most likely to have had some contact with other peoples? Explain.

1. Analyzing (a) Why was writing an impor­tant development? (b) How do you think it affected the way people lived?

2. Relating Past to Present (a) How did the end of the last ice age affect local climates? (b) What effects might these changes have had on the way people lived? (c)Do you think major climate changes today would alter the way people live? Explain your answer.

3. Analyzing Geography in History (a) Des­cribe three ways in which new ideas and products were spread from one area to another. (b)What modern ideas or prod­ucts have spread from one culture to an­other? (c)By what means were they spread?

Developing Basic Skills

1. Studying an Artifact Study the statue shown on page 13. (a) What is the woman doing? (b)What can you learn about the technology of early peoples from the statue? (c) Do you think grain was impor­tant to the people who made the statue? Explain.

2. Map Reading Study the map on page 13. Then answer the following questions: (a) On what continents did early civiliza­tions develop? (b)What geographical fea­tures made travel between different regions difficult? (c) Which early civilizations were

Writing About History

Answering Essay Questions

To write an answer to an essay question, you need to understand the instruction word. Below are some common instruction words and the type of answer each requires.

Discuss: tell the significance of a person or , event - - \ . ' , . \-

Describe: write a full account of what happened

Explainl:ie\\ how or why ah action or/event, :. affects'something e l s e • '

Identify: give a person's pr event's place in time and the relation to other persons or events

Compare:'giye similarities and "differences

Sometimes an essay question will have a ques­tion word. Below are some of the most com­mon question words and the type of answer each requires.

Why: give reasons

How: tell in what way or by what means some­thing was done

What: give specific examples or illustrations

Practice: Read each of the Critical Thinking questions above. Which type of answer does each question require?

I [ Paleolithic Age

i~H Neolithic Age

B.C. — 30 B.C.)

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Early Egyptian Civilization

Government in Ancient Egypt

3 ! Ancient Egyptian Society

Among the priceless treasures uncovered in King Tutenkhamon's tomb was his gold throne. This detail from the back of the throne shows some of the riches the king eiyoyed.

J j | t first I could see nothing. The hot air escaping from the chamber 1 \ caused the candle flame to flicker. But presently, as my eyes grew

accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange figures of animals, statues, and gold—everywhere the glint of gold." With these words, Howard Carter described his first glimpse of the inside of the tomb of King Tutankhamon (TOOT ahngk AH muhn) of Egypt. Car­ter then shone a light into the room, "the first light that had pierced the dark­ness of the chamber for three thousand years. The effect was bewildering,

18 overwhelming."

In the burial chamber, Carter found Tutankhamon's coffin. Carved on the lid of the coffin was a golden statue of the king, decorated with precious jew­els. On his forehead "were two emblems delicately worked in brilliant inlay— the Cobra and the Vulture—symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt, but perhaps the most touching by its human simplicity was the tiny wreath of flowers around these symbols, the last farewell offering of the widowed queen."

Tutankhamon was one of many Egyptian rulers buried in the Valley of the Kings. This rocky and narrow gorge lies on the west bank of the Nile River near Thebes. Egyptian kings and nobles were buried with many of their posses­sions to make them comfortable in the afterlife. Their tombs were mazes of corridors and chambers cut out of the rock. The tombs were often hidden from view and tightly sealed to protect their treasures.

In the late 1800s, archaeologists had begun to explore the Valley of the Kings. All the tombs they found had been plundered by grave robbers. Then in 1922, after a long search, English archaeologist Howard Carter finally discov­ered Tutankhamon's tomb.

Since Carter's discovery, the riches of Tutankhamon's tomb have come to symbolize the achievements of Egyptian civilization. By the time Tutankhamon inherited the throne, in 1361 B . C . , Egyptian civilization was already almost 2,000 years old. Between 3500 B . C and 3000 B .C . , people living in the Nile River valley had established the first civilization in Africa. Early Egyptians prob­ably had some contact with Sumer, a civilization in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley of western Asia. But the life-giving Nile had far greater influence on the devel­opment of Egyptian civilization. •

READ TO UNDERSTAND

• How the Nile influenced the development of ancient Egypt.

• What role religion played in ancient Egypt.

• How Egyptians developed a system of writing.

• Vocabulary: delta, papyrus, cataract, hieroglyphics, pictograms, ideogram.

A search for food led Stone Age hunters to the lush Nile River valley about 8000 B.C. The cli­mate of northern Africa had gradually become drier and food was scarce. This forced hunters in the region to move. Some migrated to northeastern Africa where they discovered the Nile River valley. There they found plentiful wild game and water.

Archaeologists think that by 7000 B.C. the agricultural revolution had reached the Nile Valley. People living there grew barley, wheat, and vegetables. Early farmers eventually grew enough food to support permanent settle­ments. By 3500 B . C , many small farming vil­lages clung to the banks of the Nile.

The people called their land Kemet, mean­ing rich, black soil. As farmers, they valued the fertile soil that produced good harvests. Yet fertile soil was only one geographic advan­tage enjoyed by the Nile villages as they grew over the next few centuries.

G E O G R A P H I C SETTING

The Nile River: Giver of Life The Nile River is the longest river in the world. It flows north from its remote headwaters in the highlands of central Africa to the Mediter­ranean Sea, 4,160 miles (6,660 kilometers) away. In ancient times, as today, the Nile was considered the source of life in Egypt. Without

The language of ancient Egypt reflected the influence of the Nile Rioer. The word for "travel" was either "khed," meaning "to go downstream," or "khent," meaning "to go upstream," In this photograph Egyptians use sailboats to carry goods along the Nile today much as their ancestors did 4,000 years ago. The inset picture shows a tomb model of a sailboat used by ancient Egyptians. The crew is preparing the sail for traveling upstream

the Nile, which brings valuable moisture to the parched land, Egypt would be an extension of the Libyan Desert.

Until recently, the Nile overflowed its banks every July following the rainy season in central Africa. The Nile floods were predict­able. Although the floods occasionally caused destruction or failed to bring enough water, Egyptians usually knew about how high the waters would rise. The flood waters soaked deep into the soil where the next crop of grain would be planted.

In addition to moisture, the flood waters carried silt, which was deposited on the fields as the waters receded. The rich soil replen­ished the farmland each year.* At the mouth of the Nile, where the river empties into the Med-

* The yearly floods continued until 1970, when the Aswan High Dam was completed. The dam provides electrical power and a steady supply of water to Egypt, but it also traps silt behind its walls. Today, Egyptian farmers spread artificial fertilizers on their fields.

iterranean Sea, deposits of silt have formed a delta, that is, a triangle-shaped area of marshy flatlands.

Throughout Egyptian history, the Nile has helped to unite the villages along its banks. It served as a major highway, connecting Upper Egypt in the south to Lower Egypt in the north. (See the map on page 21.) Trade along the river was active. The river currents carried barges loaded with grain downstream to the delta. Then with sails raised, the barges caught the prevailing winds and returned up­stream.

The Nile touched people's lives in many other ways. It provided river wildlife, which Egyptians hunted for food and sport. Further­more, Egyptians used a reed called papyrus (puh PI runs) that grew along the Nile's marshy shores for making paper. The ancient Egyptians recognized the importance of the Nile, as the following lines from one of their hymns show: "If the Nile smiles the earth is joyous, every stomach is full of rejoicing."

Natural Barriers Although the Nile River dominated everyday life, other geographic features also influenced early Egyptian civilization. As you can see on the map below, the Libyan and Nubian deserts, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Red Sea form natural barriers that almost surround Egypt. These barriers protected the early Nile vil­lages from attack by outsiders. To the south, the Nile is interrupted six times by cataracts (KAT uh RAKTS), or waterfalls and rapids. The cataracts and a huge swamp, where the Nile was impassable, posed obstacles to invaders from Kush, present-day Ethiopia.

Egyptians were not completely protected by natural barriers, however. Over the centu­ries, Egyptian rulers faced many invaders. Most reached Egypt across the Sinai Penin­sula, the triangle of land that connects Egypt and western Asia. The northern Sinai also served as a path for Egyptian armies when they marched off to conquer people in western Asia.

The natural barriers of Egypt presented obstacles to Egyptians as well as to outsiders. Although the narrow strip of land along the river was fertile, farmers could not grow crops in the surrounding deserts. Thus, most Egyp­tians lived in crowded Nile villages. As the population grew, Egyptians had to overcome the limits of their local geography. They built extensive irrigation systems to carry Nile water into the desert, and they drained the marshy swamps of the Nile delta. @

Religion in Ancient Egypt Religion was a thread deeply woven into Egyp­tian life. The Egyptians' religious beliefs re­flected the importance of nature in their lives. Egyptians believed that different gods con­trolled the forces of nature, giving good har­vests or causing crops to die. They thought gods had the power of life and death over everyone. Egyptians were polytheistic. People in each village worshipped a village god in addition to other gods. They also identified certain gods with animals such as cats.

Egyptian gods. The sun god Amon-Re (AH muhn RAY) was the most important Egyp­tian god. The east, where the sun rose, sym­bolized birth to the Egyptians. The west, where

the sun set, represented death. Thus, Egyp­tians always built tombs and funeral temples on the west bank of the Nile.

Egyptian farmers gave special attention to Osiris (oh SI rihs), god of the Nile. According to an Egyptian legend, Osiris was murdered by his brother Set, an evil god who caused har­vests to wither and die. Isis (I sins), the wife of Osiris, brought her husband back to life. But Osiris did not return to the world of the living. Instead, he reigned as god of the underworld and judge of the dead. Every year, Egyptians celebrated the death and rebirth of Osiris, which they identified with the rise and fall of the Nile.

Life after death. Belief in life after death was central to Egyptian religion. When a per­son died, friends said, "You have not gone away dead. You have gone away alive." Egyp­tians thought that in the afterlife people were happy, well fed, and busy with the same activi­ties they had enjoyed in life.

They believed that the dead did not auto­matically go to the afterlife. Instead, they went first to the underworld, where they were

During a visit to Egypt, the MAP STUDY Greek historian Herodotus

declared that the land was "wholly the gift of the Nile." Egyptian civilization developed on narrow strips of fertile land (shown in green on the map) along the river. What type of land lay beyond the reach of the annual flood waters?

2C

Geography of Ancient Egypt

judged by Osiris. Standing before Osiris, the dead declared that they were innocent of sin. To see if they spoke the truth, Osiris weighed each heart against a feather, the symbol of truth. Those who failed the test were eaten by a monster. The reward for those who had lived moral lives was entry into the afterlife, or "the Happy Field of Food."

Egyptians planned carefully for life after death. The wealthy prepared elaborate tombs, or "Houses for Eternity." Early Egyptian rulers built huge stone pyramids as tombs, which they filled with the treasures, furniture, and food they thought they would need in the af­terlife. Although the poor made simpler prepa­rations, they, too, believed in the afterlife.

Egyptians believed that they would need their bodies as a home for the soul in the after­life. For this reason, they practiced mum­mification, a process that preserved the body of the dead. At first, only rulers and nobles were allowed to have their bodies preserved after death. Eventually, the lower classes gained the same right. The Egyptians devel­oped remarkably effective techniques of mum-

To preserve the bodies of the dead, Egyptians extracted the brain of the dead person through the nostrils and removed most of the internal organs. Then they filled the body cavity with spices and put the corpse in a preserving fluid. After 70 days, they wrapped the body in bandages. A lifelike mask, such as this one decorated with gold and jewels, covered the head and shoulders of the mummy.

mification. By examining the well-preserved mummies from Egyptian tombs, scientists have even been able to identify many health problems and causes of death among ancient Egyptians.

A System of Writing The need to keep records of religious rituals and temple property probably led Egyptian priests to develop a system of writing, later known as hieroglyphics (HI er oh GLIHF inks). The earliest hieroglyphics, dating from about 3100 B . C , were pictograms, or pictures of ob­jects. In a pictogram, a picture of an ox meant an ox. Gradually, Egyptian hieroglyphics be­came more complex. Because a pictogram could not express an action or an idea, such as truth or honesty, Egyptians added ideograms. An ideogram is a picture that symbolizes an idea or action. For example, a picture of a re­clining figure meant sleep.

As writing became more important, Egyp­tians modified their system, adding symbols to represent sounds. An example of this in Eng­lish would be using a picture of a bee and a leaf to represent the word "belief." Egyptians developed symbols for consonant sounds but not for vowel sounds.

Egyptians first wrote by carving hiero­glyphics on stone or wood. Later, they flat­tened papyrus reeds into strips and wrote on the strips with brushes and ink. In fact, the English word "paper" comes from the word "papyrus."

The meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphics was lost until the early 1800s, when a French scholar, Jean Champollion (shahm poh LYOHN), deciphered the Rosetta Stone. The stone, a slab of black rock, was found in 1799 by French soldiers in Egypt. On it was an in­scription in three kinds of writing: Egyptian hieroglyphics, demotic, which was a short­hand version of hieroglyphics, and Greek. Champollion, who read Greek, spent years comparing the Greek words with the hiero­glyphics. By 1822, he had translated the entire Egyptian text. After Champollion cracked the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, scholars began translating thousands of records writ­ten on papyrus as well as elaborate inscrip­tions on temple and tomb walls.

1. Locate: (a) Nile River, (b) Libyan Desert, (c) Mediterranean Sea, (d) Nubian Desert, (e) Red Sea, (f) Sinai Peninsula.

2. Identify: (a)Amon-Re, (b)Osiris, (c)Isis, (d) Champollion, (e) Rosetta Stone.

3. Define: (a) delta, (b) papyrus, (c) catar­act, (d) hieroglyphics, (e) pictogram, (f) ideogram.

4. List three reasons for the importance of the Nile in Egyptian life.

5. What need probably led to the develop­ment of an Egyptian system of writing?

6. Critical Thinking Why is the Rosetta Stone important to our understanding of ancient Egypt?

I ~ ~ — I I Z Z I _ _ _ _ - J

READ TO UNDERSTAND

• How the rulers of the Old Kingdom created a centralized government.

• How the Old and Middle Egyptian Kingdoms differed.

• What developments occurred during the New Kingdom.

• Vocabulary: dynasty, pharaoh, empire, monotheism.

Before Champollion deciphered the Rosetta Stone, most of what we knew about ancient Egypt came from studying unwritten records such as temples, pyramids, tomb paintings, and mummified bodies. Since 1822, written records have revealed a great deal about gov­ernment in ancient Egypt.

Uniting Upper and Lower Egypt The villages that grew up along the Nile gradu­ally became part of one of two kingdoms,

Upper Egypt in the south or Lower Egypt in the north. About 3100 B . C , Menes (MEE neez), the ruler of Upper Egypt, united the two kingdoms by conquering Lower Egypt, thus greatly in­creasing his power. He gained both farmland and access to copper mines in the Sinai Penin­sula. He also controlled trade from Upper Egypt to the mouth of the Nile. Menes' succes­sors wore a double crown symbolizing the unity of the two kingdoms. They built their capital at Memphis, where Upper and Lower Egypt met. (See the map on page 26.)

Although little is known about Menes, he probably established the first dynasty, or rul­ing family, in Egypt. In a dynasty, the right to rule passes from the ruler to one of the chil­dren of the ruler. Occasionally, a ruling family dies out or is overthrown by a powerful chal­lenger who establishes a new dynasty.

According to a history of Egypt written about 250 B . C , there were at least 30 dynasties in Egypt between 2700 B.C . and 1090 B.C . Schol­ars have used this history to divide ancient Egyptian history into three major periods: the Old Kingdom (2700 B.C-2200 B . C ) , the Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C-1800 B . C ) , and the New Kingdom or Empire Age (1570 B.C-1090 B.C.).*

In the years between the three kingdoms, civil wars and invasions left Egypt without a strong dynasty.

The Old Kingdom During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian rulers ac­quired extensive power. They took the title pharaoh (FAIR oh), meaning "great house." Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was a god, the son of the sun god, Amon-Re. The pharaoh had absolute control over people's lives. Not only was he the source of all law, but he also owned all land, quarries, mines, and water in Egypt.

With this absolute power, pharaohs could organize a strong centralized government. They divided the kingdom into provinces and appointed officials to supervise tax collection,

* Since Egyptians recorded events according to which dynasty was in power, historians have no exact dates to guide them. They make educated guesses based on written and archaeological evi­dence, but they sometimes differ over the exact dates of the three kingdoms.

building projects, and irrigation systems in each province. At first, officials were responsi­ble to the pharaoh and could be replaced. But gradually their positions became hereditary, and the officials became part of the noble class.

The Old Kingdom was a period of signifi­cant achievements. Egyptians improved hiero­glyphics and developed the engineering skills needed to construct more elaborate tombs for the pharaohs. The Egyptians believed that, as a god, the pharaoh needed a suitable house for his spirit in the afterlife. When the pharaoh Zoser ordered a tomb prepared, his chief min­ister, Imhotep (ihm HOH tehp), a brilliant en­gineer, designed the Step Pyramid at Sakkara (sah KAH rah). This terraced tomb, con­structed about 2650 B . C , is the world's oldest surviving stone building.

The Old Kingdom has sometimes been called the Pyramid Age because Zoser's suc­cessors, as well as many wealthy nobles, erected pyramid tombs. Three gigantic pyra­mids built during that period still stand at Giza.

These massive tombs are evidence of the great wealth and power of Egyptian rulers in the Old Kingdom. Thousands of laborers had to be recruited, fed, clothed, and housed dur­ing the years it took to build a pyramid. The cost in human lives and suffering was enor­mous. The common people resented the no­bles and pharaoh who made them work in labor gangs and who increased taxes to pay for the tombs.

Despite heavy taxes, the huge expense of building pyramids exhausted the treasury. Gradually, the power of the pharaohs weak­ened. By 2200 B . C , officials in the provinces seized control of their territories. Peasant re­volts and civil wars disrupted trade and farm­ing. A period of disorder lasting about 150 years marked the end of the Old Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom

Around 2050 B . C , a new dynasty from the south restored order in Egypt and established the Middle Kingdom. Compared to earlier rul-

BOILDIHG THE PYRAMID AT GIZA Built without the aid of the wheel, the Great Pyramid at Giza was a marvel of the ancient world. This recreation by artist Hal Stone shows how workers used winding ramps of earth and brick to haul sleds loaded with limestone blocks weighing over two tons each The interior of the pyramid contained the tomb of the pharaoh Khufu (a) as well as chambers filled with fabulous treasures the pharaoh would need in the afterlife.

This tomb painting shows prisoners from nations subject to the Egyptian Empire. Among them are captives from Nubia, Crete, Libya, and Babylonia. A papyrus stem, symbolic of Egypt, binds them together.

ers, pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom seemed more interested in the common people. Dur­ing this period, lower-class Egyptians gained the right to have their bodies mummified after death. The common people believed that this privilege gave them the same access to the af­terlife as nobles and pharaohs.

Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom under­took some major projects. One project, the draining of swampland in the Nile delta, cre­ated thousands of acres of new farmland. An­other undertaking, the digging of a canal to connect the Nile to the Red Sea, benefited trade and transportation. At about the same time, two huge temples were built at Luxor and Karnak near the new capital city of Thebes on the east bank of the Nile.

During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt ex­panded its borders and had greater contact with other civilizations. Pharaohs sent trade expeditions to Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Crete. Contact with outsiders contributed to the flourishing of Egyptian literature and art. One famous story, the Tale of Sinuhe, de­scribed the adventures of an Egyptian travel­ing in foreign lands. It became the basis of the Sinbad the Sailor stories.

By 1800 B . C , a succession of weak phar­aohs again left Egypt in turmoil, with strong nobles battling for power in the provinces. Divided by civil wars, the Egyptians suddenly faced another threat. The Hyksos (HIHK sohs) of western Asia streamed across the Sinai Pe­

ninsula into northern Egypt. The newcomers used horses and war chariots, both unknown in Egypt. They easily crushed the disorganized Egyptian forces, who fought from donkey carts.

The Hyksos ruled Egypt for about 200 years. During that time, the Egyptians learned important military skills from their conquer­ors. They learned to ride horses and became expert charioteers. By 1570 B . C , Egyptian no­bles united to expel the foreigners. The nobles established another Egyptian dynasty, which began the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom During the New Kingdom, Egyptian power reached its peak. Ambitious pharaohs estab­lished an empire stretching from Kush to the Euphrates River. An empire is group of terri­tories or peoples controlled by one ruler. (See the map on page 26.) Tribute and loot from conquered territories filled the treasury. Taxes on flourishing trade further increased Egyp­tian wealth. Because of the growth during the New Kingdom, this period is also called the Empire Age.

The first woman ruler known to history, Queen Hatshepsut (haht SHEHP soot), reigned during the Empire Age. For 22 years, she ad­ministered an efficient government. Hat­shepsut sent a trading expedition south to the area of present-day Somalia. Merchants re-

Egyptian Empire About 1450 b . c .

far:

^r^^TTnvl m e N i l e R i v e r r e m a i n e d a t t n e

MAP STUDY I heart 0f Egyptian civilization

26

even at the height of the empire, as you can see on this map. However, trade routes greatly extended Egyptian influence. Into what areas did Egyptian trade routes penetrate?

turned to Egypt with a rich cargo of ivory, in­cense, ebony, gold, and monkeys for private zoos. A record of this successful expedition was carved onto the walls of Hatshepsut's fu­neral temple near Thebes.

Hatshepsut was succeeded by her step­son, Thutmose III (moot MOH suh). A brilliant military leader, Thutmose expanded the Egyp­tian Empire to its greatest size. He conquered Palestine and Syria and organized a navy to subdue cities along the eastern Mediterranean coast. Like other rulers, Thutmose raised monuments to his own greatness. On tall, pointed stone pillars, called obelisks (AHB uh lihsks), stonemasons carved hieroglyphic in­scriptions describing the pharaoh's military victories.

A controversial pharaoh. The pharaoh Amenhotep PV (ah muhn HOH tehp) was less interested in foreign conquests than in chang­ing some traditional religious practices. He wanted Egyptians to worship only the god Aton, whose symbol was the sun disk. After ordering the priests to stop worshipping other

gods and to remove these gods' names from the temples, he changed his own name from Amenhotep to Akenaton (AH kuh NAH tahn), meaning "It goes well with Aton."

During his lifetime, Akenaton's policies created serious divisions in Egypt. The priests of other gods bitterly opposed the pharaoh's reforms. When Akenaton neglected the de­fense of the empire in order to worship Aton, he lost the support of the military. The com­mon people were afraid to abandon their old gods in favor of Aton.

Today, Akenaton remains a controversial figure. Historians are unsure if he was trying to introduce monotheism, the worship of a sin­gle god, or if he just wanted to raise Aton to the highest status among the gods.

When Akenaton died in 1361 B.C., his son-in-law, a boy just eight years old, inherited the throne. The young pharaoh soon changed his name from Tutankhaton to Tutankhamon. By dropping Aton's name in favor of Amon's, Tutankhamon showed he had returned to tra­ditional religious practices.

Decline of Egyptian power. The last great ruler of the New Kingdom was Ramses II (RAM seez). He spent most of his 67-year reign reviving the empire and fighting the Hittites (HIHT its) of Asia Minor. In 1280 B . C , the first written treaty in history ended the costly struggle between the Hittites and the Egyp­tians. Ramses II raised many monuments to commemorate his victories.

Following the reign of Ramses II, Egyptian power steadily declined. By 1090 B . C , civil wars had left Egypt too weak to defeat a stream of invaders. First came raiders known as the Sea Peoples. Scholars think these peo­ple came from islands in the Aegean to attack the Nile delta.

After the Sea Peoples, the Assyrians and then the Persians conquered Egypt. In 331 B . C , the Greeks, led by Alexander the Great, occu­pied the Nile lands. Three hundred years later, Queen Cleopatra (KLEE oh PAT run), a descen­dant of one of Alexander's generals, tried to restore Egyptian greatness. But Cleopatra was the last pharaoh. In 31 B . C , a Roman fleet de­feated Egyptian naval forces, and the next year Egypt became a province of the Roman Em­pire.

Maps are very important to the study of world history because they answer the question "Where did it happen?" Maps help show why certain events or developments took place. They also illustrate how geography has influ­enced the way people live.

Maps provide many different kinds of in­formation. Most maps include a title, legend, scale, and direction arrow. In addition, some maps in this book also give topographical, political, or economic information.

The following steps will help you read the map on page 26 and draw conclusions about the influence of geography on ancient Egyp­tian civilization. You can use the steps to study other maps in this book.

M Decide what is shown on the map. The title tells what the map is about and, usu­ally, the date or time period covered. The legend explains the meaning of colors and symbols used. The scale allows you to translate distances on the map into dis­tances in miles and kilometers, while the direction arrow shows which way is north. Study the map on page 26: (a) What is the title of the map? (b)What color represents the Egyptian Empire?

(c)What is the approximate distance in miles from Thebes to the mouth of the Nile? (d) In what direction does the Nile River flow?

Practice reading the information on the map. Topographical maps include the physical features of a region, such as mountains, oceans, rivers, and lakes. Po­litical maps show the sizes of empires or boundaries of nations. Economic maps give information about topics such as population, trade, and natural resources. Many maps in this book "give all three kinds of information, (a) Name four physi­cal features shown on the map on page 26. (b) What political information does the map give? (c) What economic information does the map show?

Study the map to draw conclusions about a historical event or develop­ment, (a) What geographic features lim­ited Egyptian expansion? (b)Why did Egypt need a strong navy during the height of its empire? (c) Where was Egypt most open to invasion? Explain.

1. Locate: (a) Memphis, (b) Giza, (c) Thebes.

2. Identify: (a) Menes, (b) Hyksos, (c)Hat-shepsut, (d) Akenaton, (e) Tutankhamon, (f) Ramses II.

3. Define: (a) dynasty, (b) pharaoh, (c) em­pire, (d) monotheism.

4. List one important development that oc­curred during the (a) Old Kingdom; (b) Middle Kingdom; (c) New Kingdom.

5. (a) How did Akenaton try to change the re­ligious practices of the Egyptians? (b)Did he succeed? Explain.

6. Critical Thinking Compare and contrast the three kingdoms in ancient Egypt.

READ TO UNDERSTAND

• How Egyptian society was structured.

• What the role of education in Egyptian society was.

• What scientific contributions Egypt made to civilization.

In the Old Kingdom, a person's social class and occupation were set at birth. Children of peasants farmed the same fields their parents and grandparents had. Artisans, such as weav­ers, taught their children their trades. This structure of Egyptian society barely changed for thousands of years.

Sunjight glinted on the gold trim of the royal barge as it drew near the harbor at Thebes. Inside, the pharaoh's new bride peered through a veiled window. She had traveled all the way from Mesopotamia to marry Amenho­tep ,111. At Jast, she arrived in the biggest and richest city Jn the world—Thebes, capital of

v . Close to the Nile, she could see the scrawling, houses of the rich; their yards bursting ,̂ with flowers. The harbor Where the ship docked swarmed with slaves unloading figs,, wipe, cattle, and other goods. The future cjueen, who was only 15 years old, stepped frorri the royal ship and prepared to meet her husband, the pharaoh of Egypt. }},The young girl quickly-won the hearts of

-trie Egyptian people. They called her Nefertiti, meaning "the beautiful one; who has oofrie." But the pharaoh, who was a sick man, died just three years after Nefertiti's. arrival. The new pharaoh;- A^ then married

' Amenhotep IV was only 12 when he inher­ited, the, throne. Nefertiti, who was now 18, had great influence over him. Since he cared little about politics, he was happy to let his wife make decisions for him.

Nefertiti and her husband were happy, and Egypt was at peace. But the calm did not last. -When he was 16, Amenhotep began to favor the god Aton above all other gods. Soon, he became obsessed with making Aton the most important god in Egypt.

Nefertiti supported her husband against the angry outcry of the priests. For a time so

did the common people, who attacked the temples of the other gods. But the pharaoh Was not content. He proclaimed that a new city would be built to honor Aton. Far up the Nile, in the middle of the desert, rose Aton's city. At the center of the lavish city stood the magnificent temple of Aton, nearly 300 yards wide and half a mile long.

Amenhotep died only a few years after he and Nefertiti moved to the city. Nefertiti died a short time later, friendless and alone. People abandoned the gleaming city of Aton, and it was slowly swallowed by the desert sands.

1. When she arrived at Thebes, how could Nefertiti tell it was a wealthy city?

2. Critical Thinking What does Nefertiti's life show about the role of women in ancient

Social Classes

Egyptian social structure resembled a pyra­mid. The pharaoh, living in great splendor, stood at the top of society. Just below the pharaoh was a ruling class of priests and no­bles. Next came a small middle class of mer­chants, artisans, doctors, and other skilled workers. Far below, at the base of the pyramid, were free peasants and, finally, slaves.

The ruling class. Because Egyptian life revolved around religion, priests had the high­

est status after the pharaoh. Egyptians be­lieved that the gods, who controlled the uni­verse, required constant attention. Only the priests knew how to please the gods. Priests conducted daily sacrifices to the gods, cast spells to make the land fertile, and recited prayers to help souls of the dead reach the afterlife. As guardians of this special religious knowledge, priests enjoyed great power and prestige. To support priests and temples, Egyptians paid taxes in the form of grain, linen, gold, and wine.

Nobles made up the second segment of the ruling class. Nobles often held positions as governors of provinces, court officials, or tax collectors. The chief minister, who adminis­tered the business of the country, was usually chosen from the noble class. Many nobles owned large estates with gardens and pools surrounding spacious homes.

The middle class. Egypt was mainly a civilization of farming villages, but a small middle class of merchants, traders, and arti­sans did develop. As the wealth of Egypt in­creased, the middle class settled in cities, such as Memphis and Thebes, which grew up around temples and palaces.

Merchants provided goods and services to the ruling class. Traders brought dyes, ivory, or other items, which merchants sold to no­bles. And nobles paid artisans to produce goods such as pottery and glass, intricate stone and wood carvings, and linen so fine that it looked like silk.

Peasants and slaves. The vast majority of Egyptians were peasant farmers whose way of life changed little over thousands of years. Each year, farmers waited for the Nile floods to renew the land. When the waters receded, they planted crops of wheat and barley. Since the pharaoh owned all the land, peasants paid over half of each harvest to government tax

collectors. In addition to farming, peasants were often required to work on palaces and temples, clear irrigation channels, and serve in the army.

The peasants lived very simply. Their homes were low, thick-walled buildings made of sunbaked mud bricks. They furnished their few rooms with a bench, a bed, baskets, pots for cooking, and utensils for grinding grain.

Like peasants, slaves also worked on tem­ples and irrigation projects. Most slaves were descendants of people brought back to Egypt as prisoners of war. Some lived like free peas­ants, farming plots of land. Those who served in the houses of nobles sometimes enjoyed comfortable lives or gained their freedom. On occasion, pharaohs appointed trusted slaves to high positions in the palace or in govern­ment. However, such opportunities were rare, and most slaves endured a hard existence.

The Status of Women Compared to women in other ancient civiliza­tions you will study, women in Egypt enjoyed a relatively high status. During the New King­dom, women had the right to buy and sell property and to testify in court. Although di­vorce was rare, women as well as men had the 29 right to seek divorce. Moreover, in Egyptian

society, property was inherited through the female line.

Egyptians especially valued the woman's role as wife and mother. Women gained greater status when they had children. Yet Egyptian writers often referred to wives as property of their husbands and urged men to treat their wives kindly. This advice suggests that women were not always well treated.

In the royal family, the queen occupied a privileged position because she was the wife of a god. At times, queens ruled jointly with their husbands. Although the pharaoh might have more than one wife, his first wife was the most important because her son would be­come the next pharaoh.

Education

In ancient Egypt, schools were first estab­lished to train priests. Students learned read­ing, writing, and arithmetic, as well as reli­gious ceremonies and rituals. As Egyptian civilization became more complex, temple

schools provided a more general education. Most students who attended temple schools were sons of the wealthy, but occasionally a poor child received an education. Girls did not attend temple schools, although they learned the skills they would need at home.

In the temple schools, students learned by dictation, copying the words of the teacher as he spoke. Most students took notes on scraps of broken pottery. Only advanced students wrote on papyrus, which was expensive. Pot­tery fragments unearthed by archaeologists show that schQoI discipline was strict. One Egyptian student copied this warning: "Do not spend your time in wishing, or you will come to a bad end." After completing their studies, students either learned a trade or were ap­prenticed as scribes, or clerks, to priests or government officials.

Scribes performed an important function in ancient Egypt. They were essential to an ef­ficient government since they kept records of taxes and expenses. As recordkeepers, they noted the heroic deeds of pharaohs as well as

THROUGH THEIR D The ancient Egyptians produced a large | body of written literature. Many texts were | prayers, hymns, or charms that people be-/•? lieved would help the souls of the dead reach |s the happy afterlife. Egyptians also wrote bi-|. ographies, histories, love songs, and poems. | Still another kind of Egyptian literature I included practical advice on how to succeed I in life. The following excerpts are from the | Instructions of the Vizier Ptah-hotep, one of | the oldest books in the world. Ptah-hotep, | who lived about 2450 B.C, was vizier, or

chief minister, to the pharaoh. In the Instruc­tions, he gives advice to his son.

From the Instructions Do not let your heart be puffed up be­

cause of your knowledge; do not be confident because you are a wise man. Take counsel with the ignorant as well as with the wise.

If you, as a leader, have to decide on the 30 conduct of a great many people, seek the

most perfect manner of doing so, that your own conduct may be blameless.

Instructions of the Vizier Ptah-hotep

If you are sitting at the table of one greater than you, take what he may give when it is set before you. Let your face be cast down until he addresses you, and you should speak only when he addresses you. Laugh after he laughs, and it will be pleasing to his heart.

Be active while you live, doing more than is commanded. Activity produces riches, but riches do not last when activity slackens.

If you are one to whom petition is made, be calm as you listen to the petitioner's speech. Do not rebuff him before he has said what he came for. A petitioner likes attention to his words better than fulfilling of 1hat for which he came.

If a son accepts what his father says, no project of his miscarries. Train your son to be a teachable man whose wisdom is agreeable to the great.

1. What advice about leadership did the vizier give his son?

2. Critical Thinking Would any parts of the vizier's advice be useful today? Explain.

the ordinary events of daily life, such as births, marriages, and deaths. A scribe who served a powerful noble or pharaoh might become rich, acquire great influence, or be appointed to an official position himself. In this way, a man from the lower class might move up in society.

In addition to temple schools, Egyptians established centers for higher education. The center of learning at Heliopolis, for example, was famous for teaching astronomy—the study of the planets and stars.

Scientific Accomplishments During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians made many practical advances in mathematics and the sciences. Egyptian farmers devised meth­ods of surveying land out of necessity. When annual floods washed away boundary mark­ers, farmers had to remeasure their fields. The need to survey land led to the development of mathematics, particularly geometry. Egyp­tians learned to measure the areas of squares and circles and to figure the volumes of cylin­ders and spheres.

The need to predict regular events such as Nile floods and eclipses led to advances in as­tronomy. Priests observed the skies and plot­ted the courses of stars and planets. These priest-astronomers used their knowledge to produce a calendar with a 365-day year. They divided a year into 12 months, with three sea­sons: the Nile flood season, the planting sea­son, and the harvest season. They calculated that each month had 30 days, and they added five days to the last month to total 365 days. Although the Egyptians made no allowance for leap years, their calendar, as modified by the Greeks and Romans, is the basis for the mod­ern calendar.

The Egyptians also invented techniques to build impressive stone monuments. Stone workers learned how to cut tall obelisks from a single rock, using hot fires and cold water to make the surrounding rocks crack. They then finished the job with hammers and crowbars. Egyptian engineering of temples and pyramids was so precise that each block fit perfectly into the next one.

Egyptians also made important medical discoveries. Although Egyptian doctors relied

Hieroglyphics are clearly visible on this sculpture of an Egyptian scribe. Originally few in number, Egyptian hieroglyphics eventually included over 700 symbols representing words or sounds.

heavily on magic, they made scientific inquir­ies. By studying the human body, doctors learned to perform surgery. Ancient papyrus texts describe successful operations to set fractured bones and treat spinal injuries. The Greeks and Romans acquired much of their medical knowledge from Egyptian sources.

SECTION 3 REVIEW^ ^ J

1. Why did priests hold such a high position in Egyptian society?

2. What rights did women have in ancient Egypt?

3. Why were scribes necessary to an efficient government?

4. How did the Nile floods contribute to the development of land surveying?

5. Critical Thinking Why do you think Egyptians developed advanced building techniques?

31

I Summary | 1. The Nile River was the center of

development in ancient Egypt. Small farm­ing villages prospered, largely because of the fertile soil and favorable geography of the Nile River valley. The importance of good harvests was reflected in Egyptian religious beliefs.

2. The history of ancient Egypt is di­vided into three major periods. The Old Kingdom was known as the Pyramid Age. Dur­ing the Middle Kingdom, Egypt expanded and

j Recalling Facts Match each na

1. Osiris

2. Hatshepsut

3. Giza

4. Akenaton

5. Sinai

| Chapter Checkup |

1. Describe how the Nile River affected each of the following in ancient Egypt: (a) farm­ing; (b) trade; (c) religion.

2. (a) How did Egyptians view life after death? (b)What preparations did Egyptians be­lieve were necessary for the afterlife?

3. Describe how the pharaohs in the Old Kingdom organized the government.

4. (a) What did the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom do for the people of Egypt? (b) Why was the New Kingdom called the Empire Age?

5. (a) What were the main social classes in ancient Egypt? (b) How did each class con­tribute to Egyptian civilization?

6. Describe ancient Egyptian accomplish­ments in: (a) mathematics; (b) astronomy; (c) engineering; (d) medicine.

traded with other peoples. Egyptian power reached its peak during the New Kingdom.

3. Egyptian society barely changed for thousands of years. Sharp differences sepa­rated the ruling class from the small middle class and the huge class of peasant farmers. Egyptians made important advances in engi­neering, trade, literature, and art. Their dis­coveries not only affected their own civiliza­tion but also helped shape later civilizations.

1. Analyzing Geography in History (a) Dis­cuss the ways in which the geographic set­ting of ancient Egypt both helped and hin­dered the Egyptians, (b) Do you think the effect of geography was mainly positive or negative? Explain.

2. Relating Past to Present (a) How did the pyramids demonstrate the wealth and power of Egyptian rulers? (b)How do buildings today indicate power and influ­ence?

3. Understanding Economic Ideas (a) How did the Egyptian pharaohs acquire their great wealth? (b)Why do you think the Egyptian people accepted the economic system that allowed this?

4. Applying Information Akenaton's reli­gious reforms created controversy in an­cient Egypt, (a) What factors do you think

at left with the correct description at right.

a. pharaoh who tried to change traditional religious practices

b. queen who ruled Egypt for 22 years during the New Kingdom

c. Egyptian god of the Nile

d. site of three great pyramids

e. peninsula connecting Egypt to western Asia

might explain the failure of his reforms? (b) How might his reforms have been suc­cessful?

5. Understanding the Roots of Democracy (a) How could an Egyptian from a lower class move up in the rigid social structure of Egyptian society? (b) Why is the ability to move up in a social structure an impor­tant part of democracy?

Developing Basic Skills

1. Using Time Lines A time line enables you to see the order in which events occurred. The earliest date on a horizontal time line is on the left, and the latest date is on the right. Study the time line below, (a) What is the date of the latest event shown on the time line? (b) Which lasted longer, the Old Kingdom or the Middle Kingdom? (c)Did the Hyksos invasions come before or after the New Kingdom was formed?

2. Map Reading Review the map reading steps given on page 27. Then study the map on page 21. (a) What information does the map provide? (b) For about how many miles on either side of the Nile were the lands flooded during the flood season? (c) Describe the route an Egyptian army might take to travel from Upper Egypt to the Euphrates River.

Using Question Clues

Before you begin to write the answer to an essay question, study the question for clues. Read the following essay question: Why was religion important to the ancient Egyptians? Then apply the following questions.

1. What does the question word ask you to do? Look for the word that tells you what you are to do in your answer. In the essay ques­tion above, the key word is why. In the an­swer, you must give reasons why religion was important to the Egyptians.

2. What is the scope of the essay? Look for lim­its on what you are to discuss. In this ques­tion, the geographic area is Egypt and the

. time frame is the ancient period. The ques­tion also asks only about the topic of reli­gion.

3. What information do you have that is re­lated to the topic of the question? In addi­tion to the text section called Religion in Ancient Egypt, you can study the pictures and captions for information.

Practice: Apply these questions to the Critical Thinking questions in this Chapter Review be­fore you begin to write the answers.

B.C. B.C. A.0

• n ii:'t *- -

3500 B.C* Small farming

villages in Nile Valley

Earliest hieroglyphic writing 3100 B.C

1800 B C "

Egypt absorbed by Roman Empire

Hyksos invasions

31 B.C.

2650 B . C * Step Pyramid built at Sakkara

0 Old Kingdom

53 Middle Kingdom

H New Kingdom *approximate date

(4500 B.C.—331 B .C)

CHAPTER OUTLINE Sumerian Civilization

A Blending of Cultures

Contributions of Smaller States

Warfare was common among the ancient Sumerians. This scene based on a standard carried into battle shows a victory celebration. At top left, the king of Or faces his officers, who are being entertained by the musician with the harp.

W hy do you idle about? Go to school, stand before your schoolfather [teacher], recite your assignment, open your schoolbag, write your

tablet, let your big brother [assistant teacher! write your new tablet for you. After you have finished your assignment, come to me, and do not wander

34 about in the street. Come now, do you know what I said?"