World View Islamic Expression

8/12/2019 World View Islamic Expression

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Islamic Worldview Expressions

Islam is a profoundly aesthetic worldview and one cannot judge it fairly, if it

is approached only rationally. The heart of Islam is submission to the total will

of Allah, The word. Islam, means submission and the name contains thecentral idea! full and complete submission to the will of "od. An adherent iscalled a #uslim, one who has made the submission. The central expressionof Islam is the greatness of "od alone. $ecause Allah is great and sovereign,all the world and all human affairs belong to him. %ince Allah is trulysovereign, what he has established for all of society, law, ethics, government,is just as important as the religious commandments, and inseparable fromthem. %o Islam is experienced as a total and indivisibile way of life. It isconsistent with the basic premise! the absolute sovereignty of "od over allsituations and over every atom of the universe&so whenever possible#uslims not only establish #uslim worship, but create #uslim societies under

#uslim rulers based on 'ur(anic law.

#uhammad, the founder of the Islamic worldview, lived in Arabia )*+-/0.E. 1e was born and raised in the city of #ecca. Its holy sanctuary, whichdrew numerous pilgrims, was the home of many polytheistic gods and theresting place of a sacred blac2 stone, probably meteoric, believed to be fromheaven. 1is family was part of the prestigious 'uraysh tribe, custodians of thesacred places of #ecca. When he was twentyfive he entered the service of3hadijah, a wealthy widow older than he. 1e married her, and she bore hisdaughter 4atima. 5ntil he was about forty, his life was not much different fromthat of other merchants. Then, however, he found himself going off alone intothe mountains more and more to devote himself to meditation.

About the year -66 #uhammad began to have a remar2able series ofexperiences in the mountain caves. A mysterious dar2ness would come overhim, then the luminous figure of the archangel "abriel would appear andrecite words to him, which he could remember clearly. These words were firstof all about the unity of "od who abominates idolatry and will judge the earthon a day of fire and anxiety. This "od calls upon all men to accept hissovereignty.

#uhammad from the beginning had doubts about whether he had a divinerevelation. 1is wife comforted and supported him. 1e was finally convincedthat he had a divine vocation and he defended his initial experience with thesewords from the 'ur(an.

$y the star when it setteth, 7our compatriot erreth not, nor is he led astray.8either spea2eth he from mere impulse. The 'ur(an is no other than arevelation revealed to him!

9ne terrible in power taught it him, Endued with wisdom. With even balancestood he In the highest part of the hori:on! Then came he nearer and

approached, And was at the distance of two bows or even closer, And herevealed to his servant what he revealed, 1is heart falsified not what he saw.


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What; Will he then dispute with him as to what he saw< =%urah )>

#uhammad preached that Allah was no longer to be regarded asa high god who lived among other gods. 1e was uni?ue. 1e was a righteousdeity who passed judgment on the sinner!

When the sun shall be folded up, And when the stars shall shootdownwards,And when the mountains shall be set in motion, And when thecamels ten months gone with foal shall be abandoned, And when the wildbeasts shall be gathered together, And when the seas shall be swollen, Andwhen souls shall be paired with their bodies, And when the damsel that hadbeen buried shall be as2ed 4or what crime she was put to death, And whenthe leaves of the $oo2 shall be unrolled, And when the heaven shall bestripped away, And when hell shall be made to bla:e, And when paradiseshall be brought near, Every soul shall 2now what it hath produced. $ut#uhammad(s "od was also merciful. Though terrible to the unfaithful and

overwhelming in his glory to the pious, he was loving and compassionate.

The "od of mercy hath taught the 'ur(an, 1ath created man, 1ath taught himarticulate speech. The sun and the moon have each their times, And theplants and the trees bend in adoration, And the heaven he hath reared it onhigh@ and he hath appointed the balance, That in the balance ye should nottransgress@ Weigh therefore with fairness, and scant not the balance. And theearth he hath prepared for the living tribes@ Therein are fruits and the palmswith sheathed clusters, And the grain with its hus2 and the supports of life.

8inian %mart echoed the views of most scholars when he observed thatthere is a strong analogy between the visions of the 9ld Testament prophetsand those of #uhammad. The term nabi, which in the 1ebrew scriptures isused as a term for prophet, was applied to #uhammad. i2e the ancient1ebrew prophets, #uhammad had not only some direct experience of thenuminous power of "od, which led him to affirm Allah(s uni?ueness@ he alsospo2e typically through a form of impassioned utterance which was framed inverse of religious power. Arabic poetry flowed from his lips.

4or ten years #uhammad implored his fellow citi:ens in #eccato obey thiscall to acceptance of the oneness of "od, but with little success. Indeed, it

seemed to many that his fervent message threatened the lucrative polytheisticculture, and #uhammad found his position in #ecca untenable. In -// heaccepted an invitation from the city of 7athrib =now #edina> to teach there.1is journey, called the hejira, is the date from which the #uslim calendarbegins. The #uslim year is made up of 6/ lunar months and is conse?uentlysome eleven days shorter than the solar 0hristian year. The #uslim monthsretrogress through the seasons every thirty two and onehalf years. %o themonth of fasting, Bamadan, can be midwinter when a #uslim child is bornand midsummer when she is sixteen years old.

In the ten years that remained to him #uhammad brought all

Arabia, including #ecca, under his control. 1e became at once the religiousleader of the Arabs, and their political ruler and military commander. The


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revelations continued right up to his death.Islamic Crimary #yth! The 'ur(an

These revelations constitute the 'u(ran, the %cripture of Islam.The 'ur(an is not a collection of diverse material from over many hundreds ofyears. It was all delivered in a period of no more than twentytwo years

through one man. It is a boo2 of proclamation, proclamation of the onenessand sovereignty of "od, of his coming judgment, of man(s need to submit. Italso presents a #uslim view of previous religious history, especially the earlierprophets such as Abraham, #oses, and Desus. It is said to be untranslatableand to be of incomparable beauty of rhythm and expression. It is supposed torepresent the personal style of Allah, to reveal how "od thin2s and feels. It isli2e a series of paintings, all of the same subject. It begins with the followingprayer which sums up its basic spirit!

In the 8ame of Allah, the 0ompassionate and #ercifulCraise be to Allah, ord of the 0reation,

The 0ompassionate, the #erciful, 3ing of Dudgment day;7ou alone we worship and to 7ou alone we pray for help"uide us to the straight path.The path of those whom 7ou have favored.8ot of those who have incurred your wrath,8or of those who have gone astray.

The 'ur(an was revealed to the Crophet #uhammad in Arabic.It originally was not written down. Instead it was transmittedthrough recitation and memory. The Crophet himself was the firsttransmitter and it was said that once a year he recited the 'ur(an=as much as had been revealed> twice in the same way. At the sametime he would also recite parts of it for various Arabian tribes intheir local dialects. Fariations could thus arise from two sources,the faulty memory of those who heard the standard recitation, andthe variants associated with different tribes. After #uhammad(sdeath variants began to proliferate to such an extent that thethird 0aliph (5thman =-GG-)- 0.E.> ordered one Hayd ibn Thabit tocompile a standard edition based on copies made by the first0aliph, Abu $a2r =-/-G 0.E.>. 0ertain variations were allowed inthis edition, but only in the 'uraysh, the dialect of the Crophet.

All other 'uranic manuscripts were ordered destroyed, and theofficial written text, called the 5thmanic codex, was sent to thecenters of Arab power, #ecca, #edina, amascus, $asra, 3ufa, and7emen. 8evertheless, unofficial reading traditions continued, eachwith their own variants and peculiarities, and these formed thebasis of a great deal of commentary =secondary myth> by the'uranic exegetes, most notably by 4arra(. As late as the ninthcentury boo2s were written collating as many as /) differentversions. 1owever, even many Arabs who supported the differentreading traditions against the standard text put a limit on the

number of reliable variants, and a core of seven variants,al?iraa(aat alsab(a, were set down by Ibn #ujahid =J)KK) 0.E.>.


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1e remar2ed that a degree of standardi:ation was re?uired amongvariants because among traditional variants were included those ofreaders who did not understand correct grammar, those who memori:edbadly, those who 2new only the grammar, those who had learned frommisinformed teachers, etc.

The 'ur(an was meant to be recited and so heard. 1ence ithas an aesthetic dimension that is lost in translation. "eorge 4oot#ore attempted an imitative translation of an early %urah =K>to give the reader some notion of the form which he described asthe rhymed singsong in which the heathen soothsayers were wont tocouch their responses./

$y the bright dayAnd the night without ray,Thy ord forsa2es not nor casts thee away.

The hereafter the present will more than repay@Thy ord will give, nor say thee nay.4ound he thee not an orphan and became thy stay,4ound thee wandering and set thee on the way,4ound thee poor and did thy wants allay!

Becite in the name of your ord who created,created man from a clot of blood.Becite 7our ord is most glorious,Taught through script,Taught man what he 2new not.

The sensuous character of the 'ur(an can perhaps beunderstood by observing how verses were used in decoratingmos?ues. The basic architectural principle of the mos?ue is asdistinctive and as beautiful as that of the "ree2 temple. "ree2temples typically were constructed on hills from which one couldsee the #editerranean. Even when no such hill was present, the"ree2s would choose a site with some care and usually in a placethat would be beautiful even without the temple.

The basic conception of the mos?ue is that of an oasis in thedesert. A large court with some water and often also trees in it ispart of the whole design. As soon as one enters this court, one

abandons urban life and retreats to the desert where Islam wasborn. A sense of space, of tran?uility under the sun is as


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important as the building itself. The first function of the mos?ueis that its exterior must contribute to this sense. It is meant tobe seen not only from a distance as part of a s2yline but also fromnearby, not merely as one wal2s toward it to go inside but also asone sits or prays outside.

The interior provides shade and coolness and a sense ofspaciousness. There is no gathering of objects or clutter. Emphasisis on emptiness. There are no idols, no statues, no paintings.There may be old rugs on the floor, and one leaves one(s shoesoutside. It is a place for meditation and studying the 'ur(an. #uhammad did not often use metaphors. There are few momentswhen the prophetic voice is not urgent and demanding. Even whendescribing harvests, the vision fades into the image of fieldsshorn by the sic2le of Allah!

The similitude of the earth is as a golden robe

%uch as the earth wears when watered by the rain,And the harvest ripens for men and beast together!$eautiful is the earth with her adornments;Woefully do men believe themselves her master!Then cometh 9ur commandment stealthily in the night,9r in broad daylight We utter the command,And ma2e her barren, laying her waste,As though she had never blossomed in her day.%urah x

1e represents a stern and unrelenting deity, suspicious of men anddemanding the absolute submission of men. %ubmission =islam> underits various forms is the continual study of #uhammad. 8earlyalways #uhammad uses the image of the patriarchal Abraham,archetypal submitter.

#uhammad never doubted that war was a blessed thing whenfought in the cause of faith. Again and again in the 'ur(an heurges his followers to implacable war!

%lay them wherever you find them, and drive them out of the places they

drove youfrom. Idolatry is worse than war. $ut do not fight them within the precincts ofthe #os?ue unless they first attac2 you there@ but if they attac2 you there,thenslay them. %uch is the reward of unbelievers.If they mend their ways, 2now that "od is forgiving and merciful.4ight them until idolatry is no more, and "od(s religion is supreme.%urah ii

$y precept and example he sanctified the sword.

At the death of the prophet no one 2new what the future wouldbring. Almost alone and singlehanded #uhammad had brought the


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Islamic state into being, and as far as anyone 2new he had made norecommendation for a successor. 1e had announced the law on allmanner of subjects relating to daily life, but there was no lawwhich related how the state should be ruled after his death, or howhe should be buried, or what honors should be paid to him. Abu $a2r

remembered that #uhammad had once told him! A prophet should belaid in the earth in the place where he dies. If #uhammad had not died in the hut of his favorite wife, thehistory of Islam might be very different. #any followers believedAli would be elected to the vacant leadership position, for Ali washis adopted son, married to his daughter 4atima. $ut he wasdisli2ed by Ayesha, the wife in whose abode #uhammad died. Abu $a2r was then elected by acclamation and granted thetitle of 3alifa, or %uccessor. 1is famous inaugural sermonsuggests the strengths of the man!

Ferily I have become the chief among you, though I am not the best amongyou. IfI do well, help me@ set me right, if I am in the wrong. 7ou shall showfaithfulness to me by telling me the truth to conceal the truth from me istreachery. The wea2 and oppressed among you shall be strong in my eyes,until Ihave vindicated their just rights, if the ord wills@ and the strong among youshall be wea2 in my eyes, until I have made them fulfill the obligations duefromthem. 8ow hear2en to me! when the people abandon the fight =jihad> in theways ofthe ord, 1e casteth them away in disgrace. 3now also that wic2ednessneverabounds in any nation, but the ord visiteth it with calamity. As I obey "odandand 1is #essenger, obey me@ but if I neglect the laws of "od and 1is#essenger,then refuse me obedience. Arise to prayer, and the ord have mercy on you;

0ombining Arabes?ue and ArchitectureThe ome of the Boc2 in Derusalem

The mos?ue of The ome of the Boc2 was finished in -K6 0.E.Its design and setting are magnificent. It is situated in a largecourt on the site where %olomon had built his temple in the tenthcentury, and where the Dews had built their second temple followingthe $abylonian exile. The Bomans devastated the area. 9mar, thesecond caliph, chose this site for a mos?ue. $ut the ome of theBoc2 was actually built under the reign of Abd al#ali2, whoappointed some Dews as guardians of the temple mount, now called1aram al%harif =noble sanctuary>.

The ban on idols and sculpture and painting of any

representational character was due to Dewish influence. $ut therewas also a 0hristian architectural influence. $oth the octagonal


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shape of the ome of the Boc2 and the dome surmounting it are foundearlier in many 0hristian churches. The dome was copied from thatof the church of the 1oly %epulcher, down to its measurements. $othdomes have been renewed several times, but that of the mos?ue 2eptits shape. The prototype for these domes was %t. %ophia. $ut the

#uslims simplified the entire design. Their uncompromisingmonotheism rejected the three domes and three half domes and threetiers. Early mos?ues all had one dome.

The explanation for the ome of the Boc2(s constructionheld by the #uslim faithful is involved with the exegesis of the'ur(an 6*.6! "lorified be 1e who carried 1is servant L#uhammadM bynight from the masjid alharam =#ecca> to the masjid ala?sa Lthefarthest place of worshipM. Thus it might be suggested that theome of the Boc2 was built as a memorial of a specific incident inthe prophet(s life. The architecture follows the tradition of0hristian martyria, and resembles the structure commemorating the

Ascension of 0hrist.

Islamic tradition relates that in the year before going to7athrib #uhammad received a visitation from the Angel. The 'ur(ancontains only the above brief reference to the event. $ut traditionrecords that #uhammad was awa2ened in the depth of night by theAngel "abriel, who thundered! Awa2e, thou sleeper; 1e was da::ledby the brightness of the Angel, and by the shining of a strangewinged horse which had a human face. This horse was restless, butgrew calm when #uhammad mounted it. Then in a flash the wingedhorse soared into the heavens in the direction of Derusalem,plunging to earth at #ount %inai and $ethlehem, where #uhammadoffered prayers, and then the horse continued its progress. At theTemple in Derusalem the horse alighted, and #uhammad simplyfastened it to the rings and entered the 1oly of 1olies to findAbraham, #oses and Desus praying together. 1e joined them for aspace, but a ladder came down from heaven and he soared againtoward the %eventh 1eaven and entered the house of the 0reator,where the light was blinding with incredible glory. There he wasembraced by "od, whose face remained invisible in the annihilatingbrightness, yet he was made aware of the face as a presence, and he

felt "od(s touch on his breast and shoulder, a touch which fro:ehim to the heart and to the marrow of his bones. $linded andda::led, he stumbled from the divine presence@ the celestiaalladder brought him with the speed of lightning to Derusalem, andwith the same speed the winged horse returned him to the house ofone of his converts in #ecca.

This is the story #uhammad told and those who believe hewas transported bodily point to the footprint in the ome of theBoc2 in Derusalem where he leaped on his winged horse.

"od is the ight of the 1eavens and the earth.

The similitude of 1is ight is as a niche wherein is a lamp.And the lamp is within a glass,


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And the glass as it were a pearly star.This lamp is lit from a blessed tree,And olive neither of the East nor of the West!Almost this oil would shine, though no fire touched it.ight upon ight, "od guideth whom 1e will to 1is ight.

And 1e spea2eth in parables to men, for 1e 2noweth all things.This ight is revealed in the templesWhich "od hath permitted to be raised in 1is name!Therefore men praise 1im in the morning and in the evening.

Whom neither trade nor traffic divert from the remembrance of 1is name.As they offer prayers and ma2e payment of almsThrough fear of the day when hearts and eyeballs shall roll,Mn hope of reward for their most excellent deeds."od giveth 1is blessings without stint to whom 1e pleaseth.As for the unbelievers, their wor2s are li2e a mirage in the desert,

And the thirsty dream of water, but find nothing there.$ut "od is present. 1e payeth them their due with swift rec2onings!9r li2e the dar2ness of the ocean in a time of tempest,Wave riding upon wave, the clouds hovering over them!ayer upon layer off dar2ness,%o that a man putting forth his hand scarcely sees it!4or him there is no light when "od refuses 1is ight.1ast thou not seen how all things in 1eaven and Earth praise 1im, the first and most impressive of the threemos?ues that ma2e Isfahan one of the most beautiful cities of theIslamic world. A major innovation in this mos?ue is the use ofivans, large vaulted niches closed on three sides but open to thecentral court on the fourth side. %maller niches were also fittedinto low arcs and fitted into upright rectangles. The four wallsthat surround the great court consist of two tiers of such ivans,those above being of the same width as those below but with shortersides and in the middle of each wall is a large ivan. The tiles show Islamic influence. What distinguishes the tilewor2 and other arts of Islam, including Cersian rugs, is the

avoidance of representation and the virtuosity in the developmentof abstract decoration. 9rnamental use of Arabic inscription isfre?uently stunning, and the tiled domes of Isfahan provideabundant beautiful examples. When figures of men and animals finally appeared in Islamicart, care was ta2en to avoid the slightest suggestion of idolatry.0arpets dared to show figures because one tread upon them.G8evertheless most carpets did not use images of men or animals.

#uhammad(s aversion to luxury was another element in formingIslamic aesthetics. The Arab society into which he was born loo2eddown on men who wor2ed with their hands. When the 3aaba in #ecca,

a modest structure, burned down in -+), the #eccans summoned a"ree2 carpenter who was then on board a ship passing through


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Duddah. This foreigner rebuilt the shrine with the assistance ofa coptic craftsman.) According to tradition, #uhammad said! Whoever drin2s fromgold and silver vessels, drin2s the fire of hell. %o #uslims didnot ma2e vessels of gold and silver. "radually substitutes began to

be used. A film of golden luster would be added to pottery in theninth century. Then thin pieces of gold and silver inlay in bron:eor brass appeared.

In India the Taj #ahal has a fairy tale beauty about it, butthe building is in the tradition of Islamic art. The monuments ofIslam have more in common around the world than do those of otherworldviews. #uslims hold that Islam is the ultimate religion. It is thereligion of Abraham, the primal monotheism of the beginning, comebac2 in finali:ed form. It is the ultimate expression of religionbecause it is in fact the simplest and clearest.

Islamic submission to oneness is expressed in part throughthe avoidance of shir2, idolatry, or putting other gods beside the9ne. It is typified by the avoidance of images, and often of anyrepresentational art, in #uslim religion and culture. This is nota condemnation of the created world. Islam has little asceticism ofthis 2ind. It praises the joys of marriage and the table, andparadise itself is described in sensual terms. $ut these are giftsof "od, to be accepted and enjoyed for themselves with gratitude.

#uslim expansion occurred for the most part withoutphysical destruction and without massacres. As a result the sumtotal of art and material culture of the preIslamic world remainedas such with its uses and associations intact. Islam also inheriteda complex set of collective memories, legends, and myths, some aslocali:ed as village cults, others involving heroic legends such asthat of the Iranian hero Bustam or of %olomon. Thus the point ofdeparture for Islamic art is the actual use by the #uslim world ofits material, aesthetic, and emotional inheritance. 4rom early Islamic times arose an artistic principle thatrejected the complex uses of representations in con?uered areas. Inlegali:ing iconophobia, it endowed it with moral rectitude. The

following passage from the tenthcentury writer Ibn #is2awayh canserve as an illustration. In listing vices, he mentionsthe see2ing of that which is precious and which is a source of dispute for all....When a 2ing, for instance, owns in his treasury an object of rare ?uality or aprecious stone, he thereby exposes himself to being afflicted by its loss. 4orsuchobjects are unfailingly destined to be damaged when we consider the natureof thegenerated world and the corruption which wills that all things be altered andtransformed and that all that is treasured or ac?uired become corrupted....5nable

to replace La lost objectM with an exact e?uivalent, the 2ing becomes aprisoner


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of necessity.-

This text suggests more than a rejection of representation and aconviction that all aesthetic creativity that is tied to thematerial world is vanity and evil. In this way Islamic attitudes,

conditioned by historical circumstances, reached a rejection of artin the same way almost every puritanical reaction has done.

According to the basic teaching of Islam! There is nodivinity other than Allah = la ilaha il, Allah>. %o it is throughthe distinction of the different planes of reality that everythingis gathered beneath the infinite vault of the %upreme 5nity. 4romthis point of view, it is thought to be a fundamental error toproject the nature of the absolute into the relative. The primarysource of this error is the imagination or illusion =alwahm>. %oa #uslim sees in figurative art a contagious manifestation of this

error. The image projects one order of reality into another. %oevery artistic creation must be treated according to the laws ofits domain of existence and must illustrate those laws.Architecture, for example, must manifest the static e?uilibrium andstate of perfection of motionless bodies, typified in the regularshape of a crystal. The crude material is lightened and rendereddiaphonous by the chiselling of the arabes?ues and by carvings inthe form of stalactites and hollows.

The abstract nature of Islamic art reveals as directly aspossible 5nity in multiplicity. Art to the #uslim must be a proofof the divine existence in that it is beautiful without showingany subjective interpretation. Its beauty must be li2e that of thestarry s2y.Arabes?ue In the arabes?ue, the typical creation of Islam, thegeometrical genius meets the nomadic spirit. The arabes?ue is a2ind of dialectic of ornament, in which logic is allied to a livingcontinuity of rhythem. It has two basic elements, the interlacementand the plant motif. The former is a derivative of geometricalspeculation, while the latter represents a sort of graphicformulation of rhythm, expressed in spiraloid designs which may

possibly be derived not so much from plant forms as from purelylinear symbolism. All suggestions of individual form are removed bythe indefiniteness of a continuous weave. The repetition ofidentical motifs, the flamboyant movement of lines, and thedecorative e?uivalence of forms in relif or incised, all contributeto the effect.

9rnament adorns monuments from many cultures. It is on the AraCacis in Bome, %t. %ophia in 0onstantinople, or any 0orinthiancapital. The presence of ornament does not modify the meaning ofthe monuments on which they are found, but their absence isdetrimental. %o as Islam forced on itself a number of limitations

on what could be representational or iconographically significant,it paid more and more attention to ornament. Thus every new motif,


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especially inscriptions, were elaborated.Fegetal elements dominate. While palmettes, halfpalmettes,

grape leaves and bunches, and rosettes are most numerous, almostevery motif of vegetal origin found in classical, early $y:antine,%assanian, 0entral Asian, and possible Indian ornament can be found

in Islamic art. The second 2ind of ornament involves geometricdesigns. Although vegetal and geometric themes predominate, animal,human, and epigraphical themes exist as well. $ut neither its si:enor its internal forms dictate early Islamic ornament. It isarbitrary in itself. This arbitrariness is carried down to thelevel of design composition and is intended to separate an object(ssurface from its shape.

At least part of this involves the notion, lilah albagi, theBemaining is to Allah. The implication is that arbitariness andlac2 of order are necessary because they prove divine permanence.8o human creation can reflect physical reality because Allah alone

ma2es everything permanent. Cygmalion(s sin, falling in love withhis creation, is the great sin. %ince the artist must avoidimitating Allah, the artist becomes free to recompose the units ofnature in any way she sees fit and the more arbitrary, the better. 4rom the eleventh century on Islamic art became more selfassured. The formation of Islamic aesthetics can be thus seen as anaccumulation and distribution of forms from all over the con?ueredworld. A choice was made among the visual languages, the forms orcombinations of forms that could continue to serve in the Islamicsetting in the midst of the preceding traditions. %o thegenerali:ed niche of the art of anti?uity became the mihrab@ coinslost all images and became covered with inscriptions@ animatedrepresentations disappeared from all that was private, and aniconicdoctrine developed. Eventually a purely ornamental art dominatedthat part of the aesthetic wor2s available to the public. The noblest Islamic worldview expression ta2es the form ofcalligraphy, and it is the writing of the 'ur(an that is the sacredart par excellence. It represents the visible body of the ivineWord. In sacred inscriptions the Arabic letters combine fluentlywith arabes?ues, especially plant motifs, which are brought intoclose relationship with the Asiatic symbol of the tree of the

world. The leaves of this tree correspond to the words of the%acred $oo2.Arabic callibraphy contains within itself alone decorative possibilities ofinexhaustible richness@ its modalities vary between the monumental 3uficscriptwith its rectilinear forms and vertical brea2s, and the nas2hi with its line asfluid and as serpentine as it could be. The richness of the Arabic script comesfrom the fact that it has fully developed its two (dimensions(! the vertical, whichconfers on the letters their hieratic dignity, and the hori:ontal, which lin2sthemtogether in a continuous flow.*

The ivine Word must remain a verbal expression, and as such


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instantaneous and immaterial, in the li2eness of an act ofcreation. 9nly this way does it preserve its evocative power.#anifested in time but not in space, speech avoids the changeseffected by time on spatial things. Written sources do notindicate the existence of a teaching on the arts before the tenth

century.

Islamic iterature Within the Arabic literary tradition, both medieval andmodern, women enjoyed a less prominent position than male authors.This does not mean women were excluded. There were prominent womenpoets, li2e the preIslamic al32hansa( and the medieval AndalusianWallada, as well as women mystics and scholars. $ut most femalepoets were the Islamic e?uivalent of geishas, the singing slavegirls, whose social marginality and dubious respectability werewitnessed by the treatment they received in textual sources.

0onse?uently few women authors came to be included in the historyof AraboIslamic literature.

In fact, the literature displays an interest in and fear ofwomen. The ?uestion of the position of women in Islam has longfascinated the West. The image of women languishing under the yo2eof Islam titillates the Western observer and permits him to placehimself in the superior position. Women and their role become astic2 with which the West can beat the East.J The female narrator of The Thousand and 9ne 8ights,%hahra:ad, symboli:ed narrative power. 1er way with words andperceived ability to control discourse provo2e envy today.K Thee2phrasis of The Thousand and 9ne 8ights, the frame of prologue andepilogue, is a powerful narrative. 4rom %hahra:ad(s perspective,the e2phrasis becomes a timegaining techni?ue. %hehre:adtempori:es by ma2ing one story follow another, until at last shehas gained her victory.6+ esire is the heart of the e2phrasis, but desire as aproblem. 4or there are proper and improper desires. Thus oneepisode in which the two 2ings are deceived by their adulterouswives leads the two 2ings in unison to shout Allah, Allah.... Inna2ayda2unna (a:im ="od, "od... Indeed your guile is great>. This

is a ?uote from the 'ur(an(s twelfth surah, that of Doseph. Thepresence of this verse does more than allude to the story of theEgyptian ruler(s wife, her infatuation with Doseph, and thesubse?uent accusations. It became a convention for alluding to thesexual tric2s of women. %hahra:ad differs from the females previously presented in thestories. They represented purely sexual physical desire in the mostobvious ways possible. Their exploitive use of desire is part ofthe problem the vi:ier(s daughter is to correct. $ut her techn?i?eof ending the story at dawn so the listener is left in suspensecould be seen as the ultimate in female seductive tric2ery. $ut

the desire is elevated into a 2ind of desire that is not limitedand can be extended and shared indefinitely.


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Another common convention of early Islamic narrative is theattempted seduction of a holy man. In the #a2ayid al8iswan are anumber of examples. That of 4adlun can serve as a firstillustration. The angel "abriel supposedly announced 4adlun(s

ordeal to #uhammad before it happened. The ordeal would ta2e placein the reign of 5mar and only Ali, the Crophet(s cousin andsoninlaw could help 4adlun. 4adlun was ordered by #uhammad toveil himself in order to avert the female ga:e and the possibleproblems that would ensue. $ut 4adlun had the misfortune of havinga woman fall in love with him anyway. 1e rebuffed her advances, butshe was clever and accused him of several evil actions. %he turnedhis nightlong prayers at the cemetery into grave robbing. 5mar, tosolve the mystery, followed 4adlun and found that he spent hisnight in prayer and in selfflagellation. %o the woman nextcontinued her tric2s during the pilgrimage. 4irst she attempted

without success to have the holy man give her money to the poor inthe holy city as redemption for her sintobe with him. Then, withthe aid of her slave girl, she set the man up for theft. When thejudgment of this act was delayed until the return from thepilgrimage, she murdered her own slave girl and accused 4adlun notonly of the murder but of raping her as well. 4adlun made hispilgrimage in chains and when it was over, he was brought beforethe ruler, who ordered him to be beaten. Dust at the moment when the beating is to begin Ali appears,first in a dream and then in reality. Ali(s arrival is miraculous.1e crosses the distance between 3ufa and #edina in a few steps. hetells 5mar that he believes in 4adlun and will demonstrate to theruler a trial that will surprise the angels in heaven. he has thewoman brougt in and as2s her about her accusations and herwitnesses. 1er witnesses are numerous, but Ali as2s if she will goby the testimony of her fetus. %he agrees. Ali has a rod thatbelonged to the Crophet brought in, places it on her belly, andas2s the fetus to reveal the culprits of the various crimes. Thisthe fetus does. 1is father is the woman(s blac2 slave@ his motheris the murderess and the one responsible for staging the theft.5mar is pleased and Ali as2s that the woman(s punishment be put off

until she has delivered the baby and nursed it. Ali is allowed toreturn to 3ufa, and 5mar waits until the birth occurs. 1er newbornis blac2 and dies on the spot. %he is 2illed and 4adlun liveshappily ever after worshiping the #ost 1oly. The narrative bristles with sensitive issues! the politicalrivalry between 5mar and Ali, the collusion between #uhammad andAli, the sexual liaison of the good woman and the blac2 slave butall this again stresses a fundamental ambiguity in the narrativethat characteri:es Islamic art. The same body of stories contains an additional story of thesame type. At the time of the ancient Israelites, there were six

men who rejected the world and wanted to seclude themselves in theworship of the Almighty. The oldest suggested they see2 the


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wilderness. They settled close to a city and said their prayersregularly, while managing to 2eep themselves alive by weaving andselling mats. Eventually the 2ing of Israel learned of them, whohad a young daughter whose mother had died. The 2ing began to cryand when the daughter as2ed the reason, he replied that he wished

to join the worshipers because this world was worthless. 1isdaughter at hearing this also began to cry and as2ed how she couldget along without him. 1e replied that women had no businesssitting with men either by day or by night. The girl replied thatshe was young and had nothing to do with men, so why did not herfather get her some men(s clothing and she could accompany him. The2ing did this and the two went to join the seven worshipers. Thedaughter was believed to be a man and joined the men in their holyactivities. The 2ing then fell deathly sic2 and enjoined hiscompanions to ta2e care of his son. 9ne day while this young man was on his way to the city to

sell mats, he was observed by the daughter of that city(s ruler.Ta2en by his beauty, she got her wet nurse to lure him to thehouse, on pretense that the nurse had a sic2 son who needed theyouth(s religious intercession. Alone with the ruler(s daughter,the young man, invo2ing the deity, resisted her advances. 1e waslet out and continued on his way to the mar2et. The young woman(s sexual urges got the better of her, however,and again with the aid of her wet nurse, she had intercourse witha man who impregnated her. The mother discovered the pregnancy, andthe 2ing summoned his daughter. %he said that it was the young manwith the seven worshipers who had done this. The 2ing had thepolice beat and bring the entire group before him. The worshipersinsisted on the young man(s innocence and the 2ing decided to sendhim off alone to an isolated sector of the 2ingdom. The daughter(snewborn was sent there as well. When the young manwoman prayed to"od that 1e should ta2e care of this child, the deity as2ed theangel "abriel to comission a ga:elle to ta2e care of the infant.The young manwoman then as2ed "od to ta2e this child so it wouldnot distract her from her prayers@ which was also done. 8ews ofthis worshiper reached the city and the seven original holy menas2ed the 2ing to return their young companion to them. This was

also done.Eventually the young holy manwoman became ill and hiscompanious as2ed for a testament. This completed, and at theirinsistence that there had to be the ritual washing of the dead, theyoung mon2 re?uested that the eldest among them ta2e a 2nife andopen the armor he was wearing. After that they could do with herwhat they wished. When death came, the re?uest was followed. Theelder opened the breastplate and found himself loo2ing at a youngwoman(s chest. 1e dropped the 2nife and told the others of what hehad seen. They told him to loo2 again, but he insisted that theycall in the women of the city to handle the case. This was done,

and it was discovered that she was indeed a woman. The 2ingreali:ed his crime and had her properly buried. 1e had his daughter


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2illed and her head paraded around the city with words of warning.The narrator finishes the tale with a typicl warning! oo2, mybrother, at the actions of women... . %o we see2 protection from"od from their guile. Indeed their guile is great.66

This is a story that rivals 4adlun(s in complexity. Two 2ings withtwo daughters lay their fortunes across the text. 9ne ruler, insearch of the deity, will provo2e the transvestism and crosssexualrole in his daughter. The other ruler, still in control of the cityand his worldly 2ingdom, has a sinful daughter. The issue is not asclear as it would initially appear. The sexual ambiguity of thefirst 2ing(s daughter maintains much of the tension in the story.1ow the narrator shifts from the masculine to the feminine genderwhen discussing herhis activities tells us as much about theultimate gender issues as the development of the story itself. ...The exclusive religious experience belongs to men. It is,

therefore, only through her transvestism that the young woman canform part of this male group of worshipers.6/

Islam has a story of Adam and Eve.

And recite to them the tiding of him to whomWe gave 9ur signs, but he cast them off,and %atan followed after him, and he became one of the perverts.And had We willed, We would have raised him upthereby@ but he inclined toward the earthand followed his lust. %o the li2eness of himis as the li2eness of a dog@ if you attac2est itit lolls its tongue out, or if thou leavest itit lolls its tongue out. That is that people(s li2enesswho cried lies to 9ur signs. %o relate the story@ haply they will reflect. =%urah *! 6*G)>

Islam recogni:es the sin, but does not see the effects as extendingto others.

And when the ord too2 from the 0hildren of Adam,from their loins, their seed, and made them testifytouching themselves, Am I not your ord


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#uslims claim that Islam brought improvement in the state ofwomen. Eve was created by "od to be a helper and companion forAdam. Islam does not permit infanticide or abuse of women. Wivesshould be properly treated. Women can inherit and own property, but

they are dependent on men.#an2ind fear your ord, who created youof a single soul, and from it createdits mate, and from the pair of them scatteredabroad many men and women@ and fear "odby whom you demand one of anotherand the wombs@ surely "od ever watches over you."ive the orphans their property, and do not exchange the corrupt for thegood@ anddevour not

their property with your property@ surely that is a great crime.If you fear that you will not act justlytowards the orphans, marry such womenas seem good to you, two, three, four@but if you fear you will not be e?uitable,then only one, or what your right hands own@so it is li2elier you will not be partialAnd give the women their dowries as a giftspontaneous@ but if they are pleasedto offer you any of it, consume it with wholesome appeties.$ut do not give to fools their propertythat "od has assigned to you to manage@provide for them and clothe them out of it,and spea2 to them honorable words.Test well the orphans, until they reachthe age of marrying@ then, if you perceivein them right judgment, deliver to themtheir property@ consume it not wastefully and hastily

ere they are grown. If any man is rich,let him be abstinent@ if poor, let him consume in reason.And when you deliver to them their property,ta2e witnesses over them@ "od suffices for a rec2oner.To the men a share of what parents and 2insmenleave, and to the women a share of whatparents and 2insmen leave,whether it be little or much, a share is apportioned@and when the division is attended by

2insmen and orphans and the poor,ma2e provision for them out of it,


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and spea2 to them honorable words. =%urah G! 6K>

A representative of the %ufi tradition, Dami =d. 6GK/ 0.E.>explains human allcomprehensiveness.

The entities were all colored windows upon which fell the rays of $eing(s %un.In every window red, yellow, blue the light appeared in the window(s color.

The light of "od(s $eing And "od(s is the highest li2eness L6-!-+M isli2e sensory light, while the realities and immutable entites are li2e differentcolored pieces of glass. The variegations of the selfmanifestation of the Bealwithin those realities and entities is li2e the diverse colors. The colors of light show themselves according to the colors of the glass,which

is light(s veil. $ut in actual fact, light has no color. If the glass is clear andwhite, light appears within it as clear and white. If the glass is dar2 andcolored, light appears dar2 and colored. At the same time, light in itself is one,simple, and allencompassing. It has no color and no shape. In a similar way,thelight of the Beal(s $eing has a self manifestation with each reality and entity.If that reality and entity should be near to simplicity, luminosity, and clarity such as the entities of disengaged intellects and souls $eing(s lightappears in that locus of manifestation in extreme clarity, luminosity, andsimplicity. If instead it is far from simpliciity, li2e the entities of corporealthings, then $eing(s light will appear dense, even though, in itself, it isneither dense nor subtle. 1ence it is 1e exalted and holy is 1e who is the true 9ne, free of form,attribute, color, and shape at the level of unity. And it is also 1e whomanifests1imself within the multiple loci of manifestation in diverse forms, inaccordancewith 1is names and attributes.

Dami represents the sapiential tradition when he narratesthe story of the creation of Adam from the 'ur(an =/!+G>. The

passage is ta2en from his mathnawi, %ilsilat aldhahab. 1e precedeseach poetical section with a short prose summary.

Explaining that the children of Adam do not 2now their ownperfection and imperfection, since they were not created forthemselves. 9n the contrary, they were created for other thanthemselves. 1e who created them created them only for 1imself, notfor them. 1e gave them only what would be proper for them in orderto belong to 1im. Were they to 2now that they were created fortheir ord, they would 2now that "od created the creatures in themost perfect forms....

Ceople always believe


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that they were created for themselves.Whatever appears to them as appropriate, they consider to be good and perfect,$ut whatever they imagine as inappropriate they put into the category of imperfection.

$ut this belief is error itself, since they were created for "od.The goal of their creation, whatever it might be, cannot be surpassed.In reality the human being(s perfection is that which is desired from his existence by "od.4rom the existence of things "od only wanted the manifestation of 1is names or attributes.8o matter what appears in the courtyard of the cosmos, the goal is manifesting the property of a name.If we suppose that a thing did not come to exist,

how could the property of the name be shown, p. K+. In Bobert Cayne, The 1istory of Islam =8ew 7or2! orset,6K)K>, p. JK. G Bichard Ettinghausen, The 0haracter of Islamic Art, in TheArab 1eritage, 8abih Amin 4aris, ed. =Crinceton! Crinceton

5niversity Cress, 6KGG>, p. /)J. ) Ibid., /) . - In 9leg "rabar, The 4ormation of Islamic Art =8ew 1aven! 7ale5niversity Cress, 6K*>, pp. K*KJ. * %ee Titus $urc2hardt, %acred Art in East and West =ondon!Cerennial $oo2s, 6K-*>, pp. 66-f. J 4edwa #altiouglas, Woman(s $ody, Woman(s Word! "ender andiscourse in AraboIslamic Writing =Crinceton! Crinceton 5niversityCress, 6KK6>, p. 6. K %ee Dohn $arth, 0himera =8ew 7or2! 4awcett 0rest, 6K*/>, pp.K-G>.

6+ #ia I. "erhardt, The Art of %torytelling! A iterary %tudyof the Thousand and 9ne 8ights =eiden! E.D. $rill, 6K->, pp.


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K*KJ. 66 This and the preceding 4adlun story ta2en from Ibnal$atanuni, 8iswan, fol. 6+*@ from #altiouglas, Woman(s $ody,Woman(s Word, pp. -/ff. 6/ 4edwa #altiouglas, Woman(s $ody, Womans Word, p. -).

6 %am(ani, Bawh alarwah 6/. 6G Ibn al(Arabi, 4utahat II. )+./)>. 6) Ba:i, #irsad al(ibad -)K/. 6- 8asafi, Insan(i 2amil, 6G/G. 6* Ibn %ina, al 8jah +*. 6J 4rom B.A. 8icholson, A iterary 1istory of the Arabs=0ambridge! 0ambridge 5niversity Cress, 6K**>, p. /J. 6K In A.D. Arberry, Arabic Coetry! A Crimer for %tudents=0ambridge! 0ambridge 5niversity Cress, 6K-)>, p. G+f. /+ 8icholson, op. cit. p. /KG. /6 Ibid., p. /KKf.

// Ibid., p. G+. / 1.A.B. "ibb, Arabic iterature! An Introduction =9xford!9xford 5niversity Cress, 6K*G>, p. 66. /G In #.1. $a2alla, Arabic 0ulture through Its anguage anditerature =ondon! 3egan Caul, 6KJG>, pp. 6KGf. /) Ibid., pp. 6K*KJ. /- Ibid., pp. //G* /* Adnan 1aydar, The #u(alla?a of Imru( al'ays! its structureand meaning, I, Edebiiyai II/ =6K/*>, //*/J. /J $eirut! ar alAdab, =6K*J> p. ). /K Ibid., p. 6. + Ibid., p. +. 6 Ibid., p. 66*. / In the journal alAdab =4eb.#arch 6KJ+>, 66+.

%uggested Beadings Andrae, Tor, In the "arden of #yrtles! %tudies in Early Islamic#ysticism =Albany! %587 Cress, 6KJ*>.

Arberry, A.D., The Coem of the Way! Translated into EnglishFerse from the Arabic of Ibn al 4arabi =ondon! Emery Wal2er,6K)/>.

OOOO #odern Arabic Coetry! An Anthology with English FerseTranslations =ondon! 0ambridge 5niversity Cress, 6K*)>

Austin, B.W.D., The %ufis of Andalusia =ondon! "eorge Allen P5nwin, 6K*6>.

0hittic2, W.0. eath and the World of Imagination! Ibn al(Arabi(s Eschatology, The #uslim World *J =6KJJ> )6J/.


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The %ufi Cath of 3nowledge! Ibn al(Arabi(s #etaphysics ofImagination =Albany! %587 Cress, 6KJK>.

0orbin, 1enry, The #an of ight in Iranian %ufism =$oulder!

%hambala, 6K*J>.

8. aniel, The Arabs and #ediaeval Europe =ondon and $eirut,6K*)>.

Elias, Damal D. 4emale and 4eminine in Islamic #ysticism,#uslim World *J =6KJJ> /+K/G.

"abrieli, 4rancesco, ed. Arab 1istorians of the 0rusades =8ew7or2! orsett, 6K)*>.

"raham, W. ivine Word and Crophetic Word in Early Islam =The1ague! #outon, 6K*6>.

3houri, #ounah, Coetry and the #a2ing of #odern Egypt,6J//6K// =eiden! E.D. $rill, 6K*6>.

3isa(i, al, The Tales of the Crophets of al2isa(i. Trans. W.Thac2ston =$oston! Twayne, 6K*J>.

#urata, %achi2o, The Tao of Islam =Albany! %tate 5niversity of8ew 7or2 Cress, 6KK/>.

%chimmel, A. As Through a Feil! #ystical Coetry in Islam =8ew7or2! 0olumbia 5niversity Cress, 6KJ/>.

OOOO#ystical imensions of Islam =0hapel 1ill! 5niversity of8orth 0arolina Cress, 6K*)>.

%mith, D.I. and 1addad, 7., Eve! Islamic Image of Woman, inWomen and Islam, ed. A:i:ah al1ibri, et all. =8ew 7or2! Cergamon,6KJ/>, 6)GG.

C.A. Throop, 0riticism of the 0rusade! A %tudy of Cublic9pinion and 0rusade Cropaganada =Amsterdam, 6KG+>.

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