World Halal Research 2009 1Abd Karim Alias@2009
World Halal Research 2009 2
“As three Japanese and four Indonesian officials from PT Ajinomoto Indonesia were arrested by local police, the largest Islamic body in the country admitted that it knew months ago that pork enzymes were being used in the production of the widely used flavour enhancer, monosodium glutamate (MSG). The Indonesian Ulama Council (MUI) uncovered the illegal use of bactosoytone when it began an audit of the company in September 2000”
―International outrage over Ajinomoto's use of
pork enzyme in halal food escalates‖
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Important issue to be
addressed by food scientists!!
World Halal Research 2009 3
Country/region Population (millions)
Asia 805
Africa 300
ASEAN 250
Middle East 210
Europe 18
North America 9
World Muslim population ~ 2.0 billion; projected 3 billion by 2010; 30% of the global total by 2025)
Muslim World & Prospects for Halal Food Market
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 4
Global halal food trade approx. USD 150 billion – pegged
to grow at a rate of 7% annually
Halal food – an excellent business & lucrative market for
domestic and international trade
Increasing awareness of Muslim consumers worldwide –
greater demand
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Muslim World & Prospects for Halal Food Market
World Halal Research 2009 5
The market for halal ingredients for food products
approx. USD 30 billion annually – but insufficient supply
Billions of tons of food ingredients such as emulsifiers,
stabilizers, gelling agents, flavourings, enzymes, etc.
are required every year for manufacturing food
products
90% of the world’s supply of gelatin, which is usually
extracted from animals (bovine and porcine), is non-
halal
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 6Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 7
Gelatin – a common food ingredient (gelling,
stabilizing, foaming, emulsifying, etc.)
Versatile excipient for pharmaceutical & medical
applications
Also finds many non-food applications
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 8
Listed in various Pharmacopoeia as an excipient for
the manufacture of capsules
American Pharmacopoeia; USP XIX/NF 24): “Gelatin
is a product obtained by the partial hydrolysis of
collagen derived from the skin, white connective
tissue, and bones of animals”
European Pharmacopoeia (EP V 2005) explicitly lists
raw materials obtained from poultry & fish, also
hydrolyzed non-gelling type
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 9
Gelatin -- high MW polypeptide derived from collagen
(primary protein component of animal connective
tissue, which include bone, skin & tendon) by acid or
alkali treatment
Glycine accounts for ~one-third of all the amino acids
in gelatin; gelatin is also very rich in proline &
hydroxyproline
Proline & hydroxproline dictates the gelling ability of
a gelatin
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 10Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 11Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Food ingredient – gelling,
foaming, stabilizing agent
(confectionery, frozen
food, beverages, bakery
products, meat products)
Pharmaceutical &
biomedical products –
soft/hard capsules, plasma
expander, wound dressing,
sponges for surgery
Non-food applications –
photography,
carbonless paper,
cosmetics, matchstick,
paintball, high-gloss inkjet paper
World Halal Research 2009 12
Unique functional properties that serve multiple
functions/applications
Well established as a pharmaceutical excipient
GRAS status
Highly reproducible production
Minimized immunogenecity
Well-controllable physical parameters
Amphoteric biopolymer
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 13
It gives high-quality, thermoreversible gels in dilute
solution with a clean ‗melt-in-mouth‘ texture
(melting point < 37ºC)
At higher concentrations, it gives elastic gum-like
textures which slowly dissolve in the mouth
It is an effective emulsifying & foaming agent
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
None of the hydrocolloids currently on
the market is capable of covering all
of the above-mentioned properties in
all applications
World Halal Research 2009 14
Properties associated with gelling:
Gel strength, gelling time, setting and melting
temperatures, viscosity, thickening, texturizing, and
water binding
Properties associated with surface properties:
Emulsion formation and stabilization, protective
colloid function, foam formation and stabilization
(such as in marshmallow), film formation, and
adhesion/cohesion
Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
World Halal Research 2009 15Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Fruit gummies/jellies – form thermoreversible gel, absorb water rapidly in the mouth & melt – releasing the aromas & flavours
Gelatin as a gelling agent
World Halal Research 2009 16Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Frozen cream products use 0.25% of a 250 Bloom gelatin to inhibit the crystallization of ice & sugar – give smooth mouthfeel
Ice cream use 0.5% of a 250 Bloom gelatin to prevent crystallization;
Gelatin in frozen dairy products
World Halal Research 2009 17Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Marshmallow incorporate up to 1.5% gelatin to prevent crystallization & stabilizes the foam during processing, transport & storage;
Gelatin as an emulsifying &
foaming agent
World Halal Research 2009 18Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Gelatin hydrolysate as a binding agent enables the sugar content of bars to be reduced
Gelatin as a binding agent
World Halal Research 2009 19Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Gelatin can be used in soft & hard cheese to replace most of the fat with water
Gelatin as fat substitute
World Halal Research 2009 20Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Fining process in fruit juice, beer & wine processing –remove unwanted colour, aroma, bitterness, astringency, unpleasant odors, etc.
Gelatin as a clarifying agent
World Halal Research 2009 21Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
The global demand for gelatin has been increasing
over the years
The issue of gelatin replacement has existed for
many years for the vegetarian, halal and kosher
markets
Concern over BSE (―mad cow desease‖) during
1980‘s in Europe
90% of the world‘s supply of gelatin, which is
usually extracted from animals (bovine and
porcine), is non-halal
World Halal Research 2009 22Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Pigskin – first used for the manufacture of gelatin in 1930s
Pig skin-derived gelatin (46% of world gelatin production)
From every pig slaughtered, some 3-4 kg of processable skin is obtained
Annual world output of gelatin ~326,000 tons: pig skin-derived gelatin (46%), bovine hides (29.4%), bones (23.1%), and other sources (1.5%)
World Halal Research 2009 23Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Non mammalian – fish & poultry gelatin
Polysaccharides – chemically/enzymatically modified
(deacytelated gellan, thermoreversible starch); mixed
polysaccharide system
Microbial gelatin via genetic engineering
World Halal Research 2009 24Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Can be extracted from warm- and cold-
water fish skins, bones, and fins
Fish skin is a major by-product of the fish-
processing industry – provide a valuable
source of gelatin
Relatively low extraction yield: 6-18%
Production still very low – contributing ~ 1%
of the annual world gelatin production
World Halal Research 2009 25Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Sub-optimal physical & functional properties
compared to mammalian gelatin (e.g., low gelling
& melting temperature, low gel modulus)
Fish gelatin typically has a Bloom value ranging
from as low as 0 to 270 (compared to 200 to 240
for bovine/porcine gelatin)
Fish gelatin (especially from cold water fish) does
not gel at room temperature—the gelling
temperature of cold water gelatin is typically below
8-10°C
World Halal Research 2009 26Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Type of fish Bloom strength (g)Gelling
temperature (C)Melting point (C)
Sin croaker
Shortfin scad
124.9
176.9
Bovine: 239.9
7.1
9.9
Bovine: 19.6
18.5
24.5
Bovine: 28.9Sole
Megrim
Cod
Hake
350
340
~90
~110
18-19
18-19
11-12
11-12
19.4
18.8
13.8
14Catfish 243-256 15-18 23-27
Yellofin tuna skin 426
Porcine: 295
Bovine: 216
18.7
Porcine: 25.6
Bovine: 23.8
24.3
Porcine: 36.5
Bovine: 33.8Young Nile perch
Adult perch
222
229
13.8
19.5
21.4
26.3
There seem to be many challenges before fish gelatin finds widespread
usage as an alternative to mammalian gelatin in the food
industry.
World Halal Research 2009 27Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Gelatin can be modified via its amino, carboxyl, & hydroxyl groups
Most modifications, however, are via lysine, hydroxylysine & the amino groups of the N-terminal amino acids
World Halal Research 2009 28Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Method DescriptionEnzyme crosslinkingof gelatin using enzymes
The addition of microbial transglutaminase to a fish gelatin can considerably raise the melting point, gel strength, and viscosity.
Chemical crosslinking of gelatin
Genipin and phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, and ferulic) have been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin
IrradiationFish gelatin exposed to UV radiation has been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin significantly
World Halal Research 2009 29Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Method Description
Mixed gel systems Creating mixed gelling systems consisting of fish gelatin combined with other high Bloom gelatins or with suitable plant hydrocolloids which may give higher gel strength, gelling and melting temperature
Addition of solutes (such as different salts)
The addition of neutral salts (such as MgSO4, (NH4)2 SO4, or NaH2PO4) have been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin
World Halal Research 2009 30Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Can be obtained from skin, bone & feet
Poultry skins contain a lot of fat & the
concentration of collagen is low – feet is
preferable
If using bones, a precipitation step after
extraction is necessary (because the bones are
not demineralised after conditioning)
Relatively high costs involved – more suitable
for niche products
World Halal Research 2009 31Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
A misnomer!! – gelatin is derived ONLY from
animal
Vegetable gelatin – plant polysaccharides (pectin,
carrageenan, agar, alginate, konjac) used to
replace some functionalities of mammalian
gelatin
World Halal Research 2009 32Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Food application
Desired gelatin properties
Current alternativesTechnical constraints of
alternative
Desert gels RTEClarity, elastic texture, melt in mouth
Algin, gellan and carrageenan systems
Hot viscosity, higher set temperature
High-solids confectionery
Elastic texture, clarity, low hot viscosity, low set temperature
Gellan gum blends, carrageenan systems, thinned-starch systems
Set temperature and hot viscosity, texture-elasticity gels
Foamed confectionery –marshmallows
Whipping/aeration agent, foam stabiliser, elastic texture
Gellan/starch/emulsifier blends, modified starch/emulsifiers
Textural constraints –low elasticity and/or high set temperature
Sour creamSmooth texture, creamy mouthfeel
Gellan gum with modified starch
High set temperature during processing
World Halal Research 2009 33Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Food application
Desired gelatin properties
Current alternativesTechnical constraints of
alternative
Low-fat spreads
Elastic gel texture, fatlike melt mouthfeel, emulsion stabilization
Sodium alginate/gellan/inulin/simplesse/maltodextrin/gum blends
Cost competitive, but good application for alternatives
Stirred yogurt
Creamy mouthfeel, gelled network prevents separation or syneresis
Gellan/modified starch/xanthan/LBG/pectin/modified starch
High viscosity and high set temperature in culture/production process
Desserts –Mousses
Whipping agent, creamy consistency, low set temperature
Alginate/starch blendsCurrent production process, stored prior to aeration chilling
Gelatin alternatives based on mixed polysaccharide systems
It is unlikely that a universal polysaccharide system will replace gelatin in every food application – the approach to developing gelatin alternatives for the
food industry should be application/process-specific.
World Halal Research 2009 34Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Thermostable amylomaltase modifies potato starch
to form a thermoreversible gel with gelatin-like
properties
The gel strength is lower and the setting time is
longer
The mouthfeel is different from gelatin – it melts
partially at 37 C (100% melting at 60 C)
Thermally reversible starch gel
Amylomaltase-modified starch should not be regarded as a replacement for gelatin but rather as an extension of the variety of available gelling products with their
own specific applications
World Halal Research 2009 35Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
High acyl gellan produces soft, elastic gels, which
are thermoreversible
Blends of high (HA) and low (LA) acyl gellan gum
can produce intermediate gel textures
In the water-based dessert gel formation (15%
solids), a partially deacylated form of HA gellan
can closely match the gelatin texture
High acyl gellan gum
World Halal Research 2009 36Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
High acyl gellan
gum vs gelatin
Higher melt-set temperature, which is advantageous for rapid-set formulations and for stability in hot climates
World Halal Research 2009 37Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Gelatin capsules – single-dose solid drug
forms
Two types – soft & hard
~90% of pharmaceutical gelatin is processed
to capsules
World Halal Research 2009 38Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Alternative capsule materials – have been
sought since the 19th century
Current market share < 10%
A gelatin substitute for capsule materials
must posses two basic properties:
• Excellent film-forming polymer
• Have good gel-forming properties
World Halal Research 2009 39Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Methyl cellulose (the 1st gelatin-free capsule)
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) for
hard capsule
Hydroxypropyl starch + iota carrageenan
Kappa-carrageenan
Starch (e.g. potato)
Synthetic polymer (PVA)
ISSUES/CHALLENGES• Thermostability & thermoreversibility• Mechanical & surface properties (e.g., elasticity) • Machinability (normal capacity: 100 000-200 00/h)• Differences in dissolution rate/release kinetics between
gelatin & non-gelatin capsule (e.g., unsatisfactory in vivo dissolution of hard capsules made from MC)
• Differences in oxygen permeability (affect the active substances)
• Legal approval
World Halal Research 2009 40Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Recombinant gelatin has been expressed in
Pichia pastoris and Hansenula polymorpha
Pichia was shown to be a highly productive
system for gelatin production
Transgenic corn as a viable way to produce
gelatin and potentially other products
The prospect of producing microbial gelatinthrough genetic engineering akin to microbial polysaccharide via fermentation systems (e.g.,
xanthan, gellan) is very exciting, and more extensive efforts should be directed on this area
World Halal Research 2009 41Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Improve methods for fish gelatin extraction to
increase yield and improve quality
Explore the use of other enzymes (e.g., tyrosinase)
for modifying functional properties of fish gelatin to
enhance its value
To increase the value of fish gelatin, more specific
applications for fish gelatin should be identified
World Halal Research 2009 42Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Explore the use of natural plant-derived
components (ferulic, tannin, genipin) for protein
(gelatin) cross-linking.
Explore other chemical cross-linking methods,
e.g., via Maillard reaction
World Halal Research 2009 43Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Explore physical methods of cross-linking including
exposure to gamma or ultraviolet radiation
World Halal Research 2009 44Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Many gelatin alternatives have been studied but
none can match the full spectrum of functional
properties of mammalian gelatin
Fish gelatin seems to be a promising alternative
but need to address problems such as inferior
gelling property
There are possibilities of exploring the genetic
engineering approach to develop recombinant
collagen and gelatin expression – but still a long
way to go
World Halal Research 2009 45Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])
Top 25 hottest articles in Agricultural & Biological Sciences
World Halal Research 2009 46Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])