Writing Sample to be Presented at the Graduate School of Humanities

and Social Sciences

Álvaro Hasbún Melgarejo

27/01/2014

* This chapter is part of the thesis project I have done to obtain the degree of master in

social sciences. The title of the project was “The Teacher Discourse Regarding the

Internal Logic of their Pedagogical Practices Mediated by the Use of Information and

Communication Technologies in the Educational Process”. It was presented for

evaluation in August 2011.

CHAPTER II: CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW

In this chapter it will be reviewed the theoretical tool box that have informed the

observations made in the present research. It begin by establish the type of society and

the technological paradigm in which the research is framed. Then, it define the use and

integration of information and communication technologies in the field of education.

Next, it presents three concepts that reflects a social fracture regarding the pedagogical

practice mediated by the use of information and communication technologies in the

educational process, namely: generational rupture, digital natives / immigrants and

adultcentrism. Then, based on Basil Bernstein approach, it is reviewed the concept of

pedagogical practice and its constitutive rules: hierarchical, sequence and criteria. Finally,

it sets the dimensions of analysis for every rule of the pedagogical practice.

1) INFORMATION SOCIETY AND ITS TECHNOLOGICAL PARADIGM

First of all, it is considered appropriate to define in a general way the conceptual vision

on contemporary society that have informed the research design. The concept of

information society denote a society characterized by a high level of use of information

and communication technologies by their agents (whether institutions, groups or

individual subjects) in everyday life. Most organizations, workplaces or educational

institutions have a significant physical structure of this technologies, being part of the

every day life for most of the people. The main implication of the widespread use of this

technologies in today's society is the increased capacity to store, process, transmit and

share information, regardless of distance and in real time of the individuals that appropiate

of them.1

In general, Latin America is still considered a region in transition towards the information

society, although it is a recognized fact that certain countries in the region are taking an

1 KATZ, James. Information Society. IN: TURNER, Brian. Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006. 293-294p.

effective and rapid societal transition to this new technological paradigm, and Chile is

considered one of those countries. For instance, Chile in 1996 is among the ten best

positioned countries acording to the ISI index (Index Information Society) created by the

International Data Corporation.2 In 1999, the Presidential Commission for the new

technologies of information and communication technologies considered that Chile is in

a quick and effective transition to the information society.3 Today, UN sees Chile as the

most improved country in Latin America in terms of the transition to this new form of

social settings, being Latin America the region that has most improved on recent years.4

Within the information society context the first concept that is considered relevant to

define regarding this research is the `information and communication technologies´. For

the sociologist Manuel Castells, technologies are systematized ways of doing things

taking into account the scientific knowledge available. The information and

communication technologies are those that specify the systematized ways to store,

process and apply information for different purposes.5

In 1970 ocurred the invention of the microprocessor that triggered a revolution of the

information and communication technologies expressed in a continous serie of

technological discoveries that affect in the different areas of human praxis. This

revolution it expands exponentially making the use of this technologies a ubiquitous

practice in contemporary society. Nowdays we are living under a new technological

paradigm, we have gone from industrialism to informationalism through this

technological revolution.6

Manuel Castells offers five components that define the nature of this emerging form of

social organization based in the new technological paradigm. The various features of this

model taken together constitute the material basis of the information society.7

a) Information is the raw material: are technologies to act on the information, not only

information to act over the technology as it was in previous revolutions.

2 MENESES, Claudio Development of the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean.. Ed. UNESCO, 2000. 5-6p. 3 PRESIDENTIAL COMMISSION. New Information and Communication Technologies. Chile: towards the information society. Santiago, Government of Chile, 1999. 20-21p. 4 SHERIDAN, Roberts. Global Information Society: A Statical View. Santiago, United Nations. 5 CASTELLS, Manuel. The Information Age. Vol 1. The Rise of the Network Society. Ed. Siglo Veintiuno, 1999. 55-60p. 6 PÉREZ, Carlota The Challenge of Changing the Techno-Economic Paradigm.. Revista del Banco Central de Venezuela, 1999. 14-29p. 7 CASTELLS, Manuel. The Information Age. Vol 1. The Rise of the Network Society. Ed. Siglo Veintiuno, 1999. 87-92p. 8 POOLE, B. En: IPPE-UNESCO. State of the Art. Strategic Guidelines for the Definition of Educational Policies on the Region. Buenos Aires, UNESCO, 2006. 13p.

b) Pervasiveness of the effects of this new technologies. Since the information is integral

to every human activity, every process of our individual and collective existence are

directly molded by the new technological paradigm.

c) Logic of interconnection: is a property of any system or institution that use information

and communication technologies. The interconnection network can be realized as in all

types of organizations and processes by using this technologies.

d) Flexibility: the processes are reversible, modifiable, and may reverse or modify the

same organizations or institutions that use them. This reconfiguration capability is

distinctive a distinctive feature of the paradigm. Now, flexibility can be a liberating force

but also a source of repression.

f) A growing convergence of specific technologies integrated into a highly within model

which specific technological trajectories are converge virtually in a indistinguishable

system.

2) INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR

PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES

The current trend is to think of the information and communication technologies not only

as an object of knowledge but also as a resource for teaching and learning. According to

Poole8, computer systems can help students access to knowledge as well as having the

ability to help teachers in their performance. In this context, it can be seen how this

technologies begin to be considered as tools or resources in the educational system. When

this technologies are considered as a resource for the educational process, it begins to

promote the use of them by teachers in the classroom management, as a means for the

production of teaching materials, the teaching planning and the ways of presenting

information.

In 2003, Pelgrum and Law established a threefold distinction regarding the relationship

between information and communication technologies and educational curriculum:

A.- Learning about information and communication technologies: in this category, the

new technologies are seen as a learning content in the curriculum. This involves computer

literacy, knowledge and skills that the students have to aquire. It can be divided in two

types. First, teaching for using calculation programs, databases and word procesors.

Second, the computer as an object of knowledge, where it teaches students programming

skills and technical questions about the hardware.

B.- Learning with the informmation and communication technologies: this category seeks

to account for the use of this technologies (computers, internet, multimedia, etc..) as a

means to improve teaching or to replace other means, but without changing the

approaches or teaching methods.

C. - Learning through the information and communication technologies: at this level the

information and communication technologies are seen as inserted in the educational

8 IBID. 16p.

structure. This technologies are an essential tool in the courses and the curriculum, they

are an integral part in the process of knowledge construction and transmission, both

within and outside the school.

3) LEVEL OF INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES IN EDUCATION

According to several authors on the subject, the presence of information and

communication technologies on the teaching and learning process can not be just another

resource and should be considered as a key factor in the future of education. Moresh9, has

identified 8 levels of implementation of information and communication technologies in

the classroom. The firs two levels (making awareness and exploration) the teacher is who

sets the pace and sequence, it is the teacher who decides when, how and for what

purposses to use it. As it go along in the next levels, the tendence is that the students

work with a higher level of autonomy in the use of this new technologies. The last two

levels (expansion and refinement ) are characterized by maximum exploitation of these

tools with great freedom of use, where students can contribute to the process of teaching

through the same technologies. This research, for being exploratory and descriptive,

sought , among other things, define what is the level of integration of this technologies

into the pedagogical practices imparted by techers in the educational process.

4) INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN PEDAGOGY:

FOUR SCENARIOS

According to Brunner10, there are four different possible scenarios in which information

and communication technologies can be inserted into the educational system. These four

scenarios are formed by crossing two variables. 1) Information and communication

technoligies, and 2) pedagogical innovation. Within the technological variable there are

two different poles: a) Externalist-adaptive, where schools and teachers are adapted to

information and communication technologies imposed from the context. b) Internist-

syntonic; where educational institutions incorporate the technologies that they feel they

need, and from there, are in tune with the environment. The pedagogical innovation

variable is also subdivided into two poles. a) the traditional teaching; characterized for

being reproductionist and teacher-centered. b) The innovative teaching, characterized by

inter-exchange and a constructivist approach to learning.

Of these crosses of variables emerges four possible scenarios:

9 BRUNER, José Joaquín. 2000. Education: Future Scenarios. New Technologies and Information Society. Program for Educational Reform in Latin America and the Caribbean. [available on line] <http://www.cbc.uba.ar/noti/jornada_iep/CT_Brunner.pdf> [consulted: 27 August 2010]

A.- Internist - traditional : using the information and communication technologies to

enrich the traditional model. This is the most common today. This new technologies are

seen as new resources that not interpellate the teaching practices.

B.- Internist - innovative: characterized by the leading role of the students with an

increasing autonomy in managing their learning process, for whom the information and

communication technologies are a means of building knowledge.

C.- Externalist - traditional : a scenario associated with the incorporation of computer

content into the curriculum to meet the demands of the labour market.

D.- Externalist - innovative: is the boldest looking, for those who wish to bridge up the

gap between schools, the teaching process and the unpredictability of this era that is just

in it´s beginning. This imagined world, according to Brunner, raises the formation of an

intersubjectivity mediated by networks with terminals installed in any social space. Till

the point that the debate on whether or not to use information and communication

technologies in the classroom does not exist.

5 GENERATIONAL RUPTURE

Margaret Mead presents a threefold distinction regarding types of culture which has been

passing through history. Each time you move from one of these types of culture to the

next, a generational rupture occurs. There are three types of culture that Mead

distinguishes: the postfigurative culture, the prefigurative culture and the cofigurative

culture.

The postfigurative culture is one in which the change is so slow and imperceptible that

grandparents can not imagine a different future for their grandchildren that their own past.

It is a culture where groups of younger individuals learn primarily from groups of older

individulas. This type of culture is characteristic of primitive societies and small religious

and ideological strongholds, where derive their authority from the past.11

The cofigurative culture is one in which the prevailing model for the members of the

society lies in the conduct of his contemporaries, that is, that both the minor as major

groups learn from their peers. This kind of culture emerges in the great civilizations that

have necessarily developed techniques for incorporating the change, using cofigurative

forms of learning, namely, from peers, teammates, classmates and fellow learners.12

11 MEAD, Margaret. Culture and Commitment: a study of the generational rupture. Buenos Aires, Granica. 1970. 35p. 12 IBID, 65p.

Today we are witnessing the development of a new kind of culture, whose style implies

a rupture with configurative cultures to the same extent that, in another time, implied a

rupture with the postfigurative style. In this new period, unprecedented in history, are the

children and not the parents and grandparents who represent the future. In this culture,

the older groups also learn from the youger individuals, this is mainly because these

youger groups have been socialized in a world where the older groups ever met and see

themselves raising unkown children in a unknown world, that is prefigured.13

6) DIGITAL NATIVES AND DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS

The concept of digital natives it accounts for the first generation of young people born

and socialized in an environment surrounded by information and communication

technologies. That is to say, the first generation of young people socialized in the

information society. A society characterized by the systematic use of these technologies

in different spheres of social life. Individuals who fit this category have spent their entire

lives surrounded by and using computers, video games, digital music players,

camcorders, cell phones and other types of tools of the information age.14

Specifically, digital natives are those who know and use new technologies, incorporating

them into their daily life, not out of obligation but out of personal interest, at different

areas, such as work, academic, entertainment, relationships, etc.. Digital natives are those

who share a common global culture, they interact with information technologies,

information itself, and with other institutions.15 For the purposes of our research, were

considered under the category of digital native the students of the group of teachers that

it have been analyzed his discourse.

In contrast to the category of digital natives is that of digital immigrants. It can be

recognized the subjects belonging to this social category for their approach to the use of

the information and communication technologies. Are digital immigrants because they

see themselves in an environment that uses technology daily and they must learn to deal

with them, learn how to use them or incorporate them. As immigrants, some adapts better

to the new cultural forms than others, but always remain, to some degree, their own 'native

accent' in this new context of the information society.16

This distinction between those who are best suited and adapted and those who does not

construct the categories of included digital immigrants and excluded digital immigrants.

It can be said that the digital immigrants are included if they overcome the gap of access,

13 IBID, 124p. 14 PRENSKY, Marc. Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. [available on line] <http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf> [consulted: 27 septiembre 2010]. 15 PAVEZ, Isabel María. Natives and Digital Immigrants: Exploratory characterization of college students. Thesis (MA in Anthropology and Development). Santiago, Chile. University of Chile. Faculty of Social Sciences, 2008. 34p 16 IBID. 34p. 8 IBID, 58p

autonomy and skills necesary to perform activities under this enviroment17. Included

digital immigrants have incorporated elements of the digital natives and take the use of

information and communication technologies one step beyond what is required by the

various institutions, engaging with the digital logic and bringing to other worlds, such as

personal entertainment. While excluded digital immigrants are subjects who were forced

by the new environment to enter the digital world, but once on it, do not adopt the logic

and language of this system, but rather the mechanics, in order to survive. They have

sufficient the knowledge, but their acceptance towards technology in the process of

enculturation is superficial.

7) ADULTCENTRISM

Adultcentrism is a phenomenon of social asymmetry that occurs in the process in which

groups of older individuals builds a self-perception of their social role, where they

attribute themselves the responsibilities to educate and pass on their knowledge to groups

of younger individuals. This was rooted with the notion of adult power, that was

increasing to the extent that a number of symbols, discourses and norms which support

the social role attributed.18

The rationale that guide this adult power propose that to be youg or a child it means being

naturally in preparation for becoming an adult, that is, it sees children as incomplete

adults. This generates an asymmetric relational style where being adult implies a set of

privileges in detriment of the considerations of younger individuals.19

Adultcentrism results in social practices that guides programs and policies exclusively

from an adult approach, based on the discrimination of younger groups and the social

representation of the adult as a finished model of future goals.20 As we will see,

adultcentrism has an strong presence on the teacher discourse regarding his pedagogical

practices mediated by the use of information and communication technologies.

8) PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES

First of all, is necesary to begin by defining the concept of doscurse and its relation to the

concept of pedagogical practices in the context of the present research. In this

investigation, the concept of discourse has methodological role and a theoretical role.

From a methodological perspective the concept of discourse refers to a sociolinguistic

phenomenon and its empirical analysis. This view of the discourse had an impact on the

techniques for the production of information and the techniques for analyzing that

17 DUARTE, Claudio. Youth Worlds and Adults Worlds: generations and the rebuilding of the broken bridges in high school. Última Década. 10 (16) 3p. 2002. 18 IBID. 3p 19 KRAUSKOPF, Dina. Projects, Uncertainty and Future in the Juvenile Period. [available on line] < http://www.red-ler.org/nuevos__juvenil.pdf> [consulted: 28 September 2011]. 20 JAGER, Sigfried. Discourse and Knowledge: Theoretical and methodological aspects of the critical discourse analysis. In: WODAK, Ruth. Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. Madrid, Gedisa, 2001. 63p

information. From the theoretical perspective, discourse is considered as the flow of

societal knowledge accumulated throughout history, this flow determines, at least

partially, individual or collective events as well as the formative action that shape society,

so excerts power and control.21 From this position, the concept of discourse allowed to

observe the problem, formulate the reaearch question and its objectives.

The relationship between discourse and pedagogical practices is narrow. As we shall see,

when we talk of pedagogical practices we refer to procedures and strategies that guide

interactions, communication, the exercise of thought and speech of the subjects in

schools. The pedagogical practices works on on the meaning on the process of its

transsmision. That is, it works on communication, setting limits to the channles and the

modalities of the circulation of the messages, and to the exercises of pedagogical

exchanges regulatead by hierarchy, rhythm and legitimacy criteria. Apparently the

teacher appears as an isolated and autonomous individual, but from the point of view of

Basil Bernstein, the pedagogical practice is regulated by the legitimate discourse or

regulative dicourse. The discourse cannot be reduced to the linguistic action, each

discursive process must be considered as the product of a complex network of social

relations. The individual does not produce the meaning in a freely way through the

combination of linguistic units endowed of significancy. The individual is crossed by the

discursive order in which it is located and in which places his statements.22 It is precisely

this charasteristic that allow us to study the teacher discourse as a correlate of the

pedagogical pratice.

The concept of pedagogical practice from the perspective of Bernstein, accounts for a

fundamental social context through which operates the cultural production and

reproduction. The English sociologist provides a dichotomous distinction for the

pedagogical practice. On the one hand, is what is transmitted in practice, that depends on

stable rules. On the other, how is transmitted, that depends on contextual rules. That is to

say it should be observe both the process and the content of what happen inside the

schools in terms of what and how. Always keeping in mind the different rules that each

of these analytical options involves.23

The theory of pedagogic practice examines a series of rules defining the internal logic of

the practice in question, considering how these rules affect how and what of the content

to be transmitted. The rules that define the internal logic of pedagogical practice are three,

in turn, each of these rules is divided into two, the implicit rules and explicit rules.24

A) Hierarchical rules are those that define the relationship between teacher and student,

are those that established forms of conduct, order and character of "appropriate behavior".

Within this type of rules are the explicit and implicit hierarchical rules. The first,

concretize in the authority relations that are made explicity for all the students. In the

second, the relationship between who transmits (teachers) and the receptor (students) the

IBID. Pág. 1. 21 SADOVNIK, Alan. Knowledge and Pedagogy. The Sociology of Basil Bernstein. Nueva York, Ablex Publishing, 1995. 7p. 22 IBID. 12-13p.

contents and forms of the pedagogical practice are more diffuse. Power relations are

masked by communication processes.

B) The rules of sequence and adaptation are those that determine the progression of the

transmission (sequence), and the rate at which the student is expected to learn and

assimilate new contexts (adaptation). The explicit rules of sequence and adaption are

embodied in the curriculum and in the temporal boundaries of how students and teachers

should proceed depending on the position on the timeline that defines the educational

system. An obvious example of this are the differences about the various courses that the

educational system presents. As for the rules of implicit sequence, eliminates the student's

ability to become aware of their temporal project, which initially causes a great confusion

in the student by not perceive signals that make sense. Only the teacher knows these rules.

C) The rules of criteria are those which allow to understand what is legitimate and

illegitimate in the educational process. With regard to the implicit rules of criteria, teacher

and student always know the expectatives of each, with clear idea for both of what is to

be achieved. While the implicit rules of criteria allow a greater freedom for both. The

teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a transmitter, and the students has the ability to

create their individual evaluation criteria.

Thus, there are two ideal types of pedagogical practices. Those who are guided by explicit

rules are called visible pedagogical practices, and those who are guided by the implicit

rules are called invisible pedagogical practices. Each of these two types of pedagogical

practices affects in different levels. The visible pedagogic practice, affects in a intra-

individual level, where transmission and performance are emphasized. While invisible

pedagogical practice affects in a inter-group level where its enphasized the acquisition of

skills. Despite these notable differences between the two types of pedagogical practices,

both produce similar effects, especially regarding the reproduction of power and control.

Because of the characteristics of the technological paradigm that defines our society, the

insertion of this technologies on society affects in all the dimensions of it and not just the

technological dimenssion. In fact, these technologies fuse with sociocultural aspects.

There is a complex interaction between this technologies, the digital wolrd that provide,

the material world and the particular cultures that mediate and organize the relationship

between this technologies and their user, destabilizing the existing order.25 From these,

it followed as a work hypotesis that the insertion of the information and communication

technologies into the educational process will affect the pedagogical practices imparted

by the teachers. Specifically, it will produce a displacement from the visible pedagogical

practices to the invisible pedagogical practices. This displacement implies a change in the

ways in which the power relations are presented, a fuzziness in the temporal sequence on

the content to be transmitted to the students and a change in the legitimate behavior on

the class.

9) DIMENSIONS OF THE PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES

23 SASSEN, Saskia. Towards a Sociology of Information Technology. Current Sociology. 50 (3): 365-388p. 2002

As mentioned above, the theory of pedagogic practice examines a series of rules defining

the internal logic of the practice of the matter, considering how these rules affect how and

what of the content to be transmitted. The rules that defines the internal logic of the

pedagogical practice are three, in turn, each of these rules contains certain dimensions of

study.

Hierarchical rules are those that define the relationship between teacher and student. They

establish the forms of conduct, order and character of "appropriate behavior". From this

rule three dimensions of study emerges: a) the role of the teacher, the status relations

between teachers and students, c) and the forms of social control.

The concept of role was taken from the interactionist versions of sociological theory. For

authors such as Herbert Blumer and Ralph Turner roles are treated as an element that

emerges from the interaction process. Interpersonal negotiations lead to shared definitions

of role, which in turn results in a stable individual behavior on the part of the individuals.

This concept of role derive from symbolic interactionism that focuses on the role of

individual actors and how these roles evolve during social interaction. The roles are

intended as a reflection of norms, attitudes, contextual demands, negotiations and the

evolution of the definition of the situation as perceived by the actors.26 Therefore, our

research foucused on analyze this negotiations that occur in the interaction between

students and teachers when the pedagogical practices are mediated by the use of

information and communication technologies.

The concept of status basically refers to the position or rank of an individual, along with

a degree of prestige or honor in a group or social hierarchy. Status relations are defined

as a observable gradational order that link together individuals in a certain social situation.

In concrete, the status relations are expressed in differentiated rights and duties

accordding to their social position.27 Thus, it was examined how it affects the use of

information and communication technologies in this structure of this differentiated rights

and duties.

Social control has been used to describe everything and has been defined in many

different ways. For the purposes of this research, social control was seen as the means by

which makes people perform their roles as is expected. It is the set of mechanisms by

which the whole society, one way or another, induces its members to behave according

to the norms, values and prevailing cultural norms. 28 Therefore, it sought to analyze the

mechanisms by which the teachers induce the students to play they role as it expected

when the pedagogical practice are mediated by the use of information and communication

technologies in the educational process.

The rules of sequences and adaption are those that determine the progression of the

transmission (sequence) and the rate at which the student learn and assimilate new

contexts (adaptation). From this rule of the pedagogical practice mediated by the use of

24 TURNER, Ralph. Role Theory. IN: Handbook of Sociological Theory. TURNER, Jonathan (editor). Springer, California. 2006. P235. 25 KANTZARA, Vasiliki. Status. IN: The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. RITZER, George (editor). Blackwell Publishing. 2007. 4757p 26 GELSTHORPE, Loraine. Social Control. IN: TURNER, S Bryan. The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006. 570p

information and communication technologies, two dimensions emerge: a) adaptation

forms and b) pedagogical transmission.

Adaptation is the process by which individuals or groups change their patterns of behavior

adjusting it to new imperative norms in the social enviroment in which they act. By

adapting, the individual leaves customs and practices that were part of their behavior, that

in the new context are negatively evaluated, acquiring new ones in line with the novel

expectations. In this sense, adaptation is a form of secundary socialization, since it

operates taking into account the sillks that the individual already has. Thus, it sought to

analyze the ways in which the use of information and communication technologies

produce adaptative changes on the rate in which student learns.

Transmission was understood as the process by which the objectives of the curriculim are

transferred from the teacher to the students. But this process is not understood as part of

the cognitive process of the student or the teacher. Rather, it focus on the interactional

process through which the transmission occure, and how this process is affected by the

use of information and communication technologies in the class.

The rules of criteria are those that allows to understand what is legitimate and illegitimate

in the educational process. In the explicit rules of critera, both teachers and students have

a clear idea of what is expected of each. While the implicit rules of criteria there is a

greater freedom for both. Here, the teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a transmitter

and the student can create its own evaluation criteria. From this rule of the pedagogical

practice emerge two dimensions of analysis: a) the legitimate behavior and b) learning

expectancy.

The authority of an institution, individual or a practice that impose obedience can lead to

legitimate authority. Individuals generally follow other orders, rules, laws that are taken

for granted motivated by a sense of moral obligation or necessity, rather than by coercion

or immediate reward. In essence, the legitimacy provides an explanation for how the

social world is or is expected to be. These explanations or reasons provide the basis for

social action.29 In this regard, it was sought to analyze what the teacher considered

legitimate under this new context and how this is reflected in their pedagogical practice

mediated by the use of information and communication technologies.

Expectations are defined as the rational possibility of something to happen. Learning

expectations are understood as the rational posibility of the students to acquire the content

established in the curriculum. Thus, it was analyzed how the pedagogical practices

mediated by the use of information and communication technologies affects the teacher

expectations of learning by the students.

27 TROYER, Lisa. Legitimacy. . IN: The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. RITZER, George (editor). Blackwell Publishing. 2007. 2584p.