World War I

Death, Destruction, Displacement and

the Triumph of the Nation-State

A Century of Conflict

• Russian wars 1806-1812

• Greek War of Independence 1821

• Turko-Russian War 1828-1829

• Second Turko-Russian War 1877-1878

• The Balkan Wars 1912-1913

• The First World War 1914-1917

• The War of Independence 1917-1922

The theater of war

The Central Powers

The Entente Powers

MORE ALLIES JOIN IN ….

The War in the Middle East: The Ottomans fighting on 4 fronts

A “Civilian” WarM O B I L I Z A T I O N

DEATH AND DESTRUCTION

CIVILIAN AND MILITARY LOSSES

• FRENCH LOSSES• Total pop: 39.6 mil.• Military: 1,397,800• Civilian: 300,000• = 1,697,800

• + 4,266,000 military personnel wounded

• OTTOMAN LOSSES• Total pop: 21.3 mil.• Military: 800,000• Civilian: 4,200,000• = 5,000,000

• + 4,247,143 military personnel wounded

Total: 9.7 m military + 10 m civilian = 40 million deaths

Paris 1919: The Big Four

The Ideals of Self Determination

A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

The Contest for Macedonia

Greek claims: HISTORY

In classical times, Greece and Macedonia had a shared history

- Under Philip and Alexander the Great, Macedonia part of Greece

- Despite language difference, religious difference, Macedonians are “Greek in their hearts”

Problems with using Alexander’s Empire as criteria of “Greek” identity:

I: Iran, Egypt, India, Afghanistan……. Where does it end?

II. Persians could claim the same territory?

III. The problem remains: how to define a “people”??

To the victors, the spoils: sharing out the Ottoman Empire

The Bulgarian Claim

Macedonians closer to Bulgarian Church than Greek Church

- not given option for independent Mac Ch.

- religious affinity, regardless of language

Everyone in region is Bulgarian if they are not Greek or Turkish.

Greek and Turks exist only where those “people” are in the majority.

All slavic speaking Macedonians are Bulgarians.

The Serbian Claim

Regardless of linguistic and religious differences, all Christians in region are Serbs.

Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek stats

• Bulgarian stats• 499,000 Turks• 1,181,000 Bulgars• 229,000 Greeks• 1,000 Serbs

• Greek stats• 634,000 Turks• 332,000 Bulgars• 653,000 Greeks• No serbs

Serbian stats231,000 Turks; 57,000 Bulgars; 201,000 Greeks2,048,000 Serbs

How to reconcile these differences?

Who is a Macedonian?

The Treaty of Sevres

Nationalism and Its Discontents: Homogenization

Religious variety in 1912

Anatolia 80% Muslim

Izmir 50% Muslim

34% Greek

3% Armenian

13% other

Religious variety in 1922

Anatolia 98% Muslim

Izmir 100% Muslim

(approximate stats only)

The Arab Middle East: the Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916

The Mandates

What is a mandate??

Mandates are territories “inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world.”

France and Britain promise to assist the mandates “until such a time as they are able to stand alone.”

Transjordan, Syria, Iraq, Palestine

questions:

1) How were states’ borders chosen?

2) What was promised by Mandate powers?

3) What happened to the principle of self-determination?

4) What about national identity?

5) How to create a nation-state?

Why does it matter?

a) Origins matter

b) historical memory matters

c) Colonialism’s impact STILL matters

d) Disrespect, duplicity, domination are not easily forgotten……

The Husayn-MacMahon Correspondence, 1915

Context:World War I : seeking advantagesBritish vs OttomansOttoman prestige and Islamic credentialsSharif Husayn of Mecca as a counterweight

From same family as the ProphetGuardian of Holy ShrinesArab

What was the deal?

Sharif Husayn would…..

- Come out against the Ottoman Empire

- Son would lead “Arab Revolt” 1916 to destabilize OE and create impetus for larger Arab revolts

- Give England preferential economic contracts in a future country

In return…

The British would:

- Recognize Sharif Husayn as head of dynasty

- Assure Sharif Husayn of a new country and provide international recognition

“England to approve of the proclamation of an Arab Khalifate of Islam”

What actually was promised?

McMahon (Oct 24, 1915)

{with the exception of lands claimed by the French}…Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs in all the regions within the limits demanded by the Sherif of Mecca….

From Sharif Husayn (Jan 1, 1916)

…Your expression “we do not want to push you to any hasty action which might jeopardise the success of your aim” does not need any more explanation except what we may ask for, when necessary, such as arms, ammunition, etc….

The Balfour Declaration November 1917

His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country…

Anglo-French Declaration November 1918

The object aimed at by France and Great Britain…is the complete and definite emancipation of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks and the establishment of national governments and administrations deriving their authority from the initiative and free choice of the indigenous populations…..

Did the British make incompatible promises?

Was Colonialism simply masquerading as “self

determination?”