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Writing in APA StyleA Guide to Style and
Citations for the 6th EditionBy
Sarah Viehmann, Writing Center Consultant
&
Megan Knight, Writing Center Consultant
Edited & Presented by
Michael Frizell, Writing Center Director
Original presentation created by Laura Burrows, former Writing Center Consultant
APA 6th Edition
• About $30• MAJOR CHANGES• new ethics guidance • new journal article reporting
standards• simplified heading style• updated guidelines for reducing
bias• new guidelines for reporting
inferential statistics• significantly revised table of
statistical abbreviations • new instruction on using
supplemental files• expanded content on the
electronic presentation of data• expanded discussion of
electronic sources emphasizing the role of the digital object identifier (DOI)
• expanded discussion of the publication process
“Rules of Thumb” - FORMAT
Page setup
•1” on every side of the document
•Double-spaced; no extra spaces between paragraphs (new Word must be adjusted!)
•12 pt font•TWO spaces follow punctuation
Style
•Avoid colloquial expressions
•Avoid the use of second person “you”
•Avoid biased language (see “General Guidelines for Reducing Bias,” APA Manual 6th edition, p. 71-76)
Mechanics
•Use active rather than passive voice
•Select tense carefully
•Be careful about subject-verb agreement
•See APA Manual 6th edition Chapters 3 and 4 for APA preferred standards
Empirical Reports vs. Literature Reviews
Empirical Reports:
*Title Page
*Abstract
*Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
*References
*Appendices
Literature Reviews:
A literature review follows APA citation style only
Most still use a cover page
Some professors may request an abstract
They will include a reference page
* Indicates a new section/page and requires a level 1 heading.
Order of PagesTitle Page
Abstract
Body
References
Appendices
Footnotes
Tables
Figure Captions
Figures
Title Page Running head
Now included in the header NOTE: This means that
the Running head appears on EVERY PAGE OF THE PAPER!
Type “Running head” a colon then an abbreviated version
of the title in all caps
No more than 50 characters, spaces
included Title
Concise statement of main topic Fully explanatory on its own
Author Name(s) Omit titles (Dr., Professor) and
degrees (PhD, EdD, MD, etc.) Institutional Affiliation
If none, list city and state of residency
Author Note (if applicable)
The Author NoteShould appear on the first page below title, byline, institutional affiliation
First paragraph: Complete departmental affiliation
Author name as it appears in the byline, department name, university name; next author name, department name, university name.
State names should be spelled out
Second paragraph: Changes of affiliation (if any)
Use this wording: [author’s name] is now at [affiliation].
Include department and institution
Third paragraph: Acknowledgements
Identify grants/other financial support (and source), other colleagues who assisted. Do not acknowledge peer reviewers/editors, etc.
Explain special circumstances concerning authorship
Thanks for personal assistance
Special circumstances (see APA Manual 6th edition, p. 25)
Fourth paragraph: Contact info
Complete mailing address. End w/email address, no period.American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
The Abstract
Empirical Study Abstract
Problem under investigation
Participants, specifying pertinent characteristics
Essentials of study method
Basic findings
Conclusions and implication or applications of study
Literature Review Abstract
Problem/relation(s) under investigation
Study eligibility criteria
Type(s) of participants included in primary studies
Main results
Conclusions (including limitations)
Implications for theory, policy, and/or practice
A good abstract should be accurate, non-evaluative, coherent and readable, and concise
should describe…
should describe…
For more types of abstracts, see APA Manual6th edition, p. 27.
American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Introduction
The introduction should:
Explore importance of the problem Why is this problem important?
How does this study relate to previous work in the area?
Describe relevant scholarship What has been said about this problem previously?
State hypotheses and research design What is your hypothesis/thesis?
How will you solve this problem/answer this question?
American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Methods SectionThe Methods section should: Describe in detail how the study was conducted
Be as complete as you can; this allows readers to evaluate and replicate your method
Identify subsections
Include the following:
Describe participant characteristics
Describe sampling procedures
Describe sample size, power, and precision
Describe measures and covariates
Specify research design
Describe experimental manipulations/interventionsAmerican Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Results Section
The Results section should:Define sources of potential subjects, periods of recruitment and follow-up
Give statistics and data analysisDescribe intervention or manipulation fidelity
Give baseline dataDescribe adverse events
American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Discussion SectionThe Discussion section should:
Open with a clear statement of support/nonsupport of original hypothesis
Examine, interpret, and qualify results and draw inferences and conclusions from results
Emphasize any theoretical/practical consequences of results
Should take into account:
Sources of potential bias
Imprecision of measures
Overlap among tests
Effect sizes observed
Other limitations/weaknesses
Consider:
What is the theoretical/clinical/practical significance of your outcomes?
What phenomena may be explained or modeled by results?
What problems arise from research or remain unsolved?American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Header LevelsThese have changed!
Level One is Centered, Bold, Uppercase and Lowercase
Level Two is Flush Left, Bold, Uppercase and Lowercase
Level Three is Indented, bold, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. The paragraph follows.
Level Four is indented, bold, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. The paragraph follows.
Level Five is indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. The paragraph follows.
Good news! Now, you will follow the pattern of levels from the top down: if you have one level, use Level 1; if you have two levels, use Levels 1 and 2;
and so on.American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
In-Text Citations
No more than 25 percent of your paper should be direct quotations. Paraphrase as much as you can. Use direct quotations when citing a
statistic or original theory.Use an author's words if they
capture a point exactly.
Avoiding PlagiarismPlagiarism is…
…using someone else’s words or ideas as though they were your own.
…deliberately stealing someone’s work.
…paying someone to write a paper.
…a serious offense.
When to Cite
You DO need to cite: When using someone
else’s exact words
When using someone else’s data (statistics, etc.)
When using someone else’s figures (tables, graphs, images)
When stating someone’s unique idea
You DON’T need to cite: Your own unique
ideas
Common knowledge
Common Knowledge vs.Unique Ideas
Don’t need to cite: Ideas widely believed to be
true.
Folklore, stories, songs, or saying without an author but commonly known.
Quotations widely known and used.
Information shared by most scholars in your discipline.
WHEN IN DOUBT…
CITE!
In-text Citation Methods
•Surname (e.g., Smith)
•Exclude titles (PhD, M.D.) and suffixes (Jr., III)
Author name
•Year onlyPublicatio
n Date
•For direct quotes only
Page numbers
APA Citations require the following…
Types of Citations
Direct Quoting
Participants had demonstrated “words can be successfully ignored if the task conditions are right” (Strafford & Gurney, 2004, p. 977).
Stroop (1935) noted there commonly occurred a “sex difference in naming colors” (p. 21).
Paraphrasing
Some studies have suggested reading may not be an automatic process (Strafford & Gurney, 2004).
Stroop (1935) examined potential factors for the different reaction times his participants exhibited.
Parenthetical Citations
One Author
(Stroop, 1935)
Two Authors
(Strafford & Gurney, 2004)
Three to five
authors
First citation: (Risko, Stolz,
& Besner, 2005)
Subsequent citations:
(Risko et al., 2005)
Six or more
authors
(Smith et al., 2004)*
* In the references page, list up to seven authors
Eight or more
authors
First six authors’ names, three ellipses, last
author’s name
Gilbert, McClernon, Rabinovich, Sugai, Plath,
Asgaard,…Botros, (2004).
As Part of a Narrative
One author Stroop (1935)
Two authors
Strafford and Gurney (2004)
Three to five
authors
First citation: Risko,
Stolz, and Besner (2005)
Subsequent citations: (Risko et
al., 2005)*
Six or more authors
Smith et al. (2004)
Exceptions & Special Cases
When two works with three or more authors shorten to the same
abbreviation, use enough authors to
distinguish between them.
•(Smith, Jones, & Madson, 2004) and (Smith, Johnson, & Jones, 2004)•Shorten to: (Smith, Jones, et
al., 2004) and (Smith, Johnson, et al., 2004)
•DO NOT change the order of the authors! They must be represented as they are credited in the study.
When two
different works
have the same author and the same year:
•(Smith, 2005a) and (Smith, 2005b) •Works will be
listed as they appear in the reference pages
When two
different authors have the
same surname
:
•(A. Smith, 2005) and (C. D. Smith, 1995)•Even if the
date of publication differs, distinguish between the two authors by including first initials
When Page Numbers Are Not Available
•(Anderson & Jones, 2007, para. 5)
If paragraph numbers are visible
(numbered), use them in place of page
numbers.
•(Anderson & Jones, 2008, Discussion section, para. 2)
If the document includes headings and neither paragraph nor page
numbers are visible, cite the heading and the
number of the paragraph following it.
•(Anderson & Jones, 2008, “Common Symptoms,” para. 1)
•(Full heading is “Common Symptoms of Ailments Such as the Stomach Flu”)
When headings are too unwieldy to cite in full, use
a short title enclosed in quotation marks.
More Citation Rules
Multiple studies in one citation
By the same author:
• Order by year of publication:
(Skinner, 1966, 1981)
By multiple authors:
• Order as references appear in Reference* page:
(Branch, 1980; Carlson, 2001; Todd & Morris, 2005)
One author cited multiple times in one paragraph
If there is no possibility of confusion, only cite the year in the first citation*
Once a new paragraph begins, the study must be fully cited again
* If one citation is more significant, it may be listed first, with a phrase such as “see also” inserted to separate the others: (Zimmerman, 1993; see also Branch, 1980; Smith, 2001)
Citation Rules, Continued Anonymous Authors
Cite with ‘anonymous’ as author: (Anonymous, 1994)
Unknown Authors
Cite the first few words of the title, along with the year:
For articles or chapters, use quotes: (“Cognitive Dissonance,” 2004)
For titles of periodicals, books, brochures or reports, use italics: (Psychology, 2005)
Group as Author
When a group or corporation has a long name and a common or easily understood abbreviation:
First citation: (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2000)
Subsequent citations: (NIMH, 2000)
Citation Rules, Continued
Personal Communications
(i.e. letters, interviews, memos, emails, telephone conversations, etc.)
(A. F. Butan, personal communication, October 25, 2005)
Writing Tip: Note that the first initials ARE used for personal communication
Note: do not include personal communications in the reference list
Unknown Date
Cite with abbreviation “n.d.” for works with no known publication date:
(Samson, n.d.)
Citing Web Pages In-text citation of web-based material follows the
same rules :
If no author, use the first few words of title: (“Chimps,” 2005).
If no date, use the abbreviation “n.d.” : (Johnson, n.d.)
Direct quotes of web-based documents:
Websites have no page numbers! Cite the paragraph number if possible:
(Kirby, 2004, para. 5) Cite the sub-section and paragraph number if possible:
(“Snakes,” n.d., Care and Feeding section, para. 4)
Note: when a web-based source is printed, the top of the page will include a number for the purpose of printing, i.e. “1 of 3.” These are NOT the page numbers of the document and should not be cited as such.
Block Quotes
Required for quotes longer than 40 words
Inset by two tab spaces (or one inch) on both the right and the left.
Double-Spaced
When a quotation is indented in this way, quotation marks are not needed.
Usually, quotations longer than four lines require block quote formatting. (Author, date, p. #)
Reference List: Basics Reference lists should be alphabetized by the last name of the first authors listed.
Remember, you can not change the order of authors within the study!
Nothing precedes something: Green, E. C. (2000). Greene, B. A. (1994).Harrison, M. R. (2004).Harrison, M. R., & Blake, C. D. (2001)
NOTE: First Initials ARE used on the
Reference page!
The DOI: Digital Object Identifier The DOI is like a social security number for a source. It is
meant to help readers find the exact source you are referencing.
You can type a DOI into Google and get the exact source.
All DOI numbers begin with a 10 and contain a prefix and a suffix separated by a slash.
Not all sources have DOIs.
If the source has a DOI, cite it after the rest of the citation is finished:
Brownlie, D. Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161
Reference List, Continued
Multiple works by the same author:
One author: arrange chronologically
• Blake, B. R. (1990)• Blake, B. R. (1993)
One author, same year: order by title
• Blair, S. M. (2000a). Care and feeding…• Blair, S. M. (2000b). Observations…
Common Reference Entries Book
Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2005). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson.
Book with editor Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K. V. Kukil, Ed.). New
York: Anchor.
Journal paginated by volume Risko, E. F., Stolz, J. A., & Besner, D. (2005). Basic processes in
reading: Is visual word recognition obligatory? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 119-124.
With DOI: Same format, but after page number: doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.2.225
Journal paginated by issue Schmidt, J. R., & Cheesman, J. (2005). Dissociating stimulus-stimulus
and response-response effects in the Stroop task. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(2), 132-138.
Journal Pagination: Volume or Issue?
Paginated by volume
Some journals begin each issue where the last left off:
Volume 1, issue 1: page 1-200
Volume 1, issue 2: page 201-400
These journals are paginated by volume, and do not require the issue number in the reference citations
Paginated by issue
Journals whose issues each begin on page one require the issue number in the reference page to specify the issue in which an article appears:
Volume 23, issue 1: page 1-205
Volume 23, issue 2: page 1-300
[An article listed in volume 23, page 189, would not tell a reader which issue contained the article]
Online References Article From an Online Periodical
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial visual reactions [Electronic version]. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 121(1), 15-23.
(Note: if there is no print version available, include date of access and URL after the issue: Retrieved July 5, 2005, from http://www... Use the exact URL of the article if possible, unless you have retrieved an article from a newspaper’s site (i.e., www.newyorktimes.com)
Article from a Database
Holliday, R. E., & Hayes, B. K. (2001, January). Dissociating automatic and intentional processes in children’s eyewitness memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75(1), 1-5. Retrieved February 21, 2001, from Expanded Academic ASAP database (A59317927).
Non-Periodical Web Document
List as many as possible of the following:
Author’s name. Date of publication (use “n.d.” if no date is known or available). Title of the document in italics. Date of access. URL directly to the source
Chovil, I. (n.d.). What is schizophrenia? Retrieved November 6, 2005, from http://www.chovil.com/first.html
Keep them in this order!
If there is no author, use the title as the author, followed by the date in parenthesis.When no DOI is included and the URL is given, a retrieved date is needed unless the source material may change over time (e.g., wikis)
Misc. References
Encyclopedia Entries
Glickman, H. (1994). Occupational safety and health administration (OSHA). In World book encyclopedia (Vol. 14, pp. 647-648). Chicago: World Book.
Occupational therapy. (1994). In World book encyclopedia (Vol. 14, p. 648). Chicago: World Book.
Newspaper Articles
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
A complete list of types of sources, cross-referenced to examples, can be found in the APA Publication Manual on pages 193-215.
Contact Information Michael Frizell, Writing Center Director
Phone number 417-836-5006
Office: Meyer Library 112
Writing Center
First floor Meyer Library – The Bear Claw
Phone Number 417-836-6398
http://writingcenter.missouristate.edu
Supplemental Instruction
http://si.missouristate.edu