Language Variation and ChangeLanguage Variation and ChangeWS 2014/15, Campus EssenWS 2014/15, Campus Essen

Raymond Hickey, English LinguisticsRaymond Hickey, English Linguistics

Language variation and changeLanguage variation and change

The above term is used in presentThe above term is used in present--day sociolinguistics to day sociolinguistics to refer to the small variations which occur in language and refer to the small variations which occur in language and which are determined by external, social factors. These which are determined by external, social factors. These variations can and do lead in time to language change. variations can and do lead in time to language change. They contrast with variations in language which are They contrast with variations in language which are motivated by internal factors motivated by internal factors –– structural features of a structural features of a language language –– which can also lead to change, especially which can also lead to change, especially when this internal variation occurs during first language when this internal variation occurs during first language acquisition.acquisition.

Language variation and change is an important research Language variation and change is an important research paradigm today and there many books on the subject as paradigm today and there many books on the subject as well as a journal with this term as their name.well as a journal with this term as their name.

The following presentation is intended to give students an The following presentation is intended to give students an idea of what this lecture series will be about. Basic idea of what this lecture series will be about. Basic principles and assumptions of language variation and principles and assumptions of language variation and change / sociolinguistics are explained in the following change / sociolinguistics are explained in the following slides and typical concerns of the field can be slides and typical concerns of the field can be recognised.recognised.

To begin with several reasons for going to this lecture To begin with several reasons for going to this lecture series are given.series are given.

Introduction

Several good reasons for going to Several good reasons for going to this this lecture lecture series:series:

1)1) To find out about how language and society interacts, how socialTo find out about how language and society interacts, how socialattitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the manner attitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the manner in in which people speak.which people speak.

2)2) To learn about how the internal structure of language interacts To learn about how the internal structure of language interacts with with external social factors (language variation and change).external social factors (language variation and change).

3)3) To discover more about how languages change and how they donTo discover more about how languages change and how they don’’t, t, given the significance of social factors on this process.given the significance of social factors on this process.

4)4) To look as specific social situations and see how these general To look as specific social situations and see how these general principles are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguistic principles are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguistic investigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest hinvestigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest here.ere.

5)5) To examine closely how speakers use social networks to To examine closely how speakers use social networks to stregthenstregthentheir their identificaionidentificaion with the social group to which they feel they with the social group to which they feel they belong.belong.

6)6) To look at how men and women use language to express the To look at how men and women use language to express the relationship of the sexes (genderrelationship of the sexes (gender--related language use).related language use).

7)7) To see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness are To see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness are expressed in different languages.expressed in different languages.

8)8) To learn about the wider context in which societies are embeddedTo learn about the wider context in which societies are embeddedand how language relates to culture in general (linguistic and how language relates to culture in general (linguistic anthropology).anthropology).

9)9) To throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a langTo throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a language uage and the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone contextand the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone context, to , to consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,which are now independent, developed standards of their own.which are now independent, developed standards of their own.

nn SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics as a separate discipline develops in the early sixties, as a separate discipline develops in the early sixties, first in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the rest first in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the rest of the of the western world. This is true although considerations of language western world. This is true although considerations of language in in relation to society go back a considerable way and although the relation to society go back a considerable way and although the significance of society for language was stressed by the significance of society for language was stressed by the structuralistsstructuralists at the beginning of the 20th century.at the beginning of the 20th century.

nn SociologySociology is the study of social structures. This is a discipline which is the study of social structures. This is a discipline which was developed into its modern form in 19th century France and inwas developed into its modern form in 19th century France and inGermany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forGermany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forces it ces it is of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociologyis of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociology itself itself is not concerned with language.is not concerned with language.

Sociolinguistics and sociology

nn The basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that the The basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that the variationvariation we can observe we can observe in language is in language is nonnon--randomrandom, i.e. variation in language is , i.e. variation in language is socially significantsocially significant. . The task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variatioThe task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variation and to give n and to give a principled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findina principled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findings of gs of sociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely dsociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely determined by etermined by social class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with tsocial class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with the relative he relative security of a security of a groupgroup´́ss position in society with a general tendency of lowerposition in society with a general tendency of lower--status groups to imitate higherstatus groups to imitate higher--status groups as long as this imitation has a status groups as long as this imitation has a chance of leading to an improvement of social status as with thechance of leading to an improvement of social status as with the lowerlower--middle classes in the western world.middle classes in the western world.

nn There is often a discrepancy between what speakers There is often a discrepancy between what speakers saysay of their language of their language and what they and what they practicepractice. For instance in Peter . For instance in Peter TrudgillTrudgill´́ss study of English in study of English in Norwich it was shown that the workingNorwich it was shown that the working--class have a low opinion of their class have a low opinion of their own variety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuown variety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuming that ming that varieties can have varieties can have covertcovert prestige for their speakers.prestige for their speakers.

Some basic assumptions

Sociolinguistics and dialectologySociolinguistics and dialectology

nn In a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of diIn a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of dialectology. alectology. Those linguists involved in this area in the last century and thThose linguists involved in this area in the last century and the beginning of e beginning of the present century were interested in registering language use the present century were interested in registering language use and as such and as such were half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspewere half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspects of cts of dialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguisdialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguists. The ts. The chief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older, chief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older, male, rural male, rural speakers were given preference as informants. This went against speakers were given preference as informants. This went against the basic the basic principle of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of inforprinciple of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of informants be mants be random and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic of random and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic of sociolinguistic methods are the following features:sociolinguistic methods are the following features:

nn 1)1) The prior definition of one's area of investigationThe prior definition of one's area of investigationnn 2)2) The impartial choice of informantsThe impartial choice of informantsnn 3)3) The choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recordThe choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recordinging

rather than questionnaire)rather than questionnaire)

Gathering information Gathering information

nn The procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage thThe procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage that the field worker at the field worker very often has a negative (or very often has a negative (or standardisingstandardising) effect on the informants. This is called ) effect on the informants. This is called the the observer'sobserver's paradoxparadox, namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes , namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes under observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation in under observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation in which the informant which the informant is not made aware of his status as informant is much more is not made aware of his status as informant is much more favourablefavourable and less likely and less likely to distort the results.to distort the results.

Types of language variationTypes of language variation

nn Just as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable to Just as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable to sociolinguists so was sociolinguists so was the terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wantthe terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wanted to get away from ed to get away from the use of the term the use of the term dialectdialect. It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech . It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech which is particularly conservative. The more neutral term which is particularly conservative. The more neutral term varietyvariety was chosen which was chosen which had the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit conthad the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit contrast with a standard rast with a standard variety of language. The term variety of language. The term varietyvariety simply refers to a variant of a language. It may simply refers to a variant of a language. It may be the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or anbe the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or an urban variant, a urban variant, a social or peer group variant, etc.social or peer group variant, etc.

Contact between speakers Contact between speakers

nn One of the aspects of contact between speakers of different variOne of the aspects of contact between speakers of different varieties of a eties of a language is language is accommodationaccommodation. By this is meant that one of the speakers . By this is meant that one of the speakers attempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speechattempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speech to that of to that of his partner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make hihis partner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make him feel at m feel at ease, in order to be accepted, etc. This ease, in order to be accepted, etc. This accomodationaccomodation can be longcan be long--term or term or shortshort--term and is most readily accomplished by children.term and is most readily accomplished by children.

The linguistic variable The linguistic variable

nn This term refers to a specific feature of a language which showsThis term refers to a specific feature of a language which shows particular particular variation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifyvariation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifying a ing a speaker's speech. For example in New York the speaker's speech. For example in New York the realisationrealisation of /r/ is just such of /r/ is just such a variable. A common nona variable. A common non--linguistic designation for a linguistic variable, linguistic designation for a linguistic variable, which derives from the Bible, is which derives from the Bible, is shibbolethshibboleth, speakers of one community , speakers of one community pronouncing this word with an initial pronouncing this word with an initial shsh--sound and speakers of another sound and speakers of another pronouncing it with an initial pronouncing it with an initial ss--sound, i.e. /sound, i.e. /shsh/ versus /s/. A linguistic / versus /s/. A linguistic variable need not only be phonological. Examples of grammatical variable need not only be phonological. Examples of grammatical variables variables are double negation, the use of are double negation, the use of ain'tain't and the lack of marking with verbs in and the lack of marking with verbs in the 3rd person singular among African Americans.the 3rd person singular among African Americans.

Indicators and markersIndicators and markers

nn It has been established in the case of the variable (It has been established in the case of the variable (ngng) (as in English ) (as in English walkingwalking[w>:kin]) that the index scores for [n] [w>:kin]) that the index scores for [n] —— as in [w>:kin] as in [w>:kin] —— tend to decrease as the tend to decrease as the formality of the speech situation increases, no matter which parformality of the speech situation increases, no matter which particular social group is ticular social group is involved. One explanation for this involved. One explanation for this focussesfocusses on the fact that whenever there is class on the fact that whenever there is class differentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all clasdifferentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all classes will direct their ses will direct their attention towards the higher status variants and tend to increasattention towards the higher status variants and tend to increase their use of those e their use of those variants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direcvariants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direct result of social class t result of social class variation.variation.

Class and styleClass and style

nn However, not all variables which are subject to class differentiHowever, not all variables which are subject to class differentiation show stylistic ation show stylistic variation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class vavariation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class variation in terms of riation in terms of different index scores, but do not alter even if the speech situdifferent index scores, but do not alter even if the speech situation changes. ation changes. Variables which are subject to stylistic variation as well as clVariables which are subject to stylistic variation as well as class, sex or age variation ass, sex or age variation are referred to as are referred to as markersmarkers. Variables which are not involved in systematic style . Variables which are not involved in systematic style variation are called variation are called indicatorsindicators, an example would be the fricative , an example would be the fricative tt [8] of southern [8] of southern Irish English, in a word like Irish English, in a word like putput [pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of [pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of English. Indicators do not contribute to the description of clasEnglish. Indicators do not contribute to the description of class differences as s differences as markers do, since speakers appear to be less aware of the socialmarkers do, since speakers appear to be less aware of the social implications of an implications of an indicator than of a marker.indicator than of a marker.

Geographical variation and language contactGeographical variation and language contact

nn Variation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. WheVariation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. When n speakers disseminate into new locations, the language they take speakers disseminate into new locations, the language they take with them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or South with them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or South Africa where there has been considerable language contact. TheseAfrica where there has been considerable language contact. Thesechanges very often are connected with the establishment of changes very often are connected with the establishment of different standard forms of languages at the new locations (as idifferent standard forms of languages at the new locations (as in n central Canada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English hascentral Canada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English hasbeen subject to language contact and this has in turn led to chabeen subject to language contact and this has in turn led to changes nges in the forms of the language when this has taken place. South Afin the forms of the language when this has taken place. South Africa rica is a good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonis a good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonial ial form of early modern Dutch) the language with which English has form of early modern Dutch) the language with which English has been in contact.been in contact.

The work of William LabovThe work of William Labov

nn The main sociolinguist is William The main sociolinguist is William LabovLabov, , an American linguist who started by an American linguist who started by investigating language use in investigating language use in MarthaMartha´́ssVineyard (an island off the northVineyard (an island off the north--east east coast of the United States) and in New coast of the United States) and in New York city. His seminal investigations were York city. His seminal investigations were based on principles and methods which based on principles and methods which have become standard in sociolinguistics have become standard in sociolinguistics and which led to insights which are and which led to insights which are generally accepted today.generally accepted today.

LabovLabov´́ss principles and assumptionsprinciples and assumptions

1)1) Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.

2)2) Speakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show an Speakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show an identification with their locality through the use of a local vaidentification with their locality through the use of a local variety of riety of language. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptability language. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptability and and hence in their speech they move towards the standard of their hence in their speech they move towards the standard of their area.area.

3)3) Surreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradox Surreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradox is is minimisedminimised. (N.B.: The . (N.B.: The observerobserver´́ss paradox maintains that the paradox maintains that the linguistic linguistic behaviourbehaviour of informants changes under observation, of informants changes under observation, usually because people then talk the way they think the linguisusually because people then talk the way they think the linguist t wants them to).wants them to).

LabovLabov´́s data collection methods s data collection methods

nn LabovLabov further stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguisfurther stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguist t must be aware that an informant will show the following featuresmust be aware that an informant will show the following features in in his speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varying his speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varying degree degree of attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their owof attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their own n speech (sospeech (so--called 'audiocalled 'audio--monitoring'); in excited speech and casual monitoring'); in excited speech and casual speech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondingly speech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondingly diminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature of diminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature of the the interview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts to interview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts to the the interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in. interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in.

How does language change?How does language change?

With regard to language change William With regard to language change William LabovLabov proposed three phases proposed three phases which can be which can be summarisedsummarised as follows: 1) as follows: 1) originorigin, a period in which many , a period in which many variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2) variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2) propagationpropagation, the , the period in which one of the variants established itself and 3) thperiod in which one of the variants established itself and 3) the e conclusionconclusionin which the remaining variants are done away with. Various extein which the remaining variants are done away with. Various external rnal factors can accelerate the process of language change, above allfactors can accelerate the process of language change, above all social social pressure from above or below. Additional factors are the degree pressure from above or below. Additional factors are the degree of literacy of literacy in a community, the restraining influence of a standard of a lanin a community, the restraining influence of a standard of a language, etc. guage, etc. Schematically these three phases correspond to the beginning, miSchematically these three phases correspond to the beginning, middle and ddle and end of an Send of an S--curve which is frequently used as a curve which is frequently used as a visualisationvisualisation of language of language change (see next slide).change (see next slide).

nn LabovLabov proved his theories on language variation and language change bproved his theories on language variation and language change by y investigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various eminvestigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various employees ployees in New York department stores. Here he chose stores with differiin New York department stores. Here he chose stores with differing social ng social status. The linguistic variables he was particularly interested status. The linguistic variables he was particularly interested in are: (1) the in are: (1) the presence or absence of syllablepresence or absence of syllable--final /r/, (2) the final /r/, (2) the pronounciationpronounciation of the of the ambiambi--dental fricatives (/dental fricatives (/θθ/ and // and /ðð/ respectively) and (3) the quality of / respectively) and (3) the quality of various vowels.various vowels.

Insights of sociolinguisticsInsights of sociolinguistics

Language change can be observed Language change can be observed

nn The reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such facThe reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such factors as tors as forms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as aforms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as aseries of minute variations which spread through the lexicon of series of minute variations which spread through the lexicon of the the language (language (lexicallexical diffusiondiffusion). The difference between varying forms ). The difference between varying forms increases with time, due to a process known as increases with time, due to a process known as phonologisationphonologisationwhereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinct whereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinct from other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of any from other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of any existing variations in a language at any point in time lead to aexisting variations in a language at any point in time lead to actual ctual later change. Just what variations result in change depends on tlater change. Just what variations result in change depends on their heir status for the speakers of a language. This status may be conscistatus for the speakers of a language. This status may be conscious ous in the case of identification markers or subconscious, the lattein the case of identification markers or subconscious, the latter not r not being any less important than the former for language change.being any less important than the former for language change.

Which class is most active? Which class is most active?

nn Lower middle class speakers figure prominently in language changLower middle class speakers figure prominently in language change as they e as they aspire upwards on the social scale.aspire upwards on the social scale.

The The behaviourbehaviour of women of women

nn Women tend to use a more standard type of language than their maWomen tend to use a more standard type of language than their male le counterparts (due to their uncertain position in westerncounterparts (due to their uncertain position in western--style societies?). On style societies?). On the other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard inthe other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard in a a situation of socially motivated language change.situation of socially motivated language change.

The reversal of change The reversal of change

nn Language change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservLanguage change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservative ative (older) forms can be re(older) forms can be re--established if enough speakers use them for established if enough speakers use them for purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.

Further issues in sociolinguisticsFurther issues in sociolinguistics

1)1) Social networksSocial networks (smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)(smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)

2)2) Dissociation as a form of language changeDissociation as a form of language change (changing your language to become more (changing your language to become more different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)

3)3) Sociolinguistics and gender differencesSociolinguistics and gender differences (to what extent does the social role of the (to what extent does the social role of the genders determine their linguistic usage?)genders determine their linguistic usage?)

4)4) Solidarity and politenessSolidarity and politeness are further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction anare further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction and d have to do with maintaining have to do with maintaining oneone´́ss status and respect in interpersonal status and respect in interpersonal communication (technically called communication (technically called faceface).).

5)5) Sociolinguistics and second language acquisitionSociolinguistics and second language acquisition (how do social factors improve or (how do social factors improve or inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).

6)6) Sociolinguistics and educationSociolinguistics and education (how are children (how are children socialisedsocialised into their environment into their environment through the schools they go to? To what extent do governments trthrough the schools they go to? To what extent do governments try to impose y to impose linguistic standards in their countries via the educational systlinguistic standards in their countries via the educational system?)em?)

Types of speech communities: BilingualismTypes of speech communities: Bilingualism

A type of linguistic situation in which two languages co-exist in a country or language community without there being a notable distribution according to function or social class. Within Europe Belgium, in those parts where French and Flemish are spoken side by side, provides an example of bilingualism. Do not confuse this with diglossia. A bilingual is an individual who speaks two languages almost equally and does not show a functional distribution of the languages. One must stress 'almost equally' as one language nearly always predominates with any given individual. True bilingualism can be seen as an ideal state which one can approach but never entirely reach.

Types of speech communities: Types of speech communities: DiglossiaDiglossia

A type of linguistic situation in which there is a division between two languages or two varieties of a language such that one variety, the so-called 'high' or H variety, is used in public life — in addresses, in the media, in schools and universities, etc. — and another variety, the so-called 'low' variety or L variety, is used in domestic life — with family and friends. Examples of diglossic situations are to be found in Switzerland (Hochdeutsch and Schwizerdütsch), in various Arabian countries (Classical Arabic and the local dialect of Arabic), Paraguay (Spanish and Guaraní).

Types of speech communities: Language SplitTypes of speech communities: Language Split

This term is used to refer to the type of situation which obtains when for political reasons two varieties which are scarcely distinguishable are forcibly differentiated to maximalise differences between two countries. This applies to the Moldavian dialect of Rumanian, which is now written in Cyrillic and is the language of the Republic of Moldavia within the former Soviet Union, and the remaining dialects of Rumanian. It also applies to Hindi, the official language of India, alongside English, and Urdu, the official language of Pakistan. Note that in these situations much use is made of different writing systems. Thus Hindi is written from left to right in the Devanagari script while Urdu is written right to left in the Persian variant of Arabic. Once language split has been introduced the differences may become real with time, e.g. with Hindi and Urdu the different religions make for different vocabulary which helps the originally artificial distinction between the languages to become real. Historically in Europe Dutch and the Lower Rhenishdialects represent a case of language split.

Types of speech communities: Language Types of speech communities: Language MaintenanceMaintenance

The extent to which immigrant speakers of a certain language retain knowledge of the original language in the host country into the following generations. Here language communities vary. The Irish, for example, gave up their native language immediately in the United States whereas the Estonians have shown a remarkable degree of language maintenance. The reasons for this have to do with the attitude of the respective groups to their original language. For the Irish their native language was associated with a background of poverty and deprivation and so they switched gladly to English in America.

Types of speech communities: Language Types of speech communities: Language PreservationPreservation

This is the extent to which a country has official institutions to preserve the language in an ostensibly pure form. For example, in France an academy has existed since 1634 which acts as a watchdog over thepurity of French. There is no corresponding institution in England or Germany (though South Africa, as the only Anglophone country, does have a language academy). In the latter two countries, major publishing houses play the role of language academies, the Oxford University Press in England and the Bibliographisches Institut(Mannheim) in Germany, the publishers of the Duden series of reference books. One should add that the value of prescriptive organs is very much disputed as they cannot stop language change in theform of borrowing (cf. the influence of English on French despite the efforts of the academy).

Types of speech communities: Language DeathTypes of speech communities: Language Death

This highly emotive term is sometimes applied to those social situations in which a language ceases to exist. The fact itself is of little concern, it is rather the stages which the language goes through which arouse the interest of the linguist. A well-studied instance of language death is Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland in the north-east of Scotland. The language was progressively abandoned from one generation to the next and during this process the grammar of the language showed clearsigns of disintegration, for example in its morphological system. In such a scenario the attention of the linguist is directed at the question whether significant generalisations can be made concerning this grammatical decay.

Recommended literatureRecommended literatureAuer, Peter, Auer, Peter, FransFrans HinskensHinskens and Paul and Paul KerswillKerswill ((edseds) 2005. ) 2005. Dialect Change. Convergence Dialect Change. Convergence

and Divergence in European Languages.and Divergence in European Languages. Cambridge: University Press. Cambridge: University Press. Britain, David (ed.) Britain, David (ed.) Language in the British Isles.Language in the British Isles. 2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press. 2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press.

Chambers, Jack 2003. Chambers, Jack 2003. Sociolinguistic theory. Linguistic variation and its social signSociolinguistic theory. Linguistic variation and its social significanceificance. . 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.

Chambers, J. Chambers, J. K.K. andand Natalie SchillingNatalie Schilling--Estes (Estes (edseds) ) 2013.2013. The Handbook of Language The Handbook of Language Variation and ChangeVariation and Change, Malden / , Malden / Malden, MA:Malden, MA: WileyWiley--Blackwell.Blackwell.

Eckert, Penelope and John R. Eckert, Penelope and John R. RickfordRickford ((edseds) 2002. ) 2002. Style and Sociolinguistic VariationStyle and Sociolinguistic Variation. . Cambridge: University Press. Cambridge: University Press.

Holmes, Janet 1992. Holmes, Janet 1992. An introduction to sociolinguistics.An introduction to sociolinguistics. London: Longman.London: Longman.

LippiLippi--Green, Rosina 1997. Green, Rosina 1997. English with an Accent. Language, Ideology and Discrimination English with an Accent. Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States.in the United States. London: London: RoutledgeRoutledge. .

Mesthrie, Rajend et al. (eds) 2000. Mesthrie, Rajend et al. (eds) 2000. Introducing sociolinguisticsIntroducing sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: University . Edinburgh: University Press.Press.

MugglestoneMugglestone, Lynda 2003. , Lynda 2003. ‘‘Talking ProperTalking Proper’’. The Rise of Accent as Social Symbol. The Rise of Accent as Social Symbol. 2nd . 2nd edition. Oxford: University Press. edition. Oxford: University Press.

Romaine, Suzanne 2000. Romaine, Suzanne 2000. Language in society. An introduction to sociolinguistics.Language in society. An introduction to sociolinguistics. 2nd 2nd edition. Oxford: University Press. edition. Oxford: University Press.