance schemes;and (i) coordinate forestry programs with national energy poliy.
VI. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO SATISFY FUTURE DEMAND FOR ENERGI AND WOODPRODUCTS WITHOUT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
6.01 The main strategy implication of the above analysis is that everypossible effort must be made to reduce consumption levels (eg. improvedcharcoal stoves) to accelerate the production of new fuelwood resources andto utilize existing wood resources more effectively, especially wood beingburnt in situ when land is being cleared for mechanized agriculture. Thepossibility of using subsidised kerosene to take the pressure offexcessively exploited savannah lands is not promising. Kerosene ispresently used mainly for lightinq and not for cooking. To replace only50 of current charcoal consumption with imported kerosene and assumingcharcoal and kerosene stoves are equally efficient would require about 1billion liters (0.8 million tons). The additional foreign exchange drainwould be in the order of US$300 million a year whicl- Sudan can ill afford.Nor does the prospect of local oil production offer an easy solution; it
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udanTable 9
Forestry Sector lvim
Supply of bod Iamterial 193-2000 by Regionwith fe Cmsurvatiom bamros Adopted
Total Sudan 247.59 29A.28 2746.15 26.64 2467.20Decrease from 93 0.00 29.30 101.43 20.94 360.39
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would take 5 times the planned Sudan refinery production of 16,000 barrelsper day to replace just 50% of current charcoa. consumption and leavenothing for use as jet fuel which is the largest share of the market. Tosatisfy 50Z of the charcoal market by the year 2000, would require abouc1.7 billion liters, or 8.5 times the planned refinery production.
6.02 A three pronged strategy, comprising demand mitigation,increasing sustainable supply and using existing resources more effectivelyis proposed for solving the fuelwood supply problem.
Effective Resource Utilization
6.03 The quickest results will come from using existing resources moreeffectively; a strategy that should earn revenue for government rather thanbe an economic liability. Between now and the turn of the century, as muchas 1.7 million ha of woodlands and forests may be converted to use formechanized agriculture, traditional agriculture, tea plantations, tobaccofarms, etc. The cotal growth stock on this area is of the order of 65million m3 or between 5 and 7 million tons of charcoal equivalent. Unlessthe use of the wood resource is planned, most of it will be burnt in situas is the current practice. In order to ensure that the resource is 3utilized, the user of the land should be charged a fee of about LSI per maso that an average each hectare would be worth LS38 in additional revenueto GOS. It should also ensure that the user recognizes the worth of thetrees and tries to recover their cost and the stumpage fee by utilizi,agthem for fuelwood, charcoal, poles, fodder, etc. It may be difficult toimpose a similar fee on traditional farmers but at least they should bemade aware of the potential value of the trees and be required zo leavesome tree cover on the land for environmental protection and future use.
6.04 The future undemarcated/uncontrolled mechanized farming landcould also be brought under control by levying a stumpage fee. About820,000 ha may be cleared for mechanized farming and about 50,000 hacleared for tea planting. If a stumpage fee of LS 1 per m3 is charged fortrees growing on the land, then this shoule bring a revenue to governmentof about LS 33 million - over LS 2 million per year - which is about equalto the budgetary allocation for forestry development (para 2.17). It wouldalso supply, for example, between 2.75 and 3.5 millon tons of charcoal orabout 0.2 million tons/year. (8% of current charcoal demavid) and make a netprofit for the charcoal producer of between LS 30-40/ha.
Woodfuel Conservation Strategy
6.05 It has been assumed that on average about 12 m3 of air-dry woodare used to produce 1 ton of charcoal at the market. The actual productionat the kiln may be about 1.33 tons but 0.33 tons of charcoal is lost aspowder and fines at the kiln site, at the charcoal depot or at the marketsite. Clearly by improving handling of charcoal and having cheap andsimple briquetting techniques, up to 25X of the wood could be saved. Workcarried out by SREP, NEA and FAO has demonstrated that with improvedkilning techniques, 't is possible to produce I ton of charcoal with 6 m3of air dry wood, but even with a 25% saving of wood by using improved earthkiln design, (or brick kilns) coupled with better handling, briquetting ofpowder and fines, and proper drying of wood, a total saving of wood of 50%could be achieved.
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6.06 A similar saving could be made by improving the efficiency ofwoodfuel stoves atnd the accompanying pots and pans. The average efficiencyof the traditional charcoal stove is about 20%. This compares to a wickkerosene stove of about 40-45% efficiency. Burnt clay (ceramic) linedstoves or double walled metal stoves have been designed which increase theefficiency to about 27%. By sinking the pot/pan inside the stove and by abetter design of utensils, it is possible to get the efficiency up to 40%or more. All these improvements should be well received and accepted bythe consumer provided they are relatively cheap. Assuming that there willbe a 25% saving in wood used to make charcoal(para. 6.05) and a 25% savingof charcoal in cooking by using improved stoves, then the overall percapita saving of wood for families using improved stoves would be 43%.
6.07 The efficiency of the three stone firewood 'stove is at bestabout 15X when used with aluminium pots. Improved three stone stoves,portable burnt clay and fixed stoves of metal and/or burnt clay have beendesigned with up to a 50Z increase in efficiency. However, the 3 stonefire is much more than a stove; it acts as a meeting point for the familyand friends; the smol:e is used to preserve crops stored in the house; it isa provider of heat and is also portable. It does riot cosr any money topurchase. Therefore, to persuade people to use more efficient (but morecostly) stoves may be a problem. However, when wood becomes scarce and/orrural people have to start paying for their fuel, improved stoves willbecome more popular. The first step should be to introduce improvements tothe 3 stone fire, such as introducing a wind-shield and sinking the stoveith or without a grate.
6.08 A 25% decrease in the amount af wood used per household forcooking by the year 2000 would lead to an overall per capita saving of SX,17% and 25Z respectively in 1990, 1995 and 2000. These assumed savingsapply both to household and the service and industrial sectors. Inparallel with the above savings in end use, it is assumed that there wouldbe a similar saving in charcoal production.
6.09 Forecasts have been made based on 25% savings in woodfuel byusing conservation strategies and assuming that by 2000 all families wouldhave adopted fuelwood conservation measures. The results (Table 10)predict that there could be an overall yearly saving of wood raw materialof 18 million mi3 by the year 2000 compared to the forecast assuming only asmall coaservation effort (Table 8). Of this predicted saving, 14 millionm3 would be in the north and 4 million m3 in the south. This predictedsaving is equal to about 37% of the total consumption of woodfuel in Sudantoday and illustrates the possible results that an aggressive conservationprogram could yield if the efforts were concentrated on the large uses ofenergy such as stoves and kilns.
6.10 The cumulative savings are of the order of 140 million m3 (105million m3 in the north and 35 million m3 in the south) between 1985 and2000. Of these savings, 80% would be wood saved in charcoal production andconsumption and 20% in fuelwood saving. If today's Khartoum market priceswere applied (LS 80 per ton for fuelwood and LS 200 per ton for charcoal),then this saving is worth LS 3,900 million (LS 2,200 million for charcoaland LS 1,700 million for fuelwood) or on average LS 260 millic'. per year.Tnis would also lead to a substantial saving of foreign exchangc, because
Total south 10.65 10.91 10.36 10.79 11.28 9.20 8.23 6.97Savings 0.00 0.00 1.71 2.77 4.12 2.97 5.43 9.43
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1. million tons less of charcoal would have to be transported to themarket. If the average transport distance for charcoal is 300 ki, thiswould save a total of LS 550 million of which about 80X is foreignexchange.
6.11 The estimated savings are based on optimistic assumptions withdue regard to conservation strategies and also on assumptions that allsavings are 'net' and that there is no elasticity in demand. They aretherefore likely to be inflated but nevertheless they indicate that anactive conservation policy by GOS could bring about substantial savings ofwood raw material. It will also benefit the consumers who should payrelatively less for tneir energy and thus keep down the cost of living.Such a saving would only be possible if woodfuel conservation is wupport bythe government, and accorded the priority it merits. It is recommendedthat conservation programs of the type already initiated by NEA and SREPshould be screngthened by the provision of technical assistance andpossibly credit facilities. The amount of money spent on conservation atpresent is probably less than LS 1 million per year. Somewhere in theregion of LS 10 to LS 20 million per year should be adequate to produce theresults descrioed, less than 8.0% of the proposed savings.
6.12 There are other benefits that Sudan would obtain; namely aslowing down of environmental degradation or even ar. improvement to theenvironment. Table 9 shows the area and growing stock of woodlands between1983 and 2000 with few conservation measures. Table 11 gives a contrastingpicture if active conservation measures are pursued and indicates a savingof about 7 million ha most of which would be in the north. The saving ofgrowing stock (wnich is somewhat different from che saving of wood rawmaterial since the latter could include wood that may be in surplus andthus goes to waste) would be about 125 million m3. While Table 11indicates an absence of "productive' woodlands in the Northern, Eastern,Central and Khartoum regions, the remnant woodlands in these areas mayrecover because of reduced pressure on them. Also the model has been drawnup assuming that all demand from one region comes first from within theregion until the regional supply is exhausted, which is not always thecase.
6.13 The woodland areas are vital to the domestic and wild animalpopulation; 7 million ha probably supply about 3 million domestic animalsover some period of the year; they also supply the wood requirements ofsome 5 million people. If these were cleared or degraded, then GOS wouldhave to spend in the region of LS 950 million over the next 15 years tomeet the requirements through plantations (LS 64 million per year).Woodfuel conservation would be a cheaper means of addressing the fuelwoodproblem. It would also give the quicker returns, because plantations wouldnot start to yield on a substantial scale until about 10 years fromestablishment.
Increasing Supply
6.14 The strategies of using existing resources more effectively andactively conserving wood raw material are insufficient alone to solveSudan's wood energy crisis. Table 11 indicates that there would still bemany regions in the north that would be wood deficit areas and even if animproved transport network opens up new areas, these would be only
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Table 11Fuutry 3ctw' bywl
IWly of _u Imatrida 1520W hY Ii.ith Wium Comuatim %own Mftui
partially able to satisfy demand, and more foreign exchange would be neededto transport woodfuel to market. Therefore, an additional strategy isrequired to ensure a sustainable supply of wood as near to centers ofdemand as possible. Ideally for the farmer, especially the women andchildren collectors, trees grown on-farm are the most convenient. Thesealso assist the farmer in the maintaining if not increasing agriculturaloutput. For the urban and industrial connumer, many of the demand centers,especially in the north, are in low rainfall areas, where the expectedannual biomass growth will be relatively low. However, by using trees coincrease large scale agricultural production through improving themicro-climate or by providing green manure or fodder, the cost of plantingtrees could be defrayed, and wood products could thus be looked on as abonus. Again, managing the existing woodlands instead of merely exploitingthem could increase and sustain production from them.
6.15 Conservation and Protection of Existing Natural Woodlands. Theurban areas are the largest users of charcoal. However, the people do nothave access to land to produce their own wood or charcoal supplies. Theprimary source of charcoal for Sudan's urban consumers is bush savannahwood which is freely available to any person wishing to set up a charcoalbusiness, and who can operate within an economic haulage radius of thetowns.
6.16 The trade is profitable. To produce the approximately 2.5million tons of charcoal consumed in 1983 needed the equivalent of at least30 million =3 of wood intake. This implies the felling of about 4 millionha of savannah woodlands. Assuming that 25% of that amount came from largescale producers (eg. from MF schemes) and 75% from small farmers and andmerchants each producing about 15 tons of charcoal a year, aboat 125,000rural families are engaged in the charcoal business and the equ::valent ofabout US$55 million is generated in rural incomes. Charcoal production istherefore an attractive business as a way of increasing income andgenerating rural employment.
6.17 At present there are about 94 million ha of natural savannahwoodlands in Sudan. Of this total, 57 million ha are in the south of thecountry and overall they are producing a surplus of wood much of which goesunused. It is the 37 million ha in the north that are being eroded be-auseof over-cutting. In particular, the 10 million ha that lie within a radiusof 500-600 kms of Khartoum is most under threat and it will disappear bythe turn of the century if some form of management is not undertaken onit. Much of this land is not gazetted and therefore at present it isdifficult to undertake protection. The total growing stock (Table 12) isapproximately 356 million m3 and the estimated allowable cut 12 millionm3. However, the demand for woodfucl and poles in the Khartoum area is ofthe order of 22 million m3, so the growing stock is being depleted at therate of 10 million m3 per year. Indeed if consumption continues at thepresent per capita level, by the year 2000, it will have grown to some 37million m3 and all the above woodland area will be reduced to scrub. Table12 gives an estimate of the annual yield if the savannah area could bebrought under management. With care, the growing stock could be increasedby about 35% by protectiug regeneration from fire and animals to increasestocking. By increasing management intensity, the nominal rotation agecould be shortened. These measures could double the annual allowable cut
SUD.N Table 12FORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW Tbe1
The Natural- Savannah Woodland Within a 500-600 Km. Radlus of Khartoum
A, Type of woodland with Estimated Growing Stock and Yleld (1985)
i.. vorage Woodland Growing Stock Including NominalRalnfall Type Area Brenchos Annual Allovable Cut Rotation
mRm MIII'ons ha m3/ha Millions m3 05/ha Millions .3 Years
to 23 million m3 per year. Even if the stocking could not be increased,the annual yield could be increased by 5 million .3 to some 17 million U3by better nssagement.
6.18 The conservatlon and protection of existing voodland is clearlyan investment option deserving close GOS attention. If it were possible byappropriate legislation and Increased forestry activity to rapidlyestablish a system of woodland management in an area in the vicinity ofKhartoum, the increased annual allowable cut would be sufficient to supplythe present fuelwood needs of Khartoum. The logistical and socio-economicproblems associated with the implementation of such a system areconsiderable (para. 4.25) and would probably limit its success.Nevertheless, the investment costs would be low and the benefits enormous.It Is therefore recommended that a concentrated effort be made to increasethe area of savannah woodland under management control by seeking localvillage and community participation in pilot schemes and by vigorouslyexploring the possibility of increasing the area of forest reserves underGovernment control in areas where this would not cause major sociologicalproblems (i.e. in more isolated areas away from stock routes).
6.19 Planting Fuelvood Trees for Rural Domestic Self Sufficiency. Inthe rural situation, the objective is to persuade farmers to plant trees ontheir own land or in village woodlots for domestic consumption. Farmersusually perceive the need for tree planting for multipurpose objectivesrather then for fuelwood alone. Almost all the sociological studiesfinanced by the Bank and those carried out by FAO on this topic indicatethat farmers usually opt for planting fruit trees as their first choice;followed by planting trees for cash income (particularly for sale asbuilding poles) and for shade; and thirdly for fuelwood and fodder. Thisis a very generalizcd statement and the preferences vary from ore place toanother but to date only rarely ii these farmer surveys have farmers orcommunities ranked fuelwood as their top priority. WhIlst at first sightthis seems somewhat paradoxical in the context of the emerging fuelwood"crisis' one posslble explanation is that the "crisis" is often more areflection of the concern of the planners involved in analysis of fuelwoodprograms rather tian in the minds of the farmers themselves who, when woodruns out, turn to burning crop residues or animal dung which are 'free' andseasonally available at the farmer's doorstep.8 /
6.20 Burning all the crop residues on a small farm (one ha or less)implies that all the organic crop mulch is consumed and as a result, cropyields decline. However, this does not register for several years and evenwhen it does, a choice has to be made between eating cooked food andaccepting lower crop yields, or eating raw food. In other words, there isno apparent fuel "crisis' in the farmers' mind. However, on larger farms(5 ha or more) as is commonly the case in Sudan, burning off, say, 202 ofthe crop residues, need not adversely affect the structure of the soil. Itmay divert some residues that otherwise would have been fed to livestock.
8/ 40Z of household energy consumption in the Gezira Scheme is met byburning crop residues and dung.
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6.21 If the need of rural people for trees is to be met, it will benecessary to give far more emphasis to making avallable the sort of treespecies that will produce fruit, poles, fodder, etc. for sale as well asfor use as fuelwood. In a Sudanese context, fodder trees rank high inpeople's preferences. Species such as Prosopls, Zizyphus and variousspecies of Acacia are those most in demvFan.Gum ArGicETAca-ta senegal) isa preferred specles because it produces cash income from the gum, plusfuelwood and fodder.
6.22 It Is recommended that fuelwood planting in rural aforestationprograms should be closely linked with planting of trees for other uses,particularly as shelterbelts and for fodder, fruit and green manure as wellas generating cash income through the sale of poles etc. The appropriateinstitutional technical and management approaches for this type of forestryhave already been discussed (Chapter IV).
6.23 Creation of New Fuelwood Resources for Iieeting Urban andIndustrial Needs. Manv savannah woodlands are under threat and these areascannot meet the present or future demands for wood energy even with activeconservation measures and therefore some form of plantations both irrigatedand rairfed, will have to be considered. The additional areas ofplantations required to satisfy demands by 2,000 have been estimated inpara. 6.30.
6.24 Irrigated Fuelwood Plantation Options. Preliminary calculationssuggest that large scale irrigated fuelwood plantations will be verydifficult to justify economically (Annex XI), except in somewhat uniquecircumstances where the water is available at very low cost (eg. wastesugar factory and sewage water) or plantations are to be established oncut-out areas on existing irrigation schemes. Wnere the irrigated treeplantation has to bear irrigation scheme capital and operating costs, itbecomes financially unviable even at the high fuelvood selling pricescurrently prevailing in Sudan. Investment costs are likely to be in theorder of US$6,000 to US$8,000 per ha and at that level of investment costthe price of charcoal will have to be more than double before growing woodwould be financially attractive. At this level, it would be tar cheaper touse kerosene. Rowever, as shelterbelts, trees can more than pay their way(Annex XII), and if some or all capitai costs were subsidized, thenirrigated plantations may be viable.
6.25 Notwithstanding these preliminary negative conclusions regardingthe prospects for large scale irrigated plantations, there are localsituations where such plantations could play a supporting role. The factLnat irrigated plantations (provided they receive regular and scheduledsupplies of irrigation water), can produce wood at a much faster rate thanthe alternative rainfed plantations could in some instances help to easethe pressure on savannah resources. Where cheap waste water is available,irrigated forestry could be prof5table, particularly if it can be combinedwith agro-'orestry or the production of other products such as gum arabicor fodder.
6.26 Rainfed Fuelwood Production Options. There are four mairpossibilities:
(i) Fuelwood plantations grown as cash crops by traditional farmers.
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(il) Fuelwood plantations grown on land originally cleared formechanised farming scbemes but on which declining soil fertilityprecludes their continued use for agricultural cropping.
(iii) Fuelwood plantations grown using mechanized farming principles onland cleared specifically for the purpose or on abandoned land.
(iv) Fuelwood plantations established by the government's ForestDepartment in government owned forest reserves.
Of these, the first is the cheapest option and the last the dearest. Basedon Bank experience elsewhere, anticipated investment costs for on-farmforestry would be about LS 250 to LS 300 per ha compared with LS 800 toLS 1,000 for government owned plantations where full account is taken ofthe infrastructure and overhead costs.
Te..hnical Aspects of New Fuelwood Resource Creation
6.27 CFA has had considerable experience in establishirg large scaleplantations. Industrial and non-industrial plantations cover over 185,000ha. Industrial hardwood species which cover about 55,000 ha include Acacianilotica, Cedrella toona, Cordia africana, Kbaya grandifoliola, Khaya-senegalensis and Tectona grandis. These species are a source of sawntimber and sleepers. Industrial softwood species, mainly Cupressus, areestimated to cover 2,700 ha. Non-industrial plantations consist chiefly ofspecies Acacia spp-, Azadirachta indica, Cassia siame.a, Eucalyptus spp.,Hyphaene thebaica and Prosopis chilensis. These species, whi^h cover about130,000 ha, are grown for the production of gum arabic, charcoal andfirewood, and for the establishment of shelter belts.
6.28 Mechanized farming practices could be applied to forestryestablishment if tree seeds such as A. Senegal Prosopis and Leucaena weredirectly sown. The rotation of such plantations may he as little as 1 to 3years for fodder and green manure production or 3 to 6 years if wood is themain end product. Trial plots should be established to discover thefeasibility of such practices in Sudan and their likely costs and returns.
6.29 The fuelwood supply interventions are mainly concerned withclosing the demand - sustained supply gap in the north of the countrybecause the south as a whole is in surplus. There will be local shortagesof fuelwood and poles in areas of the south, mainly around urban centers,and these areas oust be pinpointed and plans made to alleviate theshortages.. Also the south will be the main supplier of sawnwood and otherindustrial wood. The demand for woodfuel and poles in the north and theeffects of various intervention strategies and the forecasted annual demandfor wood and poles by the year 200G assuming various conservationinterventions in the absence of a woodlaud management and protectionprogram, are given in Table 13. The estimated area of woodlands remainingin the north and the growing stock of these woodlands plus scrub lands andagricultural areas is also given.
9.30 With few woodfuel conservation measures adopted, there would bt: ashortfall of over 32 million m3 by 2,000 (Table 13). Even if all theincrement from the northern trees could be utilized, there would still bc
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an annual demand gap of nearly 15 milllion m3. To supply between 15 millionm3 and 32 million s3 by the year 2000 would require between 3.0 million haand 6.4 million ha of rainfed plantations grown in the 600 mm to 800 mmrainbelt at a minimum cost of about LS 215 million - LS 100 million peryear. This seems to be well beyond the finances and capabilities of thecentral and regional forest services. Clearly unless an active woodfuelconservation policy is pursued, the woodlands of northern Sudan and eventhe southern woodlands within a 1,000 km of Khartoum are under seriolusthreat.
9.31 In theory, the estimated increment from the remaining 'northern'woodlands, scrub and trees on agricultural areas could supply the demandfor woodfuel and poles assuming an 'aggressive" and successful woodfuelconservation policy, resulting in a 50% saving of woodfuel. However, muchof the remaining growing stock in the north is confined to southern Darfurwhere the average distance from Khartoum is over 1,000 kms which areoutside the economic transport distance to the deficit regions. While someof the supplies would come from the remnant woodlands, from a planningviewpoint, until a thorough inventory has been carried out, reliance onthis resource should be minimized.
1X.32 Even with an anticipated 25% saving in charcoal production andwoodfuel consumption, there would be a shortfall of about 16 million m3 peryear by 2000. If about one-half of the available increment could beutilized from the natural woodlands in the north, or accessible southernwoodlands, then the deficit would be reduced to about 5 million m3 by2000. At one extreme, the equivalent of 1.0 million ha of rainfedplantations will be required, and at the other extreme, 0.2 million ha ofirrigated plantations would suffice. This would require an annual plantingprogram of about 13,000 ha per year (all irrigated) or 67,000 ha per year(all rainfed). The investment costs for these two extremes would beapproximately LS 60.0 million (irrigated full cost) and LS 33.5 million(rainfed) if the government were to undertake the task. The prospects forsecuring these levels of investment from the public sector are poor and thelogistics of organizing large scale government planting programs inSudanese conditions are daunting. It is recommended that a cautiousapproach should be taken to the establishment of fuelwood plantations bythe public sector, but where possible, interventions by the private sectorshould be encouraged.
Pricing Policy Issues
6.33 The key to rapid fuelwood afforestation for urban supplies in theshort run lies in the extent to which fuelwood shortages and rising priceswill trigger spontaneous private investment by small traditional farmersand by mechanized farmers on areas in which declining agricultural cropyields are leading to abandonment of the land. If the necessary rainfedprogram of 67,000 ha (para. 6.32) a year were to be split, 75% to beplanted by small traditional farmers (each farming say 5 ha of fuelwoodwith an mai of 5 m3 /ha/year, i.e. a total annual area of about 50,000 ha)and 25Z (17,000 ha)by the government and by larger mechanizedfarmers/companies, it would be necessary each year to induce about 20,000small and 30 to 40 larger farmers or corporations (both private and
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government) to enter into the fuelwood growing business. The key toachieving these levels of private sector cooperation will rest almostentirely on the question of how profitable It will be to grow fuelwood.
6.34 To induce farmers and companies to become Involved In marketingfuelwood, charcoal and poles, the prices of these producta will have torise in order to "trigger off" spontaneous investment by small farmers dndcompanies in fuelwood growing. At prevailing fuelwood prices it does notpay farmers or the private sector to invest in fuelwood production.Fuelwood cutters and charcoal producers pay either nothing or an extremelylow fee for the naturally growing savannah wood. This fee is Insufficientto cover the cost of replacement of the trees. It is cheaper to gatherwood and produce charcoal from unprotected forests several hundredkilometers from the towns than to invest in Its production nearer to themarket. Government interventions such as increased stumpage fees,incentives for forest protection, fines for overcutting or reforestationsubsiJies will be needed if adequate fuelwood supplies are to be assuredfor future generations. Past forest policy has given scant attention tothis critical issue and only political commitment from the top level ofGovernmetit can change the situation. More information on prices isrequired but preliminary calculations suggest that the market price offuelwood would have to rise to about LS 100 to LS 130 per ton and thecharcoal market price might have to rise to something around LS 300 per tonbefore it would become attrative for farmers and companies situated withina 50 km radius of consumption centers for fuelwood, and 100 km radius forcharcoal, to get into production. These figures amount to a 50% increaseover current wholesale prices, at which level repercussions may be felt inthe consumption level such as the desire for improved stoves and thesubstitutton of wood fuels by kerosene.. However, the present price ofkerosene is subsidized and a true price may be in the range of LS 340 perton in charcoal equivalent terms allowing for stove efficiencydifferences. Removing the current kerosene price subsidy could be a keyfactor in making fuelwood growing more profitable. Further studies arerequired of the pricing policies for charcoal and the effects of eitherremoving kerosene price subsilies or substituting kerosene for charcoal.Preliminary studies para. (6.01) indicate that, with the present pricingstructure and supply problems, it would be unlikely that subsidizedkerosene would slow down the rate of deforestation.
6.33 The readiness of farmers to plant trees is also influenced by thecurrent government taxation rates on the gum arabic industry. The raisingof producer prices for gum arabic could act as a powerful stimulant to bothincreased gum arabic and fuelwood production.
Table '3
SUDAN
FORESTRY SECTOR REvIIW
A. Estimated doeand by 2000 In the north of Sudan for woodfuel and poles and the area,growing stock and Increment under various conservation options
IfActive Agressive
Little Conservation ConservationOptions Conservation (25J savings) (50% savings)
(Million m3)Demand by 2000Woodfuel 49.00 34.84 17.61Poles 1.43 1.43 1.43
S. Estluated eddltlonal sustainable supply of wood raw materialsby 2000 through supply side Interventions In the north of Sudan
Intervention
1. Better senagaent of natural Very little towoodlands within 500 kos of manager near 2,40 4.O0Khartoum (Tble 12) doeand centers
2. Full use of trees for fueland poles cleared from agri-cultural landsa) NechanIzod agrlculture
(30,000 ha) 1.00 1.00 1.00bl Traditional agriculture
(20,000 ha) 0.60 0.60 0.60
3. Trees pIanted/.aintaln.d ontraditional egricultural land(6.08 mIllion he agricultural land) 10.00 10.00 10.00
4. Sheiterbeits planted onmechanized agrlcultural landeolther 155 with no green manure
productlon or 3)1 wIth manureproductlon) (4.31 mllion ha total 2.60 2.60 2.60areal
5. Trees on Irrigated schemes;a) Shelterbelts (1.85 million ha I/ 1.40 1.40 1.40
total area In 4) 3% cover.b) On sugar *states using waste
water (96,000 ha planted withtreess 2.40 2.40 2.40
Total excluding Intarventlons Inrainted plantations grown specl-tically for fudl and poles IB.00 20.40 22.60
Interventions minus domand -32.43 -15,87 (3.176
__ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I.
1/ Thln excludes the water saying effect whlch 44'91 TYit !44 Z: ;iUw es ro t?* Ieed that cewld be!-riPa*.^ aeagp- u'?1, oe*rar. In tirna thls would wmag an additional 2,700 ha uMAr skolterbelts hbleh esaverage *Il yield an eddltlomal 67,000 o3 whon the normal Gycao Is estsbilshef#
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VII. COMMERCIAL FORESTRY
7.01 The current (1983) requiremuents for sawnwood and sleepers are
330,200 .3 (sawn). This is expected to rise to 626,000 m3 (sawn) in 2,000,based on a 1983 consumption rate of 0.021 m3 per caplta (Table 14),assuming a population growth of 2.9% and also assuming that the suppresseddemand vill be met (suppressed demand was 60Z of the total demand in 1983).
Paper (roundwood 110,000 270,000equivalentrequirement)
Total (roundwood 956,000 1,886,000equivalentrequirement)
7.02 In 1983, the actual consumption of sawnwood was 130,700 =3, ofwhich 45,400 (35%) was locally produced and 85,300 (65%) was i.mported at acost exceeding US$20.0 million.
7.03 An estimated 34,000 m3 (sawn) of the domestic supply cones fromhand sawn (pitsawn) wood. 11achine sawunwood is mainly from antiquatedgovernment operated sawmills and ha3 declined over the years to anestimated level in 1983 of only 5,400 m3 (sawn) of sawnwood and 6,000 m3
(sawn) of sleepers.
7.04 In the absence of a national forest inventory, the productivecapacity of Sudan's forestry resource is unknown. Eatimates prepared in1979 indicated annual yields from indigenous forests for exploitation bysawmills as follows:
In addition, plantations of exotic coumercial timber species (excludingplantations of Eucalyptus) amount to 16,000 ha. These plantations aremainly Tectona grandis (teak) with some Cuppressus lusitanica and Pinusspp. Assuming 8 weighted MAI of 12 .3/ha, those plantations can beexrected to yield 192,000 m3 roundwood or 96,000 .3 sawnwood. There arealso 42,000 ha of indigenoue plantations mainly Acacia nilotica (sunt)which are expected to yield 500,000 m3 roundwood or 18,o000 m2 (sawn). Thetotal yield of indigenous and plantation forests of 425,000 m3 sawnwoodwould be sufficient to meet all of Sudan's ainternal requirement forsawnvood in 1983 (including suppressed demand) and 68% of the demand in2,000. Hovever, the deficit could be further reduced by using aboutanother 3 million m3 per year available as scattered trees which could besawn by pit-sawyers.
7.05 In comparison with the demand for wood for other purposes(fuelwood and poles) which in 1983 amounted to 45 million m3 (Table 7), thenational requirements for sawuwood and commercial wood products was verysmall, amounting to less than 1.0 million 23. This is a typical situationin many developing countries where over 95% of total wood consumption istypically used for woodfuel. Demand naturally results in GOS policy beingdirected towards fuelwood production as a priority investment item.However, imported wood for construction etc., places unnecessary strain onCOS finances and the possibility of developing the maximum local commercialresources and capacity cannot be ignored. It is also possible to replaceexpensive Imported softwood with locally grown softwood or hardwood fromsoutherr Sudan.
Constraints to Development of Coumercial Forestry
7.06 The future development of commercial forestry should aim tosatisfy demands and eliminate timber imports. Such development programsface a number of constraints.
(i) Access to markets. Restoration of the railway to vJau and ofriver transport to Juba are absolutely essential for delivery offorest products from the South to the Khartour market.
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(ii) Local roads. The deplorable condition of local roads impedesdelivery of logs to sawnmills, delivery of products to localmarkets and delivery of products to shipping points. TheUSAID project ;or restoration of roads Juba-Torit-Kapete,Juba-Nimule, Juba-Yei, Juba-Yambio, Juba-Wau and the CIDA projetwest of Wau will improve the situation. Further work will berequired In the Wau-Tambura-Yambio area, Loka-West and thesouthern approach to the Imatong Mountains.
(iiI) Land use patterns. Traditional patterns of shifting agricultureand burning threaten the land base required to sustain commercialforestry developments. Preferred locations of developments arein areas of low population densities. Liquidation of indigenousforests and replacement by plantations of fast growing specieswill leave some land available for cultivation. Practice ofagro-forestry in establishing forest plantations will requireagressive protection from fire and from agricultural incursion.
(iv) Government pricing policy. Regional government policy to setlumber prices far below market values mitigates against thesuccess of commercial forestry. This can be overcome byprivatization of projects such as has been achieved by theImatong Mountains Development Corporation (IMDC). There isevidence of regional government support for privatization of theCIDA projects in Bahr El Ghazal. Government sawmills and theGerman Kagelu-Loka project in Equatoria, however, continue to beburdened by government set prices.
(v) Covernment mannit; policy. Regional government policies tomaintain sawnmill manning levels far beyond productionrequirements atzd to pay full wages when mills are not working,imnose an unrealistic cost burden on lumber oroduced. The samepolicies stifle management initiative. There is evidence ofrelief from this burden in the actual and contemplated privatizedprojects.
(vi) Government funding. Regional government funding levels toforestry are inadequate to provide fuel, spare parts, replacementequipment, an appropriate level of reforestation and protectionof establisihed plantations Excessive lumber production costsand low selling prices combine to make government forestryprojects a net drain on regional economics. Forestry in thissituation is poorly placed to compete for scarce regionalgovernment funding and for acquisItion of foreign exchange vitalfor supply of parts and equipment. There is evidence that relieffrom government pricing and manning policies throughprivatizatior. can generate sufficient income to pay for adequateforest renewal as a current expense.
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Scope for Rehabilitation of the Sawmill Industry.
7.07 Current status. Sudan's primary sawmill industry comprises 15sawmills (map 18923) of which 11 are operated by regional governments, 2are operated as aid projects and 2 are private sector operations asfollows:
7.08 The Government saw mills date generally from British colonial andpost colonial days. With the exception of the Russian supplied Wautraining sawmill, they are equipped with basic, unsophisticated hardwarewhich is capable, with adequate supplies of inserted saw teeth, shanks,belts, belt connectors and other basic parts, of producing at much higherlevels than currently. The prevailing power source is steam fired by millwaste. Although the boilers are of 1930-40 vintage, most are serviceable.The inability of these mills to produce lies in the scarcity of foreignexchange to purchase parts and fuel for vehicles, to the inadequacy of logand lumber delivery systems and lack of motivation among management andlabor. Log and lumber delivery systems are dependent on skidding tractorsand trucks most of which have been operated beyond their useful life.Parts and fuel are lacking due to shortage of funds. The shortage ofproduction statistics is evidence of the lack of established objectives,and monitoring systems to track progress towards objectives; the two basicelements of management motivation. Labor motivation reflects management
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motivation and is compounded by low pay, over-staffing and idlenessresulting from extended periods of down tlme.
7.09 Among the Aid operations, the German project at Kagelu whichsupports the Loka Group of GOS sawmills is threatened by withdrawal ofexpatriates in the prevailing security situation. This project has 1,000ha of teak plantations which are yielding poles a.d increasing volumes ofsmall logo from thinnings. Plantlng is planned at the annual rate of 200ha. The Upper Talanga Tea project (UTTP) is sound, with a technicallysuperior sawmill, over abundant supply of timber and a high level ofmotiv9tion to provide plantation grown timber after completion of the landclearing phase of the tea plantation area. Success of tte project is notconstrained by GOS set lumber prices. There are, however, marketingproblems resulting from poor lumber quality due to faulty sawing and pilingpractices and from the deplorable condition of the access road leading tothb .immule - Juba Road.
7.10 The two private sector mills at Katire and Gilo are operated bythe IMDC. The Gilo mill is a temporary installation to cope with largesized trees of the indigenous rain forest which are being cleared to makeway for plantations of fast growing exotic species such as cypress andpine. Improvement of the principal mill at Katire and decline in theproportion of indigenous forest clearings in the total mill furnish willfacilitate early closure of the inefficient Gilo mill. IMDC is currentlysearching -or an investor. Products are marketed FOB from a yard it Jubaat prices which reflect market value. The project provides agriculturalproduce through potato farming in establishing forest tree plantations.Current extent of plantations is 747 ha of softwood and 130 ha of hardwood.
7.11 Road access is inadequate for all mills in Bahr El Ghazal andEquatoria except the Katire and Gilo mills for which the Inatong projecthas up-graded the road from Katire to Torit.
Sawmill Rehabilitation through Existing Projects
7.12 Bahr El Ghazal. The CIDA project in Banr El Ghazal started withan operating inventory, market study and feasibility study. The project,delayed since June 1984 by security prob'ems will resume with resolution ofthese problems and Sudan Railway commitment to rebuild the damaged bridgeat Aweil. Capacity of the proposed mill is 8,000 m3 sawnwood annually(single shift) requiring 16,000 m3 roundwood from an area of 1.5 million hahaving a calculated MAC of 200,000 23. The project includes relatedinfrastructure such as a town at the mill Bite and reconstruction of 170 kmof public road west of Wau. Plans call for an aninal planting program of500 ha which- at a MAI of 15 m3 /ha would require 19 years for 9,500 ha ofplantation c:o replace the calculated MAC from indigenous forest. Theproject is plsnned as a corporate entity paying no round timber royaltiesand unconstrained by Government manning and pricing policies. Energysource will be a mill waste fired steam turbine.
7.13 The five Goverament sawmills in Bahr El Ghazal are to besupported through CIDA applied counterpart funds of LS 597,600 which willprovide spare parts, fuel and lubricants for 1 year. Lumber from all fivemills is to be marketed through the CIDA project yard at Wau at marker
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prices with credit to sawmills of sales revenue. This arrangement willprovide a revolving fund for future purchase of parts and fuel. Additionalsupport is required for the Pongo Nuer Mill to ensure log and lumberdeliveries up to the 200 m3 monthly capacity of the mill. Estimatedrequirement is 5 skidding tractors and 3 lumber transport trucks. Thismill is located within the CIDA project inventoried supply area so thatmedium term log supply is assured.
7.14 The other mills may require similar support to varying degrees,but lack of knowledge of the extent of the timber base at the otherlocations precludes a quantifiable conclusion.
7.15 Equatoria. The toka Group of Government sawmills need similarassistance to achieve capacity. Operating inventory is required to definethe timber base and to identify opportunities for rationalization. Laborcosts alone for these mills in 1983 were LS 200,304 or LS 460/m3 sawnwoodfor the 435 m3 produced. This experience illustrates the impact on unitcost of over-staffing and curtailed production, compounded by the COSlumber selling price. The Loka group of sawmills comprises 4 outpost millsas well as the Loka re-manufacturing facility. Primary sawing capacity isestimated bv the Pegional Forestry Department at 5,000-M3 sawnwood annuallyon an estimated MAC of 7,500 m3 sawnwood. Development to potential wouldrequire rationalization cf the outpost mills and rehabilitation of 100 kmof road north from Loka. The current problem of log supply resulting fromfuel and logging equipment shortages is compounded by inability of SudanRailways to pay for sleepers produced. Inventory of 15,000 sleepers isbeing depleted by re-sawing into lumber and losses from decay are beingexperienced. Current level of aforestation is 100 ha annually all in teak.
7.16 The Kagelu sawmill of the GTZ project is a small circular millsawing cants from teak thinnings and from indigenous species cleared forplantations. The entire production is resawn at Loka and thus is notreported separately. There is a proposal for a new mill to btart at 2,000m3/year (sawn) and increase to 6,000 m3 /year (sawn) over 10 years.
7.17 Plantation area, mainly of teak, available to the combined Kagelu- Loka projects is 4,500 ha. Planting teak continues at 300 ha/year withagricultural crops such as rice, millet and groundnuts in the first 3 yearsfollowing planting. The gazetted area available to the combined Kagelu -Loks projects is 40,000 ha of which 50% is considered plantable. Ultimatepotential of the net 20,000 ha at MAI of 15 m3 is 300,00 m3 roundwood or150,000 m3 sawnwood. Ohe-third of this or 50,000 m3 (sawn) could beachieved in the next 15 years.
7.18 The IMDC Sawmill at Katire has a current annual capacitv of 4,000m3 sawnwood from cleared indigenous hardwood forest and plantations mainlyof Cupressus lusatanica. Existing planta..ions amount to 750 ha. TheCorporation has developed a proposal to increase annual production to12,250 m3 sawnwood with planting of 1,250 ha of softwoods over 5 years andannual production of 5,200 tons of potatoes grown bet-seen planted trees inthe first 2 years. Total project cost is estimated at LS 25.59 million ofwhich 817 is to be investor financed and 19X is to be GOS financed.
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Calculated financial rate of return is 13.5Z. IMDC has been assigned alicensed area of 10,300 ha which at 50Z plantable and MAI of 15 m3/ha couldyield 77,250 m3 roundwood or 39,000 m3 sawnwood annually from plantations.
7.19 Central Region. The CIDA project in Blue Nile will install in1985 a transportable sawmill of 8,000 m3 annual capacity to producesleepers from the riverine plantations of Acacia nilotica (Sunt) betweenDamazin and Sennar. Small roundwood and off-cuts from the new mill will besawn at the rehabilitated existing government sawmills at Suki and Wad EnNall. The project plan is for CIDA to operate the new mill during the sixmonth training period and to provide the regional govecnment thereafterwith six months fuel supply, two years spare parts supply and a revolvingfund from sales revenues. Operating inventory of the forest reservesdetermined that as a result of agricultural incursions and understockingAAC of the sunt plantations is down to 8,000 m3 roundwood. Agressiveprotection and re-stocking will be required to restore the normal AAC of16,000 m3 roundwood.
7.20 CIDA operating inventory identified limited commercial values on2.0 million ha of indigenous forest in southern Blue Nile. MAC iscalculated at 8,000 m3. The forests of this area are being depleted sorapidly by fire, fuelwood cutting, charcoal production and shiftingcultivaion that successful exploitation for commercial saw-timber isunlikely.
7.21 Pitsawn Timber. An estimated 34,000 m3 of sawnwood is cut byhand, representin- some 100,000 m3 of stem wood or 140,000 m3 of aboveground volume including branch wood. This is only a fraction of thepotential available stemwood which is estimated at about 3 million m3. Ifpit sawyers were properly organized, they could produce far more sawnwoodfor the market. Training is essential in saw sharpening, cucting,seasoning and marketing. GOS should do more to encourage the pit sawningindustry since it could help fill the gap of unsatisfied demand forsawnwood.
Greenfield Development Projects
7.22 Aerial reconnaissance has revealed extensive stands of Indigenousforest along the Zaire border between Yambio and Tambura. Natural forestIs supplemented by extensive Teak plantations in the vicinity of Yambio.Further aerial reconnaissance indicated that the highly productive ImatongMountain area contains indigenous forest stands outside the areas concededto IMDC and UTTP.
7.23 The operating inv-2ntory technique developed for the CIDA projectsis well documented in operating manuals and can provide precise volumeestimates of standing timber in a short time with concerted effort. Thisinventory technique should be ap-lied to the potential areas identified(see map 18923). For the purpose of this report each of the two areas isconservatively estimated as capable of supplying a 10,000 m3 sawnwoodcapacity sawmill. Following the typical forest management prescription ofliquidation of indigenous forest and replacement by plantations of fast
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growing species would require only 1333 ha of plantation for each sawmillat MAI of 15 m3 (round)Iha. It will be essential to gazette the requiredarea of forest reserves promptly after completion of the invelitory.
Estimated Future Production
7.24 With rehabilitation, the total potential production of existingand proposed sawmills is estimated at 47,000 o3 by 1990, rising to 195,500.3 by the year 2,000 (Table 15). over the same period, pitsawn timberproduction is expected to rise to 100,000m3.
Table 15Estimated Annual Sawmill and Pitsawn Capacity (W3) (sawn) 1983-2000
Sawmill Project Current 1990 2000
Bahr El Ghazal
CIDA 8,000 70,000
Government 500 2,5U0 5,000
Equatoria
Loka 5,000500 50,000
Kagelu 2,000
IMDC 4,000 12,000 39,000
UTTP 1,250 2,500 2,500
Yambio-Tambura 5,000 10,000
Imatong West 5,000 10,000
Central
Blue Nile 4,000 4,000 8,000
Eastern
Kassala 800 1,000 1,000
Total Sawnmills (sawn) 11,050 47,000 195,500
Eatimated pitsawn (sawn) 34,000 50,000 100,000
Total Sudan (sawn) 45,050 97,000 295,500
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Inirastructure Rehabilitation Requirements
7.25 Roads. The current USAID project of US$20 million forrestoration of 1,400 km of roads Juba-Torit-Kappeta, Juba-Nimule, Juba-Yei,Juba-Yambio, Juba-Wau (map 18924) will overcome much of the transportationproblem facing existing sawmills. Activity on this project has beenlimited to the Juba-Torit section due to security problems in certain otherlocations. Other sections of the project are jeopardized by the prevailingsecurity situation. The CIDA Bahr el Ghazal project is committed torestorationi of 170 km of road west of Wau to facilitate transport for theproject. It is understood that negotiations with GOS are at an advancedstage for improvement of the access road to the Upper Talanga Tea Projectfrom the Juba-Nimule Rcad. Estimated cost is LS 1.2 million for 60 km.Rehabilitation of the Loka Group of sawmills is conditional on restorationof 60 km of road north of Loka at an estimated cost of LS 1.2 million.
7.26 Marketing. Current lumber production other than sleepers, ofthe southern mills is absorbed by local markets in such centers as Juba,Wau, Yei and Torit. When production surpasses the level of satisfactionof these and other local markets, lumber will be available for theKhartoum market. Lumber from the Blue Nile mills is going into localmarkets from Damazin to Sennar with a modest volume penetrating theKhartoum market.
7.27 Market surveys done by CIDA for the Blue Nile and Bahr El Ghazalprojects do not quantify demand but conclude there is substantialsuppressed demand.
7.28 In the prevailing market situation it is apparent that prices setby GOS of about LS 282/m3 are subsidizing consumers. If this subsidy is aconscious policy of the regional governments concerned, it is an unsoundpolicy given the deficit position of the GOS sawmills, and can only lead tofurther deterioration of the industry.
7.29 IMDC is selling lumber FOB Juba yard at LS 547/m3 for softwoodand LS 618/m3 for hardwood. The initial resistance to these prices hasdissipated since they were set in 1983 and products are now selling in Jubaand at the mill gate without difficulty. The lumber is well sawn,dimensionally stable, well piled and a growing proportion is air dried ina covered shed so that the elevated price is for a quality product. Lumberis ungraded at this time although a simple grading system with differentialpricing could increase sales revenue. The Corporation feels that the localmarket being served is too unsophisticated to accept such a system.
7.30 The Khartoum market deals mainly in imported softwood lumber.Current selling prices are:
"White Softwood" - LS 692/m3(Spruce and Fir from Austria ar.d Bulgaria)"Swedish Redwood- - IS 1,042/m3
prevailing use of sawmil waste for energy impose severe limitations onroundwood availablity for pulping.
7.36 Wood panelling on the other hand remains a distinct possibility.Sliced veneer from sawn cants would be a natural complement to aawmilling.The technology of manufacture is not sophisticated, yield is high, andsuitable species such as mahogany are available. Domestic demdand is strongand export opportunities for high value species are a possibility.
Action Program
7.37 Implementation of an action program Intended to reduce Sudan'sdependence on imported sawnwood is conditional on GOS action to create aclimate which fosters successful development and ultimately investment.Actions required include:
(i) Securit. Development commitments in the south have beendeferred due to insecure access. Development agcncies muLst enjoyimproved security to proceed with committed programs aud to
undertake new programs.
(ii) Delivery Systems. The principal market for sawnwood is Khattoumand the principal production centers are in the south.Restoration of efficient and reliable rail transport from Wau. andwater transport from Juba are essential for delivery of expandedsouthern sawnwood production to the north.
(iii) Timber Royalties. Royalties on standing timber should be eitherreduced or waived in exchange for commitments by industry toconudct forest renewal programs which will maintain or enhancesawmill production levels.
(iv) Sales Revenue. Sales revenue from GOS sawmills should beretained by the industry to fund purchase of fuel and spareparts.
(v) Product Pricing. Product pricing policies which subsidizeconsumers and penalize producers should be abandoned. Producerprices should be allowed to find market levels.
(vi) Manning Levels. Sawmill manning levels should be consistent withproduction requirements and programs should be implemented toterminate redundant employees with fair compensation.
(vii) Taxes. GOS should forego oppressive sales taxes on sawn lumberto encourage viability of the sawmill industry.
7.38 An action plan is proposed in Table 16 which, provided theactions in para 7.37 are taken, would he'p to achieve the estimated 1990production level of 47,000 m3 sawmill sawnwood and 50,000 m3 pitsawnsawnwood. The INDC is included in the program tnder loan funding pendingsearch for an investor. The sawmill of INDC at Katire is the .'-successful in all of Sudan. It is the biggest producer of sawn .aber, itoperates a sound forest renewal program which will provide foz it.ure
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Principal use of imported softwood is in joinery and there Ls no market forhardwood lumber other than i.:umerous small furititure shops in Khartoum andOmdurman. The CIDA market study reports speculate at some length on thesaleability of hardwood lumber for joinery. While price would undoubtedlybe a factor, the physical characteristics of most hardwoods render themundesirable for this application.
7.31 IMDC is the only producer of softwood lumber in the south. Theonly access from Juba to Khartoum being the White Nile River, (map 18924)marketability will depend on the Nile barge transport system. Freight ratequoted by the River Transport Corporation Juba-Khartoum is LS 079/ton/km.Distance is calculated at 1,600 km thus the rate becomes LS 126.40/ton.Using weight conversions of 2.00 m3/ton for softwood and 1.4 m3/ton forhardwood the economics of Imatong lumber in Khartoum are:
7.32 Under these circumstances, Imatong softwood lumber can compete inKhartoum with imported spruce provided loading and unloading costs do not"exceed LS 81/m3. Using a European pine import parity price of LS 1,042/m3the margin becomes LS 431 which should be sufficient to stimulateinterest. Given this degree of market potential for softwood lumber,forest renewal efforts should be concentrating on suitable softwoodspecies.
7.33 Loading and unloading costs will vary drastically depending onthe method. Container shipment would be most efficient from a handlingpoint of view with the added benefits of security and protection fromweather. Unfortunately, wharf facilities at Juba, in their present state,will not handle containers. The River Transport Corporation should bepressed to install container handling equipment with the aim of increasingdown-bound freight tonnage.
7.34 The annual sleeper requirement of Sudan Railways has been statedat 300,000 pieces (19,800 m3 sawn) for a reasonable level of maintenance.Current price of LS 333/l3 FOB shipping point is adequate to stimulateproduction. Tmproved reliability of domestic supply and restoration ofdelivery systems Wau-Khartoum and Juba-Khartoum are required to reducedependence on imports.
7.35 Pulp and paper is rejected in the short term as an outlet forforest products due to high energy requirements, high capital cost ofmanufacturing fpcilities, and high process water requirements. Theinsatiable demand for non-millable roundwood as cooking fuel and the
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expansion. mgricultural by-products supplement the lumber earnings. Theoperation supports a population of 8,000 people in an area where few otherdevelopment opportunities exist. Continuation of this iperatirn isabsolutely vital to success of the program.
7.39 The German project at Kagelu is also vital to future success.Current problems relate more to security than to funding. The UTTP sawmillat Upper Talanga is the most modern sawmill in Sudan, it is operatingeffectively in its start-up phase and raw material supply is assured. Thefuture of the sawmill is jeopardized by lack of commltment to local fundingbeyond September 30, 19B5, although the foteign currency component issecure beyond that date. Donor support of this operation will be essentialto the success of the program if local funding cannot be secured.
7.40 It is also essential to rehabilitate and sustain the pitsawingindustry. The estimated 1983 production was 34,000 m3 sawn which providesfull time employment to about 1,500 rural people. The capital cost ofsupplying two-man saws and files is minimal. After sawing, planks areusually headloaded to the nearest road or market and thereforeinfrastructure costs are slight. Pitsawyers can also reach many areaswhich are inaccessible to lorries and they can exploit logs that wouldotherwise be wasted. Therefore, the government should encouirage thepit-sawing industry by undertaking a survey to determine the location andmcde of operation of pit sawyers: providing assistance for the purchase ofsaws and files etc., and runni;Lg courses on care and maintenance of toolsand the marketing of sawnwood products. Pitsawyers could combine withsawmills and square logs for resawing, extracting the squared logs bysimple two wheeled U-frames (sulky).
Other Investments in Commercial Forestry
7.41 If the current industrial plantations of 58,000 ha (para. 7.04)are managed properly, they would yield about 350,000 m3 of sawnwood by2000. annually. Rehabilitation of the pitsawing industry should alsoprovide a further 100,000 m3 sawn. The demand for sawnwood sleepers andmatchwood by 2000 is estimated to be 626,000 m3 (sawn). Therefore therewould be a shortfall of some 176,000 m3 (sawn). If this is to be suppliedfrom plantations, then an additional 440,000 m3 (round) equivalent to30,000 ha would be required- The requirements for plywood could also bemet internally. This would require about 16,000 m3 of peeler logs by 2000which could come from teak and other species. An additional 1000 to 2000ha of plantations would therefore be required. About 2000 ha ofplantations would be needed annually over the next 15 years at a total costof LS26 million.
7.42 Table 15 estimates the sawmill capacity to be abou: 195,500 m3(sawn) in 2000 and the output from pitsawyers to be another 100,000 m3(sawn). The demand forecast for 2000 is 626,000m3 (sawn). In order tosupply the shortfall of 330,5OOm3 (sawn) from indigenous supplies willrequire another 11 mills of rated capacity 30,000 m3 (sawn) will berequired by 2000 at a capital cost of about LS 50 million. The economicsof embarking upon such a development plan requires further study andcomparison with the alternative option of increasing the pitsawing capacityto meet some of the anticipated demand.
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Table 16
Three Year Action Program - Commercial Forestry('000 LS)
Item Yr. 1 Yr. 2 Yr. 3 Total
Operating Inventory
Awiel District (RationalizeGovernment mills) 175 175Yambio-Tambura (Greenfield 2roject) 500 500Loka District (RationalizeGovernment mills) 500 500Imatong West (Greenfield Project) 175 175
Market Feasibility Study
Yambio-Tambura 30 30Imatong West 30 30
Supply Parts and Fuel
Loka Group Government Mills(, LS 240/m3 1,990 capacity) 1,200 1,200
Replace Logging and Delivery Equipment
Bahr el Ghazal Government Mills(@ LS 27 0/m3 1,990 capacity) 675 675Loka Group Government Mills(@ LS 27 0/m3 1,990 capacity) 675 675 1,350
Survey of Pitsawing Industry andRehabllitation Plan 300 3W0 300 900
Sub-Total 3,350 1,210 975 5,535
Loan to Imatong Mountains Development Corporation. 20,676
TOTAL 3,350 1s210 975 26,211
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VIII. INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES
Forestry Planning and Coordination
8.01 The Reiionalization Act of 1981 left many uncertalnties as to thedivision of responsibilities between the Regional Forestry Departments andCFA. In order to develop a supporting infrastructure to serve as afoundation for future forestry development, it is essential thatlegislation should be clarified. A legal framework should be establishedin which private and communal forestry would be encouraged. Also,legislation is needed to define responsibilities for control and managementof uncultivated land outside the sphere of influence of the vlllageauthorities, the rights of regional government in the exploitation offorest reserves and savannah woodlands, the limits of control by thevillage authorities on use of savannah woodlands, and the legality andmanagement of undemarcated mechanized farming schemes. FAO is providingassistance to CFA to review forest policy and legislation and to developproposals for their revisi-n. Further GOS action should await the resultsof these reviews.
8. 02 In August 1985, GOS issued a decree which recentralized controlof forest resources under CFA. This should resolve the problems ofjurisdiction over forestry resources which had arisen between CFA and theRegional Forest Departments. It should also re-establish directior. andleadership in thc sector as a whole and control the proliferation ofagencies and departments involved in forestry and renewable energy.
8.03 The whole issue of the relationship between CFA and the regionshas still to be defined and it wou'ld be premature to anticipate theoutcome. Rowever, based on experience of similar problems elsewhere, thefollowing observations are ptt forward for discussion and possible futuredialogue. It should be re-emphazied that the GOS decision to centralizethe responsibility for forest reservation protection and managementpolicies parallels actions proven to be necessary in many other countries.Essentially the management of forests is a long-term undertaking and if theforests are to be protected and interests of future generationssafeguarded, it is almost inevitable that central government will have totake a lead role in protecting these resources.
8.04 It should also be noted that because stumpage prices for woodextracted from the natural forests do not reflect their replacement costand there is currently little incentive for the private sector to invest inreforestation, some measure of government intervention is essential,initially to ensure that the forest resources are not being "mined' te.g.,for easily obtained local development revenues), but also to ensure thatthe necessary legislative and other actions are taken (e.g., increasedstumpage taxes, use of incentives or subsidies to encourage tree planting,etc.). Past experience suggests that where such issues are left to localauthorities with little forestry experieuce, the forests rapidly disappear.
8.05 Experience in nany countries has already demonstrated, thatvesting forest control in a central forest authority need not necessarilyresult in friction between the Regional and the Central governmentsprovided that legislation is flexible and a mechanism exists for ensuring
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that Regional administrations and people benefit from sustained yieldmanagement and systematic replacement of the local forest resource. Thereare several countries where provision exists for the Central Forestauthority to manage forests on behalf of Regional authorities, with dueprovision for local people to participate in decision making and for a flowof locally generated forest revenues back to the Region. Under the CentralAuthority system now to be introduced into Sudan, there will be a muchbetter chance than in the past to ensure that a higher proportion offorestry derived revenues is re-invested in forest protection andmanagement, and reforestation instead of being diverted for use in othershort-term and not always essential development needs. The review missionsupports the concept currently under discussion that CFA be constituted asa semi autonomous "Forestry Commission' with a legal constitution enablingit to retain forest revenues (subject to treasury audit) and subject to theannual submission to Central Government of a Forestry Development Plan thatclearly demonstrates utilization of forest revenues for improvement,conservatiou and protection of the country's 'orest estate.
8.06 The risk associated with an over centralized forestadministration is that bureaucratic forest administration will develop atthe Center that is out of toucn with Regional aspirations and inparticular, with the people who live in, or adjacent to, the forests, andwho are dependent on them for survival. Cognisance must be taken of theviews of local villagers, and farmers in formulating forest policies andthe local district mechanisms that can be established to ensure that forestpolicies incorporate what the people themselves perceive as beingimportant. These are not new issues to forestry. Countries such asSweden, Finland, U.S.A., Korea ani China have succeeded in setting up localconsultation mechanisms that combine the need for strong central control offorest resources with involvement of local people in decision making andforest program implementation. It is recommended that forestry leadersfrom both the Center and the Regions should be given an opportunity to"-isit some of the countries that have achieved this balance and to studythe legal and administrative mechaniisms required for its success.
8.07 The FAO report on policy and legislation (para.8.01) should betaken into account before any final decisions are made on CFA's managementand organization, but it is already apparent that CFA should be nationallyresponsible for planning and monitoring functiors. An Economic PlanningUnit should therefore be created within CFA which would take the lead inpreparing projects and programs for external or internal support, andmonitor progress and evaluate results. This is the role assumed by theForestry Department in Delhi, which now controls the largest investmentprogram in social forestry in the world. The unit would be responsible forchannelling funds to the Regions for forestry development activities. CFAshould also provide the necessary cent-ral representation for the forestrysector in the central government, and guidance and assistance in forestryextension, education and training. The development of linkages between CFAand the forestry authorities in the south is essential. At present, anindependent course is being pursued in the south, but the logicaldevelopment of the forestry sector as a whole requires close cooperationbetween the principal area of produ.ction (southern regions) and area ofmajor consumption (northern regions).
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8.08 In view of the recent developments in sectors which impinge onforestry activities, eg. energy, transport, education, etc., it isessential that these agencies, which are outside the normal forestryinstitutional framework, should be brought under some form of coorditatingagency. The recently framed Natural Resources Council could be theappropriate body. It would exert control by allocating responsibilitiesfor t:he monitoring and evaluation to CFA, by setting policy guidelines forforesatry development activities and by approving or rejecting developmentproj3cts.
Support to Non-Government Agencies
8.09 The reduction of fuelwood and reforestation problems will dependto a very high degree on the extent to which farmers and local communit-escar be encouraged to undertake tree growing. A number of non-governmentagencies (NGO's), eg. Green Desert, Sudan Council of Churches, CARE, etc.,have tested on a small scale many technologies for reforestation and raisedlocal awareness of the potentia'l for tree growing. CPA shou'ld create acoordinating agency through which extension advice can be provided to NGO'sand at the same time the-development process enabled to benefit from theresults and experiences of these active groups in tne cemmunity. NGO'swherever possible should be active partners in development projects, notonly by providing the experience on which to base larger scale efforts, butalso in the organization and management of project activities, eg. supplyof seedlings.
Forestry Research
8.10 Priority initiatives to be taken in forestry research areproposed in Annex I. The present institutional set up for forestryresearch is inadequate to support the work program required. The ForestryResearch Center (FRC) is a weak organization with facllities aad budget toomeagre to enable it to function effectively. It is now in need ofcomprehensive rehabili-;ation and strengthening. 0
8.11 FRC is currently part of the Agricultural Research Corporation.It is recommended that forestry research in Sudan should come under thecontrol of a strengthened CFA, but that research on agro-forestry shouldremain with ARC. Agro-forestry research has much to gain from closeassociation with the larger research organization, provided however, thatthe status of agro-forestry research in ARC is raised and that the researchprograms themselves are revised and become more applied in nature andproblem oriented. It is recommended that an Agro-Forestry ResearchCoordinator, equivalent in rank to coordinators for other crop basedresearch programs should be appointed at ARC headquarters. Programpriorities progress and budgets should then be reviewed annually as part ofthe normal ARC monitoring and evaluation process. It is furtherrecommended that a Forestry Research Advisory Committee be established withrepresentatives from CPA, FRC, ARC, and other relevant agencies, withpowers to periodically review the progress of research, to coordinateresearch activities, to advise on program priorities, and to evaluateresearch results.
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8.12 Rehabilitation of FRC should include renovation of civil works,and the provision of new equipment and new library facilities. Linkagesshould be provided at the working level between FRC and CFA in order thatresearch results can be communicated through the extension service to theoperating agencies in the sector. Rehabilitation and development costs aretentatively estimated at LS 5.4 million.
8.13 The most pressing need in the immediate future, is for greaterconcentration of forestry research on a few selected high priority topicsthat will make a significant and early impact on farmer's incomes andfuelwood availability. Examples would be tree breeding and improvementprograms, improved establishment tecnniques for arid-zone planting, closeespacement biomass planting combined with short rotations for increasingfuelwood yields, and the possible need to incorporate fertilizers intoshort rotation tree crop farming systems. In the area of agro- forestrythe priority areas: include sociological research aimed at testing farmersperceived needs 3vd preferences, and research into optimal combinations oftrees and crops ttlat can make better use of soil nutrients and increasecrop yields. Of *aramount concern in the savannah woodland areas isresearch into imp-foved fodder yield from trees and browse species. In theindustrial forest of the south, research is needed into means of uaixngmore effective uJe of the many secondary hardwood species that arecurrently regardsId as commercially unmarketable.
8.14 New delIelo-pments in forestry which involve active participationby the rural population will require research and surveys in socio-economics, energy conservation, environmental problems and watershedprotection. Softe of these research topics would best be tackled byspecialist agexcies such as the Geography Department of the University ofKhartoum or thd Institute of Environrental studies on a contract basis. Thenecessary inst"tutional support could be provided by a forestry researchadvisory committee,.
8.15 Attempts are currently being made with World Bank assistance tobuild up forest research networks in Africa in some of these priority areasof research tnrough support to IUFROs Special Program for StrengtheningForestry Res4arch in Developing Countries. The World Bank together withother donors is also currently examining the feasibility of providingsupport to a regional forestry research center to be located in West Africathat would concentrate on tree breeding and improvement of arid zonespecies ana the possible use of biotechnology for accelerating growth ratesand improving survival. It is recommended that Sudan should become anintegral part of the research network that is expected to emerge from thisinitiative.
Forestry Extension
8.16 The forestry resource of Sudan is being rapidly depleted, withgrave consequences for the quality and quantity of forest products whichwill be available and for the physical environment. A forestry extensionprogram is required which would:
(I) Create an awareness among the people of the causes andconsequences of deforestation and the benefits of forests andtrees in providing daily needs and protecting the environment.
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til) ProvUle Laformation on legal, technical and institutionalposdbilUties for village level and private afforestation.
(iii) Encourage active partlcipation, especially by farmers andlivestock owners in the processes of planning, management andexecutioa of rural forestry programs and create a feeling ofresponsibility for the environment among the rural population.
(iv) Introduce simplifled forestry education which would address majorissues (deforestation, desertification etc.) at school, NGO andvillage administration levels. This would provide a basis forthe management, development and protection of local forestryresources.
8.17 This program would involve a massive change of orientation on thepart of the forestry departments, from traditional forestry to socialforestry concepts. Traditional forestry extension effort have beenlimited in scope and largely publicity oriented. With assistance from FAO,CPA is being strengthened to train extension specialists who will supportthe extension effort; of Regional Forest Departments.
8.18 The means by Which the extension objectives will be achieved are:
(i) Educational and training programs for staff and field workers atCentral and Regional levels and of other concerned bodies, eg.other Ministries, NGO's and donors.
(i1) Dlsseminate foresrry and land use knowledge to the general publicand target audiences.
(iii) Coa unity participation in forest nursery establishment andforestry programs, domestic fuel conservation and other socialforestry activities.
(iv) School programr in forestry, environment and conservationeducation.
(v) Publicity programs at National and Regional levels.
(vi) Use of mass media, radio, T.V. and the press.
(vii) Support to other activities and donor projects in forestry andnatural resources.
(viii) Continuing education and development of staff.
(ix) Establishment of field demonstration and trial plots.
(x) Assistance In curriculum development at University and technicallevel forestry institutions, and coordination with forestryresearch institutions.
(xi) Monitor, evaluate and report program accomplishments.
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8.19 It will be necessary for CPA to build up its capability toprovide extension and service support to the public and private sectoragencies that will be involved in wood based energy, forest protection andreforestation programs. CFA alone would be unable to achieve the scale ofactivity required to bring Sudan's forests under control and management,and to ensure future wood energy supplies, nor would this be the most costeffective solution. Large scale forest protection and reforestation canonly be achieved by involving small farmers, village communities andprivate sector companies in a wide ranging forestry program. To supportsuch a program CFA will on the one hand, need to build up its extensioncapability, and on the other, it will have to begin to work closely with teAgriculture and Energy Ministries (para.8.21 and 8.23).
8.20 Recommendations for the establishment of an extension service(Annex III) were prepared in conjunction with FAO staff who have beenassisting CFA to develop the service. Further refinement will be requiredbefore proposals are implemented. The preliminary proposals call for twoinstitutional organizations; a core team located at CFA Khartoum and afield extension unit in each Region. The core team should be part of CFA.It would provide support to the Regional Units but would not itself beinvolved in field extension work. This would be the responsibility of theRegional Units who would operate through the staff of the Regional ForestryDepartments and the staff of existing agricultural extension services. AForestry Extension Training Center should be established in each Region.The on-going project requires 30 forestry extension officers and anextension forest ranger at each circle headquarters, and is concerned withEastern, Central and Khartoum regions. The other regions should be phasedinto the nationwide extension activity as soon as possible but in any casewithin the next 10 years. This would require an additional 53 professionalforest officers (degree level) and 164 technical forest officers (diplomalevel). The expanded forestry program would cost about LS8.6 million overa six year period, not including costs of training, technical assistanceand contingencies.
8.21 The success of forestry extension depends on the existence of ar.efficient and effective agricultural extension service through whichextension messages could be channeled to the rural communities. In theareas of traditional rainfed agriculture, which are the critical areas forforestry activities, no extension service exists. In the case of theirrigated schemes, the inspectorate system is used ad the medium ofcontract between farmer and production corporation. Since this isprimarily a system for control and application of legislation and rlles, itis not a satisfactory basis for an extension service. GOS has recentlybegun to introduce extension service based on the Training and Visit Systemin selected irrigation schemes and has redefined the roles of blockinspectors. Forestry extension could be readily introduced into thisextension system by providing the service of a trained forestry subjectmatter specialist to instruct the extension workers and provide thenecessary extension advice. The Rahad scheme already has an active treeplanting program with energetic counterpa;t staff assisted by the FinnishGovernment. The New Halfa scheme plans similar initiatives and has h:gunto establish some irrigated plantations with technical guidance from FAO.Their initiatives could be supported and extended at minimal cost.
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8.22 Under recent proposals the Mechanized Farming Corporation hasagreed to support the introduction of research and extension activities,which include conservaton practices and wind breaks. The basis of theextension program would be through demonstration plots, but, as withextension on irrigated schemes, the addition of forestry expertise toprzQvide information on forestry practices in mechanized farming areas wouldinvolve limited additional expense and would be essential in areas wherereforestation is the basis of large scale rehabilitation (eg. Gedamblia).
8.23 In future wood based energy strategy, it is both logical anddesirable that the Ministry of Energy should continue to play a lead rolein carrying out overall energy supply an demand analyses and inimplementing investment programs that aim at relVeving pressure on forests(e.g. by encouraging use of alternative fuels such as electricity,
kerosene, or briquette charcoal and agricultural crop residues). Sincesuch programs directly affect the level of forestry investment needed toresolve the future fuelvood supply situation, it is essential thateffective coordination and planning mechanisms be established between theForestry and Energy departments.
Education snd Training
8.24 The formal training of professional and technical staff, carriedout respectively by the Universities of Khartoum and Juba, and the ForestRanger training institutions at Soba and Yambio, are under the NationalCouncil for Higher Education under the chairmanship of the Minister ofEducation and thus divorced from CFA. As a result, information on thestaff requirement of the CFA and of the Regional Forest Departments is notdirectly available to them. and student numbers and size of annual intakesare often determined on an ad hoc basis without reference to employmentpossibilities. The curricula, largely forestry oriented, requiremodification and expansion to give greater emphasis to agroforestry andrelated energy forestry techniques and to environmental, resource and landmanagement subjects.
8.25 The institutions, three of which operate as annual student intakesystems with the fourth offering a course every three years, have notreached their full student potential. Major constraints in all cases arethe insufficiency of physical facilities, shortages of permanent teachlngstaff, equipment and funding. In addition, lack of contact with, andinformation from, similar institutions overseas and from the wider field offorestry knowledge and experience has hampered subject matter development.The inability, through lack of funding, to participate in study toursvisits and seminars has isolated the institutions from this wider field offorestry. Support for the University of Khartoum and the Forest RangerTraining College at Suba over the next five years would require about LS5.7 million. Support is also proposed for the relocation of the Yambiotraining facilities to Kagelu.
8.26 In order to ensure comparable standards of education, examinationand qualification at the technical level, and the continuing development ofcurricula relevant to Sudan forestry, the formation of a Forestry EducationAdvisory Committee is recommended, which would be comprised ofrepresentatives of all associated agencies. Technical assistance -will berequired for curriculum redesign and development. Special attention should
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be paid to designing appropriate training approaches for forestry extensionsubject matter specialists.
8.27 Assistance is also required in the fields of upgrading staffthrough study courses, including teacher training and teaching methods;re-equipment to acceptable standards; and provision of physicalfacilities. Refresher courses, seminars and workshops should be introducedand become a regular feature of in-service training for CPA and Regionalfield staff. In-service training of subordinate staff and skilled forestworkers should be a high priority in the Regional Forest Departmentsprograms.
8.28 Close links should be maintained with the research and traininginstitutions of other disciplines.
8.29 Close cooperation with the existing extension services of otherland use departments and with NGO's active in this field is essential toensure effective coordination of effort in order to attain the widestimpact.
Management Requirements
8.30 A continuing surveillance of manpower requirements at all levels,together with future predictions, based on present activity and proposeddevelopment, is essential in order that trained personnel and labor areavailable in a timely manner. Such studies are essential management toolsto meet planned objectives. A manpower studies section should be createdin CFA responsible for manpower planning for the coming five years andbroad manpower planning responsibilities beyond that period.
8.31 A most important task, if the forest service is to play its fullrole, is to examine the salary scale and promotion prospects within theservice and make recommendations for improvements.
IX. ECON(RaC JUSTIFICATION FOR FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT INVESTMENTSAND PROPOSED INVESTMENT PROGRAM
9.01 With the present rate of usage and without adequate investment indevelopment programs, the future for the forestry sector in Sudan isbleak. The disappearance of forest and woodland will have drasticrepercussions in terms of desert encroachment, quality of life andlivestock production. Without remedial action growing stock in the countryas a whole could be reduced by a cumulative total of as much as 360 mlllionm3 and the area of woodland by up to 21 million ha by 2000. equivalent to22% of the 1983 area (Table 9). Because of regional discrepancies insupply and demand the situation will be worse in the north than in thesouth, and 39% of the growing stock could be lost by the end of thecentury. Of the area lost, about 1.7 million ha will be directed toagriculture (Annex XII) and with proper management could remainproductive. The remaining area will become semi-desert and largelyunproductive. The southward extension of the desert will result in furthermigration from north to south.
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9.02 The interventions to redress the situation which should besupPorted by GOS and donor agencies are:
(i) Proper use of trees on land to be cleared for
(a) mechanized agriculture; and(b) traditional agriculture.
(ii) Fuelwood conservation measures.
(a) Introduction of improved stoves;(b) Improved charcoal manufacturing techniques and briquetting
procedures for fines.
(iii) Management of natural woodlands.
(iv) Shelterbelts.
(a) On irrigation schemes and along canal banks;(b) On mechanized farming schemes; and(c) Agroforestry in subsistence farming and gum gardens.
Cv) Plantations
(a) Irrigated plantatons associated with waste wateravailability;
(b) Rainfed plantaitons on abandoned mechanized farming areas,both traditioanl and mechanized; and
(c) Industrial wood plantations for sawlogs.
(vi) Improvement of infrastructure and support of:
(a) Transport network;(b) Pricing of wood products;Cc) Support for charcoal producers and pitwayers;Cd) More active exteDsion programs; and(e) Review of forest policy, staff structure and salary scales.
9.03 These interventions would aim to increase production of woodfuel,agricultural produce and wood for commercial purposes, as well as providingsome environmental protection. Because of the size and importance of theproblem, the major emphasis would be on actions to mitigate the energycrisis. In addition to fuelwood and charcoal conservation interventions,many of the forestry proposals e.g. proper use of trees on land to becleared for agriculture would produce woodfuel. Even where trees are to beraised as a means of increasing agricultural production or for theprotection of the environment, woodfuel would be a substantial by-product.
Proper Use of Trees on Land to be Cleared
9.04 The justification for interventions to ensure the proper use oftrees on land to be cleared for agriculture is based on avoidance ofwastage of wood resources and loss of potential revenue (paras.6.03 and6.04). The introduction of a stumpage fee of LSl/m3 is recommended for all
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land to be cleared for agriculture. By 2000, this would raise LS65million. Even applying this stumpage fee on land to be cleared forcommercial agriculture would raise over LS2 million per year, more thanenough to pay for the recommended extension services (paras.8.16 to 8.20).It would also encourage farmers to use the resource to provide income inthe form of sales of woodfuel.
9.05 The recovery of utilizable fuelwood would require carefuladvanced planning of lan-d clearance operations and a conscious effort tointroduce fuelwood extraction, or charcoal production operations prior toagricultural cultivation. Additional investments would be low. The mainrequirements are incentives to the land owner and administrative andGovernment commitment to ensuring that waste wood is recovered instead ofbeing burned in situ. It is recommended that land rent for mechanizedfarming land be increased to a level that reflects the value of the natural-aood standing on the area. CFA should be given the additional resourcesneeded to adequately survey and value the areas to be cleared. GOS shouldtighten up the regulations relating to uncontrolled burning of waste woodand should consider the introduction of a severe system of fines forfarmers or companies who burn off wood.
Strategy for Conservation of Fuelwood and Charcoal
9.06 Reducing the demend for fuelvood by using more efficient stovesand charcoaling kilns and by charcoal briquetting were recommendations ofthe Energy Assessment Report. The benefits from this approach could beconsiderable. A 25% decrease in wood use both in charcoal kilns andcooking stoves by actively applying conservation techniques, would resultin an overall saving of about 140 million m3 91 by 2000 (para. 6.10). Atpresent day Khartoum market prices, this saving would be worth LS 3,900million, a yearly average of LS 260 million over the next fifteen years anda foreign exchange saving for charcoal transportation alone of LS 440million.
9.07 It is recommended that GOS gives high priority to achieving thesesavings through commitment to a conservation program. Technical assistanceand credit facilities would be needed to ensure the adoption of theimproved technologies by the majority of charcoal producers and stoveusers. NEA and SREP have already made a start on this important work andshould be assisted to furtner expand it. At present the total annualexpenditure on conservation is probably less than LS 1.0 million. Theprojected benefits co:ld be obtained by an investment of between LS10 andLS20 million. Concommitant benefits would be the saving of up to 7.0million ha of woodland from desertification, thereDy permitting its
9/ This overall saving of wood raw material is more than the actual savingof growing stock because some of the growing stock in remote areas issurplus and will go to waste if not used. However, this saving willdirectly benefit the consumers since they will pay relatively less forthe woodfuel. It will also benefit the charcoal producers who willrequire less wood energy to make charcoal and therefore reduce costs.
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continued-use for the domestic and wild animal populations. Should thesewoodLand areas be lost because of fuelvood collection, their replacement byplantations to meet the fuelwood requirements over the next 15 years wouldcost a total of at least LS 1500 million. Investment in conservationpractices would give the most economical and quickest answer to theproblems of fuelwood supply and deforestation.
Wood Production from Forrsts and Plantations
9.08 Stumpage Prices. Justification of investment in all forms ofbiological production of wood requires an analysis of stumpage pricesrelative to transportation distances. Stumpage price is the pricegovernments or individuals receive for the use of wood from trees. In manycountries stumpage price (or royalty) is fixed irrespective of distancefrom the market and in many instances without reference to the cost ofgrowing the wood or the value of branch wood. In Sudan where wood rawmaterial is remote from markets, transport cost is the dominant variablecost in determining the selling price of the product. Stumpage prices canbe highest when trees are close to the market. Stumpage price could alsobe increased and/or economic distances for cutting trees enlarged, ifcheaper transportation means were ased, (railway, river, or large lorries)for the main haul. This is illustrated in Table 17 which shows the maximumstumpage prices that could be paid for roundwood at increasing distancesfrom the market using various forms of transport, and assuming marketprices of fuelwood and charcoal of LS 80 and LS 200/ton respectively. Ifriver transport is used, charcoal can be profitable over large distancesand it would be profitable to produce woodfuel for the Khartoum market asfar south as Malakal and Jonglei (map 18924). The maximum stumpage pricethat could be expected assuming woodfuel is produced at the market site(i.e. there is no main haulage cost) is about LS 39/m3 for fuelwood and LS14 /m3 for charcoal using modern kilning techniques.
9.09 Stumpage prices (Table 17) are based on current Khartoum prices,and set the limits to the costs of growing trees either in natural forests,woodland or in plantations. Although stumpage price for "fuelwood- treesis higher than that for "charcoal" trees when trees are grown in thevicinity of the market, the demand for fuelwood will be only a fraction ofthe demand for charcoal unless people are wsilling to switch from charcoalto fuelwood. Modern fuelwood stoves for the urban market are not availableand therefore stumpage prices for charcoal have been used for purposes ofillustration.
9.10 Stumpage prices for poles and sawnwood can be similarlydetermined. Assuming an average long haul distance to the market of 500km, the residual stumpage price for poles is LS 19/m3 (light lorry),LS 20m3 (heavy lorry), LS 31/m3 (railway/river), when the depot price is LS75/m3.
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9.11 The 'residual' stumpage price for saw logs has been determinedfor plantation softwoods (cypress) grown in the Imatong Mountains andplantation grown hardwood (teak) grown at Lola both in the south of thecountry (Table 18 and Annex VIII). These stumpage prices are LS 100/m3
(round) for softwood logs and LS 200/m3 (round) for hardwood logs with aminimum top diameter of more than 18 cm.
9.12 It is recommended that the market price of wood products and inparticular fuelwood and charcoal, be examined and that a study be made ofthe implications of phasing out the Kerosene subsidy. Tentative prices forfuelwood of LS 100-LS 130/ton (air-dry) and charcoal of LS 300/ton havebeen suggested (para.6.34). If all the increase were passed on to thegrower as increased stumpage prices, this would mean an extra LS 14.3 to LS28.6/m3 for fuelwood and an extra LS 8.3 to LS 16.7/m3 for 'charcoal' wooddepending on the efficiency of charcoal production. This may be more thansufficient to catalyze tree planting, especially where wood is aby-product, as is the case of trees grown for crop amelioration.
9.13 Given the difficulties of collecting stumpage fees in remoteareas and the time needed to re-est&blish the central revenue collectingfunction of CFA, it is likely that the proposed increases in stumpage feeswill not bring about immediately the rises in woodfuel prices which arenecessary to trigger-off private investment in woodfuel production.For planning purposes, it would be useful to analyse price trends arnd toforecast the future date at which woodfuel prices would be sufficient toencourage investment in woodfuel production in suitable areas. Thisanalysis could be included as part of the study on woodfuel market prices(para. 9.12).
9.14 Management of Natural Woodlands. The natural savannah woodlandin the north of Sudan is becoming degraded as a result of over-cuttidg.The 10 million ha that are within a radius of 500-600 knt of Khartoum willdisappear by the turn of the century if some form of management is n-otundertaken (para.6.17). With management and protection the allowable cutcould be increased from 11 to 23 million m3/year. The current stumpageprice for woodfuel and charcoal and an estimated annual yield of 1.6 m3/hawould generate funds that could be used for improvement ranging from LS1.6to LS6.7/ha/year depending on wood use, charcoaling technology and type ofwoodland. It is doubtful that improvements in savannah management andprotection could be achieved with such a low cutlay. Increased research onpossible improvements with low cost investments is recommended.
9.15 The management of Natural woodlands will therefore either need tobe subsidized by government or the market price of wood products raised tolevels which would cover the costs of the operations. If the market priceof wood products, particularly charcoal, is increased (para. 9.12), then onaverage about an additional LS38 per ha or a total of LS80 million per yearwould be available for investment in improved management Drograms. Thisshould be more than enough to ensure rejuvenation of the woodlands,especially if the users, namely the charcoal burners and the nomads, arecoopted into the management process.
Fwmftiy IKaKtwf S. dNO
bUs_m stow pigs of I.mi 4w urO Id l at Table 17win"nlc distuc (to ib mit aug *rlm
laut1. Onci sw Ed Ituqt "Mai.
Truqwt bUet
L(l4t lwry (414 to Ihnw lwti (Zs tal kIIuuItIIV (11ntilg IlUtr lanawlLS 0.12 lir to Is U I.(4 9 to to U S.". t tuo LS Ci.W tob t
0 23.8 4.2 4.7 12.5 23.3 4.2 4.7 I1.L 2L 4 .2 4.1 22.5 MI 4.2 0.7 22.12oo 7.0 1.2 1.3 10.1 9.6 1.5 1.4 I.L 11.4. 1.1 L.I 11.1 I.L LI 4.2 1II|M0 2. 4.0 6.5 2.1 4.4 9.2 1.4 Lo 4.9 9.6 12. LS 1.6 11.2MI 1.2 2.7 .1 2.7 1. L 7.1 L2 4.0 L.S 7.0 Li 6.3 .01*0 0.2 1.3 4. L. 2.2 LI 1.2 LI 1.2 2.14 LI 4.9 9.6s0 2.1 1.1 4.2 LI. Li LS 4.4 9.2140 0. 5 1.1 0i's2.1 4.1 i.2 4.0 Li.700 0,6 0 *.4 J.2 .1.6 L.i 7.6MG 2.6 2.1 1.0 2.2to1b2 1.2 LI 6.1
[M . Li Li220 0.1 1.6 LI2300 0.2 2.1 4.1100 L0 Li21 0.4 1.I400 LS
1.6EaI. 1 Itafumi* 41,
mliihpiu.4n(apr4.ma Us of isiroo d,1 bI00uIId NbIse 123, dli tutlrm tills ol Sivtq t a2d 01 aWMliii bW{1quti 4*. fu4 * d. ,
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9.16 CPA has under its control about 600,000 ha of woodland in theCentral and Northern regions. Much of this has been well protected and thetechnical packages for improving its productivity are well known(essentially a combination of fire protection, keeping out grazing animals,organizing cutting at the right time of year to stimulate ne't' growth plusand where necessary, directly reseeding by mechanical means). Suchmeasures can double the yield to be expected from natural woodland. Overthe next five years, it is recommended that CFA be provided with theresources needed to protect and upgrade a further 25,000 ha of the areastill remaining.
9.17 There are at present about 37 million ha of savannah woodland inthe north outside the control of CFA of which 10 million are located withina 500 km. radius of Khartoum (the main urban fuelwood/charcoal market).The problems of bringing this area of woodland ander sustained yieldmanagement and protection are formidable. They are currently communallyowned and are extensively used by nomadic graz!ers who depend on thesewoodlands to a high degree for their livestock feed and subsistence.Despite many past attempts in both Sudan and elsewhere to co-opt nomadicpeople into protection and management of such woodlands for sustained bothfodder and fuelwood production, there have been no large scale successes.There is no easy and immediate solution to this dilemma, but thepossibility of increasing the area of managed savannah forest is given thehighest priority of all the supply side strategies discussed iL this reportsimply because it is the least cost option for ensuring future fuelwoodsupplies. To illustrate: If the 10 million ha of woodland withiu a500 km/radius of Khartoum could be brought under intensive protection andmanagement i.e., by building a network of government run Forest ProtectionDistricts, cutting firebreaks around the managed areas and organizingharvesting operations and revenue collection in a systematic way, then theinvestment cost of installing such an administrative system and maintainingstaff in the field (an initial investment of about LS100 million spread of5 years and an annual maintenance cost of LS20 million per year) is lessthan one-seventh of the investment cost that GOS will face to replace theforest which because of the current lack of management control, is certainto be destroyed between now and 200. However, in the event that thepolitical will and popular support for such q policy could be generated,the annual cost of maintaining such a forest management protection schemecould be fully covered by a LS2.0 per cubic meter stunpage fee to privatefuelwood and charcoal producers. This is double the present stumpage feebut would add less than 10% to the price of a bag of charcoal in Khartoum.
9.18 The successful imposition of a stumpage fee on existing woodlandswould depend on the establishment of an effI4ciant system for freecollection. In the past, both CFA and the Regional Forest Departments havedemonstrated an ability to collect revenues and stumpage fees and in factafter regionalization the operation of some regional governments dependenton these sources of funds. In future, CFA will need some support torevitalize its control procedures which have not beer, fully utilized since1979, but by coordinating the activities of regional forestry staff,estrblishing meaningful cooperation with production corporations and byestablishing CFA controlled protection districts under trained forestofficers, CPA should be capable of collecting stumpage fe:s.
Table 18
SUDANFORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW
Maximum stumpage price for sawn softwood and hardwood grownIn the high rainfall areas based on selling prices in Khartoum
Softwood Hardwood(Cupressus epp.) (Tectona spp.)
mJ (sawn) mJ (sawn)
Selling price at market 728 1109Mark up (20%) 121 185Delivered Khartoum price 607 924
River transport 1,600 km 64 91Road transport 200 km 22 31 XHandling 4 4Sub-total gO 126Sawmill gate price 517 798
9.19 It is therefore recommended that a concentrated effort be made toincrease the area of savannah woodland under managed control by seekinglocal village and community participation in pilot schemes such as thosecurrently being tried in Umm Belut village in Darfur (para. 4.25), and byvigorously exploring the possibility of increasing the area of forestreserves under government control in areas where to do this would not causemajor sociological problems (e.g., in more isolated areas away from stockroutes). A target area of 100,000 ha is suggested for the development planperiod.
9.20 Regardless of whether these areas can be brought under moreeffective management GOS should initiate an immediate study of the scopefor raising the current stumpage fees charged for harvesting this naturalwood resource and also for raising the level of charcoal taxes collectedalong major highways. The purposes would be to rsise the incentive forgrowing wood closer to the marketplace, and to raise the level of totalforest revenues so that these more adequately cover the costs of forestprotection, administration and management. The studies should include anassessment of the possibility of the retention by CFA of fcrestry revenuu.sfor the purpose of reinvestment into reforestation and protection ratherthan being used by the regional governments for non forest relateddevelopment expenditure.
9.21 Shelterbelts on Irrigated Land. Based on estimates of effects ofshelterbelts on the Gezira Irrigation Scheme, it is calculated that theestablishment of shelterbelts on the 1.86 million ha under irrigation(Table 3) would result in water savings which would irrigate an additional33,600 ha for crops (or an 8% extension of the area under irrigation) whenthe trees are fully functional. The net increase would be 30,500 ha ofagricultural land and 58,800 ha under trees. These she'lterbelts couldproduce on average 1.47 million m3 roundwood per year when the normal cycleis established. It is therefore recommended that shelter belt planting bevigorously pursued on a large scale.
9.22 The cost of establishing and tending shelterbelt trees has beenestimated ac LS 864/ha of trees over a 35-year cycle. If the shelterbeltswere to be established uniformly over a period of 15 years, the total costto the year 2000 in current prices would be some LS 31.5 millio. It hasbeen estimated on the Gezira Scheme alone that the additional land thatcould be planted due to the water saving effect would produce net income ofover LS 2.5 million per year. There would also be an increase in yield dueto improved micro-climate which might add 12% to crop yield worth anadditional LS54 million ner year. The increase in agricultural yield dueto improved micro-climate ana additional land under irrigation would morethan pay for the investment in trees. Wood could be regarded as a bonus.
9.23 Additional benefits would be increased employment opportunitieson the extra irrigated laud. With a typical irrigated farm size of 10 ha(including shelterbelts), an extra 8,900 families (58,000 people) could besupported by the water saving effect o' shelterbelts.
9.24 Shelterbelts on Mechanized Farming Land. The benefits that treescould bring to agriculture both commercial and subsistence, are indicatedin Annexes X and XII. With a 15% tree cover either as belts or scattered
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through the field there are positive net discounted revenues (NDR) at 10%discount rate ranging from LS24 to LS67/ha depending on the increase inyield of sorghum. This NDR does not take into consideration income fromthe sale of wood or other tree products. Therefore, the actual rate ofreturn (financial yield) may approach 30% when increases iu bothagricultural yield and wood products are included.
9.25 The cost of establishing a 1;3 cover over a 30-year cycle overthe entire mechanized agricultural area, an estimated 5.3 million ha, bythe year 2000 would be about LS 295 million or LS 20 million per year, andthis would bring In an extra income of about LS 23 million per year.Therefore GOS should not have to provide finance for such shelterbeltplantings. However, advice from extension workers will be needed as tochoice of species, raising of trees and their management.
9.26 Shelterbelts may improve the micro-climate but cannot maintainthe fertility of the soil unless leaves-from the trees are used as greenmanure. It is of little use to grow shelterbelts if mechanizedagricultural land is abandoned after 3 to 4 years because the soil isexhausted. Planting shelte-belts must be accompanied by improvedagriculture, especially the provision of plant nutrients.
9.27 Models have been drawn up (Annex XII) comparing artificialfertilizer with green mauure from tree legumes, on mechanized farming landThe most profitable (and most sustainable) system was that iuvolving a 33Ztree cover, (Table 19 and Annex XII). The alternatives with trees givebetter net returns, higher net discount revenue and least foreign exchangecosts. Of course on the agricultural area without trees, sorghum yield isgreatest because none of the area is occupied by tree crops or an annuallegume. However, it is doubtful whether application of artificialfertilizer alone could maintain the soil productivity, hence the suggestionof tree legumes or an annual legume every fourth year. It is stronglyrecommended that experiments with tree legumes for green manure andimproved micro-climate be established as quickly as possible to quantifythese benefits.
Irrigated Plantations
9.28 It is recommended that more in depth studies be made on thepotential for irrigated plantations based on the use of waste water. Cropirrigation is expensive and when the end product such as fuelwood has arelatively low value, the economic justification is doubtful.
9.29 The anticipated per forest ha costs over a 35-year cycle of fiverotations (from the same parent tree stock) for irrigated plantations isestimated to be LS 7,450 for the full cost option, LS 5,699 without canalcosts and LS864 if trees are grown for wind breaks (Table 20). Theestimated yield per forest ha is 875 m3 or 25 m3/year. Table 21 sets outthe minimum stumpage price that should be charged in order to obtain a 10%or 20% return on investment.
9.30 If it is necessary to pay the full cost for growing trees, theplantation could not earn 10% on invesied capital with the present marketprice for charcoal (Table 17) even if the plantation were in the proximity
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Tble 19
SMNFcESU~ ~- REVSH
Cnqarison of efteet of sheltets, gree uaure wu artifidalfertilizer on returns and yie3ds fran w.hmtzsd agcu1tura i.u
Aretficdfertilizer
33X 15 and le e ktificLalTree Tree c sc vy ferWizercovw Cover 4th yearilY
Total eqsituEe ca trees 113.1 73.8 - -
tal esxeniture ca artificial fertilizer - - 558 700sotal additnal inwe fra ,reabet I/ 800.0 739.5 1122 1428STA1 aitioal Income due to shelterbelt 102.0 13D0.0 -Tzcoice less eqxulitLre Cercriizg sale of tres) 788.9 795.7 564 728lit discutedI reveues e 15% 384.6 387.3 144 136Estimated foreiu ewharge cost 33.3 21.7 320 790
11 ergWe yield aE sorfic n estimated to be 0.9, 0.6, 1.0 and 1.2 toas/ha respRctvely.
Table 20
SUDANFORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW
Anticipated per forest hectare costs andyield for an Irrigated forestry plantation
Full Plantatlon WindbreakCosts Establishment Costs Yield
Year Operatlon Direct Overhead Total Direct Overhead Total (m3/ha)
(1) Five rotations of 7 years includIng 4 rotations from suckers.
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of the market. With traditional kilns the maximum stumpage price would beLSl3/m3 and therefore if no canal costs had to be paid, a IOZ return onInvested capital in Irrigated Dlantations could just be achieved. Only inthe case of trees grown for windbreak would the capital cost ofestablishing trees be covered by the returns from the sale of wood, but theimproved agricultural production would more than pay for the cost ofgrowing trees anyway (para 9.22).
9.31 If the trees could be sold directly as firewood and the marketwere near the plantations then in some circumstances it could be profitableto grow trees under irrigation, but if the wood had to be transported morethan 100 kas then irrigated plantations would not be viable (Table 17).The demand for fuelwood in urban centers is only a fraction of the demandfor charcoal (para 9.09) and thus the market could become fully saturatedwith a small addition to supply and the price would fall. Thereforeplantation grown woodfuel bearing the full irrigation costs appears adoubtful economic investment.
9.32 Some firms in Sudan such as sugar companies near New Halfa andSennar have waste water, equipment that has already been depreciated andlow overhead costs. In such circumstances, the total cost of establishmentand tending over a 35-year period would be about LS3,500Iha. The minimumstumpage price to earn a 10 return on investment would be about LS 6 to LS7/ha, thus it should pay such firms to invest in irrigated plantationsespecially since the real market price of fuelvood and charcoal is expectedto increase. About 96,000 ha could be planted in this way by the year 2000at a cost of about LS250 million (Table 13). It recommended that duringthe next five years, 15,000 ha of such plantations be established. Shouldfurther investigation substantiate the viability of the operation, the areaunder irrigated plantations could be expended at a later stage.
9.33 Rainfed Plantations: Woodfuel and Poles Production UsingTraditional Forestry Methods. The anticipated yield and rotation thatcould be expected from plantations grown in different rainfall zones aregiven in Table 22. Table 23 gives the estimated cost and volume productionand the minimum stumpage price that a grower has to receive in order toobtain a 10% return on investment assuming traditional forestryestablishment and tending methods are used. The minimum stumpages pricesare high, especially for bushlands and low rainfall savannah. In orderthat plantation grown species in the 400 mm rainfall (bushland) area couldgive a 1OZ return on investment (see table 17) either the cost of growingtrees would have to be reduced by 90%, or the volume would have to increase10 fold. Clearly both of these alternatives are highly unlikely.
9.34 It is recommended that the rate of establishment of rainfedplantations in areas of rainfall greater than 600mm (savannah and highrainfall savannah) be accelerated. These are economic propositions,especially near rail or river routes, and if improved charcoalingtechniques are introduced (Table 17). The grower would then receivebetween LS 6 and LS 11/m3 at a distance of 550 kms from the market.However, the initial capital outlay is quite large, a 1000 ha plantationwould require about LS 0.5 million in the first three years and it wouldtake ten years to recover all these costs.
Table 21
SUDANFORESTRY SCTOR REVIEW
Minimum stumpage price needed to obtain a return of either10Z or 20% on invested capital in Irrigated plantations
A. 102 return on capital
Anticipated Full Costs of Irrigation Excluding WindbreakYield Irrigation Canal Costs Establishment Costs (1)
Stumpage Price with noIncoe from TreesCleared frns Land LsIu3 49.3 42.3 29.6 26.2 10.0 B.6 5.3 4.6
Stumpage Price mithIncoe from TreesCleared frm Land LsIo3 46.2 0.1 27.9 24.2 9.6 7.2 3.8 3.1
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9.35 Given these sokewhat stringent requirements and taking intoaccount the fact that trees on such land will be competing with morevaluable and shorter-term agricultural crops, it is recommended that in thefirst instance rainfed plantations be pursued on a pilot scale (5,000 ha intotal) over the next five years. Assuming average farm size of 20 ha (ofwhich at any one time 5 ha could be under food crops and 15 ha undertrees), about 250 farmers would be involved.
9.36 CFA should play a lead role in developing extension messages forthe Agricultural Department extension staff, who woud provide the maincontact point with the farmers. In designing such pilot schemes a widerange of incentives for eacouraging farmer participation should be tested,ranging from subsidized or free tree seedlings, to peovision of credit orcash grants for tree farming. A key element would be a systematicsociological study to test farmers' likely response before plantationprograms are launched-
9.37 Woodfuel and Pole Production Using Mechanized ForestryPlantations. Besides establishing plantations by traditional means, it ispossible to use techniques similar to that employed by the MechanizedFarming Corporation and also to use short rotation species such asProsopis. Costs and yields are detailed in Annex X, and stumpage pricessummarized in Table 24. Using this technology it could be economic to growplantations in the bushland areas (400 mm rainfall) tr satisfy the woodfueldemands for the urban market. Much will depend on how effectively themechanized farming methods can be transferred to forestry, and whether thecosts pertaining to mechanized agriculture are applicable to forestry.Experiments shold be started to monitor costs and yields. Trees shouldalso be incorporated into the mechanized agricultural system as a greenmanure crop. Prosopis is a nitrogen fixing species which could be seededand allowed to grow for a period of time in order to restore the fertilityof the land after grain cropping and at the same time produce a cash crop.
9.38 The economic success of "mechanized forestry' and trees in themechanized agricultural system will depend on the use of small diametertrees for making acceptable charcoal. It may be necessary to introducecheap briquetting techniques because more powder and fines may be producedwith small diameter trees.
9.39 Plantations Using Multi-Purpose Trees for Woodfuel PoleProduction and Animal Feed. Multi-purpose trees such as Prosopis (andLeucaena in the south) could be grown for animal feed as well as wood.Models have been compiled (Annex X), assuming that animal feed is obtainedin years 6, 9, 12 and 15 and is valued at LS 10/ton. This price is muchsmaller than the market price (about LS 200/ton) but the lower figureshould be used until studies have provided additional, urgently neededinformation on possible commercial domestic or expr-t markets for animalfeed.
9.40 An additional model (Annex X) Is based on a seen-year rotation,with direct sowing tree seeds rather than planting. It is anticipated thatpods or leaves will be collectLd for fodder in years 4, 5, 6 and 7 of anyrotation except the first rotation where the collection will be In year 5,6 and 7. Tables 25 and 26 give the anticipated stumpage price when animalfeed is included as a cash crop. If there is a market for animal feed or
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Table 24
Sudan
Forestry Sector Revie.
Winime. Stuwpage Price Nheded to Obtain a 10 Return to Investmentin Plantations Using Nechanized Forestry Nethods and Short Rotation Specims
Units Dhshland Lou Rainfall Savannah Savannah oodLand High Rainfall Savaoaah
!wah1agemexit Level Average Efficient Average Efficient Average Efficient Average Efficient
Rotati.iLensgth Years 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Total ExpenditureOver S Rotations Ls 3"9 260 339 260 339 260 339 260
Stumpage Price with noIncoe froo TreesCleared from Land LsIm3 11.4 9.9 6.9 5.3 2.7 2.0 1.2 0.S
Stumpage Price withIncome from TreesCleared from Land Ls/u3 10.2 7.6 5.7 4.1 1.6 0.9 * *
* Costs covered by other incom
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if the subsistence farmer has to supplement feed for animals, then plantingmultipurpose trees should be profitable in areas of rainfall greater than500 mm. Even in bushland areas, it could be profitable to growmultipurpose trees with mechanized forestry techniques.
9.41 Many Sudanese farmers have practiced agro-forestry in the pastespecially with multi-purpose tree species such as lemon, grapefruit,Balanites, Acacia (senegal, seyal and nilotica). Eucalyptus, Tamarix andAzadirachta. Many of these trees have been planted by farmers using treeseedlings tOllected from under existing mature trees or from privatelyowned curseries. There is much the CFA could do to encourage suchspontaneous planting; e.g. by providing grants, free seed and inputs toencourage the establishment of more private nurseries; by organizing seedcollection and distribution of preferred species; by building morenurseries in strategic locations; by working more actively with villagecommunities and NGO's to support tree planting efforts; and by greatlystrengthening forestry extension services.
9.42 Tree Planting As a Way to Increase Crop Production on TraditionalFarm Land. Besides giving rnimal fodder, many multi-purpose trees fixnitrogen as wel' as acting as nutrient pumps, circulating minerals from thelower soil horizons to the top soil via the leaves. Therefore trees canmaintain if not improve soil fertility (and friability). Trees can alsoimprove the micro-climate thus improving agricultural crop yields. If thecorrect species of trees are chosen and are 4udiSiously spaced in thefarmers' field, then all the benefits previously mentioued can be achievedwhile at the same time there is the bonus of "on-farm" wood which could beused for fuel, posts and building. Table 27 slmmarizes the benefits fromtree planting, assuming a 5-10% increase in agricultural production due tothe presence of trees. If the increase in agricultural production Is about2-8Z overall (5% at year 7), then even for bushland areas (400 m. ofrainfall.), there is a net discount revenue of LS 1.7 at 10%. In otherwords, the increase in agricultural production more than pays for theadditional cost of sowing and tending the tree seeds. Therefore the woodand animal feed from the trees are a bonus and any income from eitherselling the fodder and/or wood is profit. Most of the wood grown on farmwill be for self consumption but there may be some surplus which could besold. The estimated rural consumption for a family of six to seven peopleis about 10 m3/year and to aupply this amount of wood from trees planted onfarm In agroforestry formations may require as much as 40 ha in buahlandareas to as little as 6 ha in high rainfall savannah areas. However, thearea required in low rainfall areas (400 mm/year) may be exaggeratedbecause little information is available on yield, especially from treesgrown "onrfarm." Agro-forestry research to determine yields fromagricultural crops and trees as well as suitable tree species and plantingpattern is urgently required. However, it appears that trees plantedon-farm are one of the best solutions to meeting the rural requiremen:s forwood products while at the same time maintaining if not enhancing farmproduction. It is therefore recommended that GOS gives high priority toencouraging faruiers to plant trees on traditional agricultural land.
9.43 Farm Forestry in the Gum Belt. The average annual production ofgum arabic from Acacia senegal is 0.4 kg/tree but the range can be from nilto 10 kg/tee. A. senegal is usually grown in rotation with agricultural
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crops in a typical shifting cultivation cycle, where the A. senegal can begrown for periods of up to 20 years. A typical gm garden will have about600 trees/ha and starts producing gum after 4 years. A. senegal can alsobe grown scattered throughout the farmers' tnelds and the trees bring theimproved micro-climate and fertilizer benefits previously described. Intlhis caRe, between 60 and 150 trees/ha are planted and agricultural cropsgrown underneath.
9.44 The average annual yield per ha of gum arabic in gum gardens isabout Z40 kgs although in an agroforestry setting, it will be about 60kgs. The current world market price of gum arablc is US$1,600/ton (LS3,200/ton before the recent devaluation and LS 3,800/ton after it). Theproducer receives a price of about LS 700/ton with a range from LS 640/tonto LS 1,310/ton and the government receives LS 1,310/ton in various taxes.
9.45 The gross income per ha of a gum garden ranges from LS 152 to LS312 with the average about LS 180 of which approximately LS 100 is requiredfor tapping, collecting and provic'-n of water. Thus the average netincome is to LS 80/ha, a poor return for all the effort lnvolved. "Owners"of gum gardens find it more profitable in the short run to cut down A.senegal trees and produce charcoal, especially as tree ownership is not astatutory right.
9.46 The A. senegal trees are vital as a barrier against desertencroachment. It is in the government's interest to retain and expand thegum gardens not only from an ecological viewpoint and In order to maintainthe dry zone as a productive agricultural region, but also because gumarabic is a large export earner, earning for the country over US$60 millionin 1985.
9.47 In order to maintain and expand the gum belt, it is recomendedthat the government should ensure that the producer receives a price verynear the floor price of about LS 1.2/kilo. GOS could also increase thisfloor price to LS 1.8/kilo which is about 50Z of the export price. Thiswould raise the average net income from LS 80/ha to LS 330/ha and greatlyencourage gum arabic production. GOS would need to support services suchas improved planting stock, tools for tapping and an improved purchasesystem but GOS investment capital would not be reqnired. However, therewill be little incentive to plant trees until tree ownershLp is legalized.
9.48 If this policy is successful, then there should be an upsurge ingum arabic production from the present production of 40,000 ton to sbout70,000 tons/annum. In order to sell this additional amount, the exportprice may have to be lowfered from the present level of US$1,600/ton toabout US$1,400/tou. But this would still result in an increased exportearning of US$34 million and an increased government revenue of some LS 8million (16Z). The government would also be saving a considerable area ofland from desertification and encouraging people to stay in rural areas.
Industrial Plantations
9.49 At present, about 65% of sawnwood is imported at a price ofbetween US$15 uillio?' and US$20 million per year. This is an unnecessaryuse of foreign exchange. The aim of the investment program in commercialforestry is to reduce and possibly eliminate this foreign exchange cost toGOS.
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Table 26
Sudan
Forestry Sector Reviey
Ninimum Stumpage Price Needed to Obtain a 10% Return to Investentin Plantations Established by Directly Souing Species Producing
Ainiml Feed and lood
Units Bushland Low Rainfall Savannah Savannah Woodland Nigh Rainfall Savnnah
Zianagement Level Average Efficient Average Efficient Average Efficient Average Efficient
Rotation Legth Years 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Total ExpenditureOver 5 Rotatims Ls 4128 335 42B 3 43 335 429 335
Total Income fromFee Over 5 Rotations Ls 178 179 292 292 647 647 1203 1203
Stpage Price withIncome from TreesCleared from Land Ls!m3 23.8 9.9 7.2 4.8 1.4 0.3 * *
and from Fodder
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9.50 Models have been constructed for industrial plantation grown woodto calculate the uinimuf stumpage price to give a 1OZ return on investmentcapital (Annex XIV). Residual stumpage prices for sawlog. greater than 18cm top diameter are LS 100/m3 (round) for softwood species and LS 200/m3(round) for hardwoods. For an average yield of 25 m3/ha/year, the stumpageprice for saw logs would give a return on investment (financial yield) ofabout 16.5X for softwood plantations (Table 28). With a stumpage price ofLS200/m3 (round), and an average yield of 20M31ha/years, the financialyield for hardwood plantations would be about 11Z.
9.51 The residual stumpage prices of LS 100 per m3 (round) forsoftwood and LS 200/m3 (round) for hardwocds are based on the currentaverage Khartoum market price for sawn softwood of LS 728/m3 (sawn) and LS1,109/m3 (sawn) for hardwoods. It is apparent that locally grown timbershould successfully compete with imported ti%ber even at the high stumpage,prices. However, a 302 reduction in stumpage prices to LS 40 and LS 70/mlfor soft and hardwoods respectively - prices where a 102 return oninvestment is just obtained - could in theory reduce the selling price toabout LS 650/m3 (sawn) for softwood and LS 960/m3 (sawn) for hardwood,giving home produced sawnwood a definite advantage. Much depends on theefficiency of the sawmill industry and the improvement to the rivertransport system and the success of proposed supportive GOS actions(para.7.37). Production costs could also be reduced by about LSIOOO/ha bythe use of the Taungya (Shamba) system to clear the land instead of usingbulldozers.
9.52 It has been proposed to plant 30,000 ha of plantations over thenext 15 years, to fully meet anticipated demand by the year 2000 fromindigenous resources. Such a program would cost about LS 26 million. Thisis in contrast to the anticipated additional import bill for sawnwood ofUS$60 million for the year 2000 alone. The investment would be only afraction of the import bill. Additional investments in saw mills ofapproximately LS 50 million (para 7.42) and improved infrastructure wouldbe needed but supplying sawnvood from indigenous resources should payhandsomely and prcvide much needed employment opportunities. Since it willtake some time to build up the institutional capacity to support industrialwood production, It is recommended that plantation programs in the nextfive years be limited to establishing 2,500 ha of softwood and 2,500 ha ofhardwood plantations.
Improvement of Infrastructure Support
9.53 Transport Network. There are considerable surpluses of wood rawmaterial in the south, Southern Darfur and Southern Kordofan. However,much of these surpluses are too remote to be of economic use, especiallyfor fuelwood or charcoal, but some may be used for pit sawn or even machinesawn timber. Nevertheless, if the transport system were improved,particularly by river and rail, some of these surpluses could be tappedeven for woodfuel. The completion of Jonglai canal should make rivertransport easier and practically all the transport of woodfuel and timberproducts would be downsteam, an under-used and relatively cheap route. Aneconomic freight rate should be LS 0.04/ton/kilometer or less and at thisrate, charcoal could be transported over a distance of 1,600 kms.Likewise, long haul rail transport at a similar rate could open up areas
Table 27
SUDAN
FORESTRY SECTOR REVIEW
Per Farm HectareTotal and Discounted Costs of Planting 160 Trees on
Farm In Agro-Forestry Formatlons, and Total and DiscountedRevenues from Increase In Agricultural Yield (Sorahum) In
Varlous Savannah Zones (35 Year Cycle Assumed)
COSTS ZONE _Bushland L,R. Sav Savannah H,R,-Savannah
Net DiscountRevenue 1.68 12.03 4.37 17.52 11.46 31.57 16.13 40.99
(1) These costs are direct costs only for coeds, sawing, weeding and singilng. All other costs such as groundpreparation, protection and rent have been ascrlbed to the agricultural crop,
(2) Assumes that the overall agrlcultural Increase Is 5S per hectare when the trees are seven years old. Theaverage Increase In yield Is 2.8%. This Includes the are" occupied by the trees.
(3) Assumes that the overall agricultural Increase Is 10$ per hectare when the trees are seven yers old. Theaverage Is 5.5%.
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j
Table 26Sudan
Forntry Srctor ReviewAnticipated Costc, Yields and Returns per hectare for
Teak an a 40 year rotation15.0 10.5 185.9 811.220.0 11.0 139.3 614.825.0 11.5 110.3 494.8
(1) Aumuni a stumpage price of Ls 100 for saw logo with miniu top diantkrrof 18 en and a stunpage price of Lsl for isallur logp (Sotfhood)Assume a stuopage price of Ls 200 for sav logs with minim. top diamterof 18 cm and a utmopagp price of Lil for umaller logs tHardvod)
- I03 -
Table 29
Cam wA BeriefIts of Pftiossd e-A Tm (19&5-2000)LS udillo
Area ofInd Gouem- Govezn-
(mLlUm mm Ptivate Total t) Pivats Total
Iuprave. to fozwtservLin and extemionatvities - 45 0 45 -
(a) e f'zestry/fodder 1.00 75 75 150 Trees 95 95 190
(b) Trad. faoestry/fodd&r) Fodderl5 15 30
Inustrial PlantatLo 0.07 27 - 27 440 _ 440
Total (IS gLlion) 401 360 761 595 100 1,395
104 -
round the rail heads of Nyala and Wau. The railway track is in need ofrepair in many areas and the river requires dredging in certain parts. Therate of woodland clearance in the north should slow down when these taskshave been completed.
Pricing of Wood Products
9.54 The price of woodfuel, poles and sawntimber Is very dependent onthe cost of transport. At present, very little is paid in the form ofstumpage fee to GOS. In order to invest more in tree planting, it will benecessary to increase extension, (advice to farmers and utilizers of woodproducts) and research and training budgets of the forest services bothnationally and regionally. Foresters must also have the means to visit allthe areas In their regions. Therefore it is essential that the stumpagefee for roundwood be reviewed and increased, with most if not all thefuture revenue being allocated to the forest services and traininginstitt;tions so that they can operate more efficiently. An increase instumpage price should also encourage priveoe investors to start plantationsand charcoal producers to improve their proeuiction techniques. An increasein stumpage prices would most likely result in an increase in the price ofwood products. However, it may not affect the consumer if, for example, itencourages the purchase of more efficient woodfuel stoves. Therefore, thewhole pricing structure and policy for substitute products and woodproducts, including stumpage fees, should be examined with a view toencouraging planting and conservation of the resource.
Budgetary Implications of Increased Forestry Investment
9.55 The budget allocation to the CPA of about LS 2 million per yearis insufficient to finance the necessary developments. However, moneycould be raised by GOS through Increased stumpage fees which should go tothe forest service directly, rather than the Treasury. The presentconsumption of wood raw material from indigenous woodlands and forests isabout 48 million m3, of which approximately 30 million m3 is traded in theform of sawnwood, charcoal and commercial fuelwood. Well over 90% of thisresource must come from the woodland areas over which, in theory, theforest services have jurisdication. Therefore, an average stumpage fee ofLS 2 per m3 could bring nearly LS 60 million/year to central government andcould be a way to finance improved services and pay for some of thesuggested tree planting activities.
9.56 It has been estimated (para 6.09) that about 18 million m3 couldbe saved by the turn of the century with an active conservation policy. Anumber of the interventions that would yield an additional 20 million m3annually by the year 2000 are listed in Table 13. An estimated 1 millionha of additional rainfed plantations may be required to close thedemand-supply gap for woodfuel and poles and another 30,000 ha ofindustrial plantations to meet sawnwood requirements. Table 29 lists theprobable costs and es_imated revenues or savings of such a program.
9.57 The estimated cost of the proposed interventions would be aboutLS 761 million up to the turn of the century, of which just over half wouldbe government expenditure. The anticipated income through increasedagricultural crop yields and sale of roundwood is esuimated at LS 1,395
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million of which LS 595 million would be revenue to government. Thesefigures are orders of magnitude rather than precise estimates,nevertheless, they show that investment in tree planting should be aworthwhile proposition. Excluded from the total Is the estimated saving ofwoody biomass through an active conservation strategy. This would saveabout 140 million m3 of wood and LS 3,900 million at the market place (para8.06).
Issues and Constraints Pequiring Additional Study
9.58 A major handicap in the formulation of national forestdevelopment policies is the lack of recent survey data on the exact extentto past deforestation and on growing stock volume in the remaining forestarea. The various figures reviewed by the mission relating t: fuelwoodreserves in the savannah areas for example differ by a factor of three. Itis recommended that in the coming five-year development period, highpriority be given to the implementation of systematic fuelwood andindustrial wood inventories for the whole country building on theexperience already gained with Canadian assistance In the Center andSouth. In carrying out fuelwood surveys, use should be made of LANDSAT andsimilar tectmoiogies that can produce rapid results at relatively lowcost. The inventory should be started in the areas identified as the mainsources of future supply to the north (map 18923).
9.59 The following are other important issues meriting more indepthstudy.
(a) Re-organization of the management, operation and CFA with special-reference to ensuring an appropriate balance between theinterests of the country as a whole and those of the regions andlocal people in the operation of the forest resource.
(b) Controlling fuelwood harvesting and levying increased stumpagecharges on freely gathered wood from natural forests. Thisshould be coupled with a study of the likely implications to therural and urban poor of the increase in fuelwood prices thatcould be expected if stumpage fees are raised, and with anassessment of the extent to which such increased fees would makeinvestment in fuelvood and tree growing more profitable to theprivate secror.
(c) Taking into account the results of the above study, the range ofincentives that should be tried in order to encourage people'sparticipation in forest protection and accelerated plantingshould be examined. This should be coupled with the systematictesting of alternative sectors which are recommended for thecoming five-year period.
(d) The impact of various land tenure systems on people's willingnessto protect and plant trees.
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Table 30
SUNMARY OP PROPOSED 5 YEARS FOREST CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM1987 - 19_91
LLkely CostResponsible Ta get Area t5 Yea")
ITEM Agency LJ1'O00
1. Strengthening CFA tosupport above programincluding new naturalforest protection andmanagement staff andcreation of a newForest Extension Division(including vehicleand equipment needs) CFA - 18600
2. Pilot schemes for increas-ing area of savannahforest reserves to be Villagebrotght under protection Communitiesa.nd management CFA 100 2000
3. Forest inventory andfueswood (biomass) wholesurveys CFA and MOE country 2500
4. Strengthening offorestry research ARC and CFA - 5400
5. Forest education andtraining at Universityof Khartoum/Juba and Ministry ofSoba Education 5700
15. Shelterbelt planting in Farmers andirrigated and mechanized agriculturefarms corporations 25 3325
16. Sawmill and logging CFA and 3/equipment private sector 23000-
Grand Total 96450
Physical and pricecontingencies 139852
(say) LS140 million
I/ Would involve about 330 farming families each with 20 ha of land ofwhich at anyone time 15 ha would be under trees and 5 ha under food orother crops.
2/ Would involve about 10,000 small farms each with 160 trees.Translated into plantations, this would equate to an area of 1000 ha.
3/ Including LS20 million in working capital needed for Imatong.
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(e) Taking into account the results of the recommended forestinventory and biomass studies, the results of more detailedhousehold energy consumption studies being undertaken by NEA andof the pilot scale reforeatation programs undertaken by CFAfurther refinement of the future optimal long range supply sideinvestment program for resolving possible fuelvood shortages.
(f) Ways and means of improving the north/south transportaitonnetwork as this relates to the shipment of forest products(particularly of timber) including an assessment of the option ofan autonomous river transport operation for wood.
(g) The effects on the gum arabic industry and on the budget ofreducing the export tax on gum arabic.
(h) Price trends for woodfuels and transportation and their effectson developing fuelwood production in the south and on encouragingprivate fuelwood plantings in the north.
(i) Rates of sedimentation in dams and changes in forest cover to beconducted over a sufficient time period to allow trends to beidentified.
(j) The staff salary and career structure of both professional andtechnical forestry staff to ensure adequate incentives to remainin the service and to avoid the drain of experienced personneloverseas.
Summary of Recommended Development Program for the Five Year Period 1987-91
9.60 The recommended development program for the following five yearsis based on the following requirements for action, Which are arranged inorder of priority.
(a) Conserving existing wood supplies through a combination ofcontinued efforts to improve the efficiency of charcoal burningthroughout the country and improving recovery of waste wood fromagricultural schemes.
(b) Bringing existing forest resources under more effectiveprotection and management and increasing the level of stumpagetax collection in fuelwood and timber harvesting operations, bothwithin and outside Government owned forest reserves.
(c) Establishing new fuelwood resources with special emphasis on lowcost technologies (such as direct reseeding of abandonedmechanized farming or degraded forest lands) and involvingfarmers in cash crop tree farming. Because it will take time toraise fuelwood prices to the level needed to trigger-off largescale spontaneous investment by farmers in free standing fuelwoodcrops, strong emphasis should be given to planting multipurposetrees (providing fodder, poles and fuelwood) from which finaunialrates of return would be much higher than for fuelwood alone, andwhich are more Likely to be in line with farmers currentlyperceived needs.
-log-
(d) Planting tees as an integral part of the farming system(agroforestry), both In order to protect crops and soils and toprovide essential needs such as tree fodder, fuelvood and poles,and also, in appropriate situations to provide an additionalsource of farm income e.g. gum arabic. This also includesAivestments in accelerated shelterbelt planting particularlya.ong canalbanks and around mechlanlzed farming schemes and pilotscale reforestation works in upland watershed catchment and sanddune fixation works aimed at protecting high value infrastructureinveatments or fertlle agricultural lands that are threatened bydune encroachment.
(e) Improving industrial forest management and protection of existingforests in the south, establishing new plantaltons, providingspare parts for existing sawmills and logging operations,expanding new sawmilling capacity and improving transport accessto forest areas.
9.61 The total cost of the proposed interventions (the five-yearperiod) is estimated at LS 140 million (Table 30). This is the maximumplausible development program that could be undertaken assuming that theconservation and protection and aforestation is a community program inwhich all sectors participate with CPA providing tI.e technical leadershipand extension support. Some of the private investment especially ontraditional agricultural land would be in kind, and government sourceswould include foreign assistance. While many of the benefits would notshow up in the first five years, there should be an income of about LS 15million from revenue collected from cleared agricultural land and improvedwoodland management. By 1990, improved stoves could bring about a savingto the consumer of approximately LS 500 million and in wood terms about 18million i 3 .
9.62 To support the development program, GOS action is needed tointroduce infrastructural changes, revisions of laws and regulations andcomplete basic studies which will provide data for planned development.
9.63 The most important actions required by GOS are:
(i) Complete the on-going study of land tenure in Sudan and introducereforms which will encourage and facilitate tree planting:
(ii) Introduce legislation to control exploitation of land areasthrough undemarcated mechanized farming and to ensure therecovery of fuelwood from areas allocated for mechanized farming;
(iii) Complete a national forest and biomass inventory and land useplans and provide for intensive planning and economic studies toprovide detailed information on the resource base and improve theeffectiveness of future investment.
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(iv) Introduce legislation to clearly define the responsibilities androles of CPA and the Regional Forestry Departments as theserelate to the forest resources of the country, the control ofgrazing and the stewardship of areas which are neither forestednor andercultivation.
9.64 The institutional reforms that are required include:
(i) Re-creation of a strong CFA with the capacity to plan, monitorand provide effective extension support to programs beingimplemented by farmers and other agencies;
(ii) The establishment and terms of reference for the proposed NaturalResources Council;
(iii) Support for forestry education and training, including theproduction of a man-power development plan, and revision of thecurricula in order to adequately reflect the changed emphasis inforestry, away from conservation and protection towardsplantation and agroforestry.
(iv) The introduction of an active forestry extension service,operating in the irrigated, mechanized and traditional farmingsub-sectors, and fully integrated with the agricultural extensionservices.
(v) Rehabilitation of the FRC under the control of CFA and theestablishment of a system within ARC to ensure that agro-forestresearch is properly supported, directed, monitored andevaluated, and that the research programs are oriented towardsthe problems facing foresters, farmers and livestock owners.
9.65 The orderly and controlled exploitation of the considerablewoodland resources in the south of Sudan will require the re-establishmentof an economic climate which will encourage investments by the privatesector, the repair of road and railway facilities link1,g north and south,and the re-utilization of the river transport system. Only with acoordinated effort by all the people of Sudan, will the wood energy crisisbe solved.
REFORESTATION: RF 1 Bor Afforestation Program; BorRF 2 East Rajef Project; JubaRF 3 CARE Afforestation Project; GedarefRF 4 Reforestation of West Bank Settlements; YeiRF 5 Restocking Gum Belt; El Obeid, Bara, Um RawabaRF 6 Restocking Gum Belt WFP; El ObeidRF 7 Restocking Gum Belt Darfur; Nyala, El FasnerRF 8 SCC Project; Ed DamerRI 9 Sudan Finland Program; El Fau, Tendelti, DamazinRF 10 UNHCR Project; El Fau
ENERGY: E I CARE Stove Project; El ObeidE 2 Fuel Briquette Project, En NahudE 3 FAO Fuelwood Project; Khartoum, Medani, kassalaE 4 Juba West Fuelvood Project; JubaE 5 SREP; Khartotum
SHELTER: S 1 Northern Region Project; El Seleim & Affad Basins
COMUNITY: CY 1 Green Deserts; Ed DamerCY 2 Wau Teak Project; WAU
MISCELLANEOUS: M 1 JMRDP; ZelingeiH 2 ODA Project; Shendi-AtbaraH 3 Support to NDU; Khartoum
22' ,
22' ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT
Wadi HaIfaYckN IL I B Y Ai o Hloo
NORTHERN I
20' 2'
Ns m. I l N O R T H E R ANomo PORT SUDAN
Is I -ora
DONGOLA4 RED SE~~~AM A"'hi
C H A D 'NORTHERN. R E G 0iDARFURb UC">S KHTUMRC11
! - _ r,NX,.ea S / < * P-16- N, r/s1477zidl m1
|~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/- o C'H t ........ 'Ds' SLI1 § A kkpJO> .ac.r.............¾'-p /,'////..//.'' A Q : :'61-C %L Ap -, //////L,$'///// "'W D DWN./A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~H .... SALA
0°' (D]A) ANOGEISSUS KHAYA . ISOBERLINIA DECIDUOUS WOOD. I I 8PAIAND _ID) RAOAaA REPEATING PAITERN |
m 'B) WOODLAND RECENTLY DERIVED FROM RAIN FOREST +-I RAILROADS I 6 Y A AREPOF A B SAUDI
sa fLOOD REGION 0 SELECTED TOWNS AND VILLAGES EARABIA
MONTANE VEGETATION S PROVINCE CAPITALS f I-. -;
WOODLAND SAVANNAHLOW RAINFALL. ON CLAY 0 REGION IIOLIM) CAPITALS %
(A) ACACIA MELLIFERA THORNtAND 6 NATIONAL CAPITAL ZJ
-20 ' ('7'1 II) ON DARK CRACKING CLAY, ALTERNATING WITH GRASS 3 RIVERS 2 CHAD J Ofto / -AREAS RIER 2I
111) ON HILL SOILS FORMED IN SITU, ASSOCIATED WITH - PROVINCE BOUNDARIES " S U DAN .COMMIPHORA AFRICANA AND BOSCIA SENEGAtENSIS REGION (IQLIM) BOUNDARIES
B iACACIA SEYAL - BALANITES SAVANNAH, ALTERNATING ' INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES N ETHIOP
WITH GRASS ARE AS ~R IAL ECi ICl ANOGEI$SUS -COMERETUM HARTMANNIANUM SAVAN. SOIURCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE DATA: Sqdon S,:,ey l:parimer., Kthmio:n. 19113. ARCoNRP_
C NAH WOODLAND 26 28 30' f_ 22' 224' 2 2I6 30' 32 0'Y Z A I R EA
2'2 6 o ! 24S 21 3103 3;r 36
22- | ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT
LIBYA Wo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Idi Hoifo,aL I B Y Aj fJ of.s O
*N ! NORTHERN20' I 9 2C-20, -'N . PORT SUDAN _\ r - - ~~~~~~~~~N O T H E RIN\AdtOTUA
I J AD DAMER EA T ERN ,rC H A D | NORTHERN R E G /° g t- F a
DARFUR C I X i
16'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6 | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~NORTHERN SALA/
.1 D A R F U R KORDOFAN -ORUFA' KASSAlA
t ~~~~~o4lufum \ 0 E3 J R «Ap 9 j14 FASHER GEDMEF~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
G(ENEINA FAK DN1E
*2 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-' ~~~~s2E BrI
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Q(..SOUTHERN DAR . _.
12' 0Um Horoz a ED RC 1 oI - N RE rn ( 12.
(_l,SOUTIHERN iDARFUR o . RG0 /°PRFN5 9 .~~SOUTHERN DARFUR * SOUTHERN KORDO>AN 0 BLUE NiL -
_._ \ } B~~~~~~~~~obonuso rD4ACUG;1§° 0
z ^. ~~R E G I O N \ sv8tod/ N I \Pa/kIch - -
X I X A X / jEE~~~~~~~~~~~R NILE 1
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AFRICAN Ct I JONGLEI L
\bBAH -R-EL G/ :*Jean PLoO.Post
6. REPUBLIC *~~~~~~~~~~~~ANI JonIa PiboR E P U B L I C i J t , _EGION -
O 100 200 300 400 Kiloma*s6s A-Sd'o *
2U A 100O Miles * QU TORI I .aof -
I- ZAIRE - c \ CL .' JUBA 4* C. L __ _ _j________
S U D A N z AI RE Y41'6% 9F4 \ eRCL 2 9 ;K YA *- "
LOCATION OF FOREST PROJECTS e&N.,C.-, | LIbYA ARAB SAUDI,/-PkNimuIe Lj REP. OF>\AND FOREST RESERVES GuPG A\N D A ARABIA
GOCALION OF FORESTRY PROJECTS4 RAILROADS 1
CL COMMERCIAL 0 SELECTED TOWNS AND 'VILLAGES I i
-2' I REFORESTATION * PROVINCE CAPITALS SOURCES: 2-f CHAD Kraftioum ( r.
SHELTER 0 REGION (IQlIMI CAPITALS 'C. Tapp. Rvoie of Foreiivy Frojecis it Sud4n. 19U4. . su D A S;4CY COMPAUNITY NATIONAL CAPITAL ARC DATAm Sudar S.rn7 O..o,lmeM A )RI RESEARCH C RIVERS Khartoum. 1983. ET H r J ETHIOPIA .
M MISCELLANEOUS ~@*- PROVINCE BOUNDARIES CENTRAL \ \ '
._ qOCAI1JN OF fORE5T RE5ERVES_- REGION (IOLIM) BOUNDARIES SEE SEPARATE LIST OF PROJECT ITEMS FOR DETAILS AIRICANREE_> ,
-'~ INTERtJA1IO'IAL BOUNDARIES fJ aAIRE SOMAL a24' 226' 30' 32' _ _or nort Z A I It E K_ IENYA|
22' 24' 26 2s' 306 34' 360
-22' | ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT 2r
Wodi Haifa
SeoN~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0 L I B Y A |hNIORTHERN .e
| N.r O iT H E RiNNA Haod PORESUDAN
DONGOL RED SEA
18~~~~~~~~~~~~ I jKorima Ta&w0,^.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Deb NILE WBELSE/
0EdDebba Atbora EA TERNC H A D f NORTHERN R E G i - N
-16' 16L
D AAFU R F U R ODOAf 1 O TBurtn ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~HARTOUX Dhw KSALA
y I t4~~~~~~ORrTHERN \
I2*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
R U R KORDOFAN ZRUF K§ OKutum \ oi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Sditi W > AD DANI p
3. PONGO MVER ' 100 200 Miles '< f*lmull IBY A ' REP. OF\) SAUDI5. CIDA BAI4R EL OHAZAL PROJECT '{ U/G2N N D A IEGYPT j-r . [S ARABIA
F. NUNI FOREST INVENTORYY
7. K',I tE fIRST PRIOFITY AREAJ FOR INVENTORY -I--.*.. RAILROADS REGION
9. L;JO SURVEY IN NATIONAL FOREST INVENTORY 0 SELECTED TOWNS AND VIIGS J- 21' 10. KAGElU PRGRAMME. zJ POINC AIAS2-jCA JWstt
1A GILO j MD AND PROPOSED SAWMILS
JUBA~~~~~~~~~
11.UPPER TALAENGA UTTP. MAIN AREAS OF FUTURE SUPPLY OF FIREWOOD@ NAIIONAL CAPITAL S .OI J14. ADA EN NAIL ///M AN CHA FOTHE NATURAL ESOUltCE IVERS AND COPS' ETHIOPIA KE_
18. WAU - REMAINDER OF NORIHERN REGIONS. LOWAINTENSITY REGiON (IOLIMj BOUNDARIESrZn 19. LOKA INVENTORY TO DETERMINE REMAINING RESOURCE. TR INTERNATIONAL SUNDARGES
I COMMERCIA RE24' 26C 2AR SOURCE OF AD.MNI'1kA1WE DATA: Sudon Sunay D.pa:r.nt. Khant n. 1983 a Z Al R E ENYAI
tn......2...... ..L....AND.PRPOSED 5AWM C
22' 24' ! 2r 2r 30' 3 30 T-
I fi. '*-' -.
-2r iARA REPUBLIC OF EGYPT - L 220n
L I 8 Y A* LIf3YA i , : ;
N | .QORTHEFN
-2rf 'N r0- -\- \/ O R 7' H RN Station h. POR1TSUAN
* PROVINCE CAPItAL S -* REGION CIOLIMI CAPITALS ~' 'ETI4IOPIA %.
NAINA AP LConcen'ric circles represent distances of ~CNRIS- - NATIONAL CAPITAL ISO~15 kilometers and 300 kilometers fromARIARE c ~~~PROVINCE BOUNDARIES selected centers of demand. SOURCE Of ADMINISTRtATrIVE DATA: . ..A -
REGION (IGLIM) BOUNDARIES Sudan Sucvey DepoiImeri. Khanoum, 19113 ''*
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 2iS.3 3P G ZIE KENIYA IS M 'A
I~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ¾;'
2 2'2 24 W 26 A 30 3?r 3A 36 -22@ | ARAB REPUBLIC ( OF EGYPT 22]-' * t - ' . .- .. . . . _' .,. * 'BLIBYA ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Wadi Holfoc. 1*a
LIB Y A | c oh y
NORTHERN(,,'
-20N O R T H E RiN A \ d PORTSUDAN
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I NILE SERR' M'L l t/'Ko°t
L i 0 | , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AD Rtlw:t- S C H A D i NORTHERN R E G I -0 N - -
i ~DARFUR r
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f . ~~~~~~R E G I C) N\ **S- Tolc40 s /^^
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WK)I,7ERTS ! PERIV- -. 3MALAKALCE NT R AL BAHF EL ) EASTERNz {uNL
'I BAHR EL EAERN NILEGHAZAL BAHR EL NAWEIL . 7IU E T H I O P I ARAGA) GIAZAL REGION \ 4ASIR
RA F R I CAN \A UEYRAT |
X ~~~WAU4>'}>A o J
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\\BAHR EL GHAWAL Penot Pai\2 . L O~~~~~RUMBEK X g' gbrPt *
' RG N -' OR ''EGI
DESERTIFICATION WESTERN T.r@ '. k
AND RAINFALL , EQUATORIA,QUTORIA REGION K00 . nopolto ---
-'YAMB16' JUBA~~~~~~~~- ~ ZONE OF STRONG DESERTIFICATION:' v< # ASTERA ORIT" 4 ___ . ___
-aAGRONOMIC DRY BOUNCARY (OAIDMNHSI AYA, .AND SOUTHiERN BOUNDARY OF ZONE OF 5RONG DESERTIFICATIONI oiEQ1JIL.JltI)RA Nc&sh,ot' KE N YA3;
- NORiiERN BOUNDARY OF ZONE OF STRONG DESERTIFICATION Z A I R E ' _ ' ,
2(0 nsns. 1950 ) FLUCTUATION RANGE OF PRECIPItATION BETWEEN THE AAB< ,fNimule L BY N * P.EF O SAUDI
200 mm, 1973 J WET YEAR OF 1950 AND THE DRY YEAR OF 1973. L i A N GRP1 OF S ARABIA
ACtUAL BORDER OF MILLET CULTIVATION U A 'N D.-_ ISOHYE1S IN MILLIMETERS" 0 * * 3 0 e
I-*---- IRAILROADS 0 IW 200 300 400 Ktilom"ets w r a,
-2 0 SELECTED TOWNS AND VILLAGES 0100 200 MZles CHAD J Kianoim0 PROVINCE CAPITALS * (
19 REGION IOQLIM) CAPITALS SUCS~SUD N ,'Dr. fouod N. IbroRim. The Prolem of Dewettnfication in lhJo
NATIONAL CAPITAL DeuIe Sundan .ifh spc:ial refeernc* to Northern Darfur Pscvice. . J HD.1sel;4men. Studies ond .Wesach s.enter, University of Ki-crsoens. ETIOI
RIVERS .EHOI"Dr. Molidi Am-n El-Tom. The Rains of the Sudat4 Mechanism and ARICAN lIP
