AS Psychology Paper One Paper One - Social psychology Assessment – 90 minutes Section A – 29 marks (Social psychology) Section B – 29 marks (Cognitive psychology) Section C – 12 marks (Extended response) 70 marks in total 50% of AS Psychology First assessment: May/June 2016 Know Your Assessment Objectives CONTENT + ASSESSMENT = GRADE AO1 Identify, outline, describe… Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, theories and studies. 35 – 40% AO2 Explain in a theoretical and/or practical context, using both quantitative and qualitative data Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, theories and studies. 30 – 35% AO3 Description and evaluation of methodology, studies and theories Evaluate, analyse and interpret scientific ideas to make judgements and reach conclusions whilst developing practical design and procedures 30 – 35%
Transcript
AS Psychology Paper One
Paper One - Social psychology
Assessment – 90 minutes
Section A – 29 marks (Social psychology)
Section B – 29 marks (Cognitive psychology)
Section C – 12 marks (Extended response)
70 marks in total
50% of AS Psychology
First assessment: May/June 2016
Know Your Assessment Objectives
CONTENT + ASSESSMENT = GRADE
AO1
Identify, outline, describe…
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, theories and studies.
35 – 40%
AO2
Explain in a theoretical and/or practical context, using both
quantitative and qualitative data
Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes,
theories and studies.
30 – 35%
AO3
Description and evaluation of methodology, studies and theories
Evaluate, analyse and interpret scientific ideas to make judgements
and reach conclusions whilst developing practical design and
procedures
30 – 35%
Social Approach
The Key Question
How can the social approach to psychology help explain the atrocities of Abu Ghraib in 2004?
Use theories of obedience and prejudice to explain the behaviour shown by guards and prisoners after the events of 9/11
Always relate any theories or psychological concepts to the above contemporary issue.
Use the work of Milgram, Tajfel, Sherif, Latane and Zimbardo amongst others
Social Psychology
Theories of Obedience
Definition of Obedience
The Agency Theory (Milgram 1965)
Describe (4xA01)
● Blind obedience● Moral strain● Perception of authority figure● Actions are the responsibility of another● Agentic v autonomous obedience
The Social Impact Theory (Latane 1981)
Describe (4xAO1)
● SxIxN● Strength of Impact● Immediacy of Impact● Number of Sources
Explain genocide using the agency theory of obedience
Extend your explanation to include the Social Impact Theory
Research into Obedience
Milgram (1963) (The Original Experiment)
TAMSFC
Title:
Aim:
Hypothesis:
Method:
Design:
Sampling Method Used:
Step by Step Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Findings:
Conclusion:
Additional Notes
Research into Obedience
To what extent do situational factors encourage dissent?
1. Change of I.V - Run down office block (expt. 10) Procedure
Findings
Conclusion in relation to Social Impact Theory
2. Change of I.V - Telephonic instructions (expt. 7) Procedure
Findings
Conclusion in relation to Social Impact Theory
3. Change of I.V – Ordinary Man as Experimenter (Expt. 13) Procedure
Findings
Conclusion in relation to Social Impact Theory
EVALUATION OF MILGRAM’S RESEARCH - GRAVE
G
Generalisability
R
Reliability
A
Applicability
V
Validity
Ethics
E
Individual Differences
Student research task
How do levels of obedience/resistance differ when one regards personality, gender, culture and situation?
To what extent is obedience deterministic?
Consider Meeus and Raajmaker’s (1986) study of Administrative Obedience amongst other contemporary research
Personality
Gender
Situation
Culture
Determinism or Free Will
Theories of Prejudice
Definition of prejudice
Definition of discrimination
The Social Identity Theory of Prejudice
Tajfel and Turner 1979
Social Identity (includes in-group and out-group membership)
Stereotyping
Social Categorisation
Social Comparison
In-group favouritism and negative out-group bias
The negative homogeneity effect
Minimal Groups Study (Social Identity Theory)
Tajfel (1979)
Title:
Aim:
Hypothesis:
Method:
Design:
Sampling Method Used:
Step by Step Procedure:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Findings:
Conclusion:
Additional Notes
Generalisability
Reliability
Applicability
Validity
Ethics
(apply the BPS guidelines)
The Realistic Conflict Theory
Sherif 1966
Key Point Elaboration/Explanation
Additional Notes
Classic Social Study
Title: The Robbers Cave Study-Sherif (1954/1961)
Aim:
Hypothesis:
Method:
Design:
Sampling Method Used:
Step by Step Procedure:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Findings:
Conclusion:
Experiment 2 – 1961 Notes of Difference – Research
Evaluation of Sherif’s Study - GRAVE
G
Generalisability
R
Reliability
A
Applicability
V
Validity
E
Ethics
(apply the BPS guidelines)
Contemporary Social Study
Title: Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? Burger (2009)
Aim:
Hypothesis:
Method:
Design:
Sampling Method Used:
Step by Step Procedure:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Findings:
Conclusion:
Additional Notes
Evaluation of Burger’s study - GRAVE
G
Generalisability
R
Reliability
A
Applicability
V
Validity
E
Ethics
(apply the BPS guidelines)
The Key Social Question
What caused the behaviour of prisoners and guards in Abu Ghraib 2004?
Ensure clarity through the use of paragraphs
Describe the issue (4 AO1s) using 4-6 clearly differing points of fact
Explain how the agentic state may have caused the behaviour of the guards followed by evidence which suggests that the guards were in an autonomous state. Also explain the possible behaviour of the prisoners.
Describe the Reconstructive Memory Theory (5 AO1s) _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Explain how reconstructive memory could lead to differing recall of the same event
(5 AO2s Use the War of Ghosts study to enhance your response) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, theories and studies.
35 – 40%
AO2
Explain in a theoretical and/or practical context, using both
quantitative and qualitative data
Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes,
theories and studies.
30 – 35%
AO3
Description and evaluation of methodology
Evaluate, analyse and interpret scientific ideas to make judgements
and reach conclusions whilst developing practical design and
procedures
30 – 35%
Learning Approach
The Key Question
Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that causes anorexia?
Base your response on classical and contemporary research. Offer the behaviourist perspective and use counter arguments from other approaches to fully develop this
contemporary issue.
Consider how all types of learning theory help to understand the possible cause of anorexia.
Classical Conditioning (5 AO1)
Draw the diagram
Include the following terms
UCS (Naturally occurring)
CS (Externally determined)
NS (No association)
UCR (Naturally occurring)
CR (Externally determined)
Bell
Food
Saliva
Using the above example, explain what is meant by the following terms
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalisation
Briefly outline the 1909 Pavlov dog study
Describe and evaluate the use of animals in laboratory experiments (AO1 followed by AO3)
Concentrate solely on the Ethics Scientific Procedures Act (1986)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Other
Operant Conditioning Theory (5 AO1)
Draw the diagram below
Include the following terms
Stimulus
Response
Strengthen
Weaken
Break
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Primary and Secondary Re-inforcers = examples
Punishment
Success
Failure
Alternative Response (try again)
Give Up
Properties of Reinforcement (AO1)
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement (AO1)
Schedules of Reinforcement (AO1)
Social Learning Theory (5 AO1)
Draw two diagrams below
a. Describe AO1b. Explain through parent/child learning
Use the following terms
Model
Attention
Observation
Imitation
Shaping and Behaviour Modification
Vicarious Reinforcement
Individual Differences
Offer examples in order to apply the following information (AO2)
What affects attention?
What affects retention?
What affects reproduction of behaviour?
What affects motivation in terms of reinforcement?
The Imitation of Aggression
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961 and 1963)
Using TAMSFC, describe the original experiments carried out by Bandura et al.
There are several findings which need to be offered
Describe the findings
Bandura (1965)
The Bobo doll experiment with vicarious reinforcement
What do the Bobo doll studies tell us about aggression and the social learning theory?
Evaluate (AO3) the work of Bandura
GRAVE
G
Generalisability
R
Reliability
A
Applicability
V
Validity
Ethics
(apply the BPS guidelines)
E
Describe how learning theories explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias
4 AO1
What is a phobia?
Give examples of phobias?
8 AO2
Explain how phobias arise and continue through
● Classical conditioning● Operant conditioning● Social learning theory
Treatments for Phobias
Explain Systematic Desensitisation (6AO2)
Explain Aversion Therapy OR Token Economy Therapy
(6 AO2)
How can different environmental influences and experiences affect a person’s learning/behaviour?
Conditioning - Rewards and Punishments on gender, culture and age
Social Learning Theory - Models observed on gender, culture,and age
Developmental Psychology
Development of behaviour occurs through patterns of rewards and punishments
Explain the above for a child of 3 years preparing for school at the age of 5 years
Extend by showing that development is through the observations of significant others
Classic Learning Study
Little Albert (1920) Conditioned Emotional Reactions
Watson and Rayner
You should now be able to fully describe any study using the
TAMSFC Framework
Offer a one/two tailed, and null hypothesis to show full understanding here
Classic Learning Study
Little Albert
You should be able to evaluate any study using the GRAVE Framework
Describe and evaluate one of the contemporary studies below
● Becker et al. (2002) Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls
● Bastian et al. (2011) Cyber-dehumanization: Violent video game play diminishes our humanity
● Capafons et al. (1998) Systematic desensitisation in the treatment of the fear of flying
The Learning Key Debate
Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that causes anorexia?
Consider how other approaches view anorexia and compare explanations.
Your independent variable is age (IV) which is the difference or the cause)
Your dependent variable is level of prejudice (DV) which is the measured outcome or the effect)
Self-Report Questionnaires
Explain self-reporting data
Give examples (explain) researcher effects with self-reporting data
Types of Questions
Consider the IV and the DV
Give examples of questions you could ask to gather this information from 100 people in BSB.
Structured examples
Semi structured examples
Unstructured examples
Sampling
You require a sample of 100 students for your study into prejudice and age. Explain how you would obtain these participants using the following sampling methods.
Opportunity Sampling
Whoever is available at the time
Random Sampling
Whoever is available at the time but with less researcher choice than opportunity
Stratified Sampling
A sample of participants which is a true reflection of the population it is taken from. Consider participant variables such as age, gender or nationality
Volunteer Sampling
A willing, knowing and motivated sample who offer their assistance possibly for financial gain
Evaluate each type of sampling
Opportunity Sampling
Whoever is available at the time
Random Sampling
Whoever is available at the time but with less researcher choice than opportunity
Stratified Sampling
A sample of participants which is a true reflection of the population it is taken from. Consider participant variables such as age, gender and nationality
Volunteer Sampling
A willing, knowing and motivated sample who offer their assistance possibly for financial gain
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Measures of Central Tendency
Participant Level of Prejudice
1 4
2 1
3 9
4 6
5 4
6 6
7 7
8 6
Show the working out!
Calculate the means
Calculate the medians
Calculate the modes
Draw a frequency table for the above raw results table
Draw a bar chart
● Label the x and y axis using the IV and DV● Give it a title
● Make it accurate using a thin line
Measures of dispersion
Calculate the range
Evaluate similar ranges in terms of reliability when using repeated measures design
Calculate the standard deviation
What does the standard deviation tell us?
Analysis of qualitative data
Qualitative data comes from open questions or un/semi structured interviews. It is a way of taking rich, in depth data and attempting to give it some sort of measurement to allow reliable analysis.
e.g How prejudiced is this individual from the transcript/question response?
Thematic analysis is the most common form of analysis in qualitative research . It emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or "themes") within data.
Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question. The themes become the categories for analysis.
Thematic analysis is performed through the process of coding in six phases to create established, meaningful patterns.
These phases are:
● familiarization with data, ● generating initial codes, ● searching for themes among codes, ● reviewing themes, ● defining and naming themes, ● and producing the final report●
Below is an article written by an American attorney. You have to decide to what extent it could be considered racist.
● http://www.amren.com/features/2014/05/confessions-of-a-public-defender/Research definitions of racism and generate 3 initial codes (key pointers of casual racism)
Read the article once to familiarise yourself and then as a pair colour code the argument.
The above code of conduct revolves around the following areas
● Respect● Competence● Responsibility● Integrity
The table below offers a simplified version suitable for A Level Study
RESPECT
Describe (AO1)
What does this mean?
Evaluate (AO3)
Give an example of how you might break the code
Respect Individual Differences
Maintain Confidentiality
Ensure Informed Consent
Resist Psychological Harm
COMPETENCEY
Describe (AO1) Evaluate (AO3)
Seek Advice
Ensure Line Management is Effective
Resolve Any Ethical Issues Which Arise
RESPONSIBILITY
Description Evaluate
Ensure No Individual is Psychologically Harmed
Ensure Each Individual is Debriefed
Ensure Each Individual Is Allowed the Right to Withdraw
INTEGRITY
Description (AO1) Evaluate (AO3)
No Deception
Avoid transference and counter-transference
Challenge Misconduct
Methodology (AO3)
The Cognitive Approach
Experiments
Laboratory Field Natural
AO1 Description AO1 AO1
AO3 Evaluation AO3 AO3
When evaluating, consider strengths and weaknesses. Base these on two spectrums
Ecological Validity
(To what extent the findings are representative of real life scenarios)
Consider
● The mundane realism of the task(s) in the experiment. Are they normal day to day activities
● The artificiality of the settingLow ___________________________________________________ High
Reliability
To what extent is the experiment controlled
● How easy would it be to replicate it exactly 10 years later?)
High ____________________________________________________ Low
Extraneous Variables
Give examples of the following
Participant variables
Situational variables
Controls
A psychologist must attempt to ensure that any possible extraneous variables are controlled to avoid a confounding variable affecting the results.
Draw a diagram below to show this process and then explain how a confounding variable could affect the results of a memory test on colour identification of 5 year olds.
Operationalisation of the independent and dependent variables
The op of the IV
The IV is the aspect of change between conditions or groups
For example
Condition – Using imagery to improve memory recall
Groups – Older peoples performance in memory recall
The operationalisation of the IV considers how you would introduce this change
For example
Imagery – Is operationalised by attaching a corresponding photo of the word to the list to be recalled
Age – Is operationalised by grouping all people 18 years and over as older, and 17 and below as younger
The operationalisation of the IV must be absolutely specific to the experiment at hand
Operationalise the following IVs when considering an experiment into memory recall of a list of 20 words
● The time of day____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
After the IV has been introduced, (the cause), we then measure the effect. The way in which you measure the results is known as the op of the DV. It must
● Clearly state what you are measuring● How you will measure it
● And what scale of measurement you will be using eg number of correctly recalled words between 0 – 20
Operationalise the following dependent variables
1. Prejudice
2. Aggression
3. Independence
4. Obesity
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a statement of what will or will not happen.
It is a prediction of what you believe or do not believe will occur to the DV when the IV is introduced.
Experimental or alternate hypothesis
If you are conducting a laboratory, field or natural experiment, then you state
‘The experimental hypothesis is …’
If you are conducting a non- experimental study such as an observation or survey, then you state
‘The alternate hypothesis is …’
Directional or non-directional hypothesis
A directional hypothesis states the IV will affect the DV in one definite way. This is known as a one tailed hypothesis
E.g. The one tailed experimental hypothesis is that a rainy day will lower the happiness rating of people
A non-directional hypothesis states the IV will affect the DV, but is unsure which. This is known as a two tailed hypothesis
E.g. The two tailed experimental hypothesis is that a rainy day will affect the happiness rating of people
The null hypothesis
A null hypothesis states that there will be no significant effect of the IV on the DV
E.g. The null hypothesis is that a rainy day will have no significant effect on the happiness rating of people
Effect of Results on the Hypothesis
Using either descriptive or inferential statistics, you accept or reject your one or two tailed hypothesis.
If you accept either the one/two tailed, you reject the null
If you reject either the one/two tailed, you must accept the null
Complete the table below
IV Sunny day
DV People’s mood
Op of IV
Op of DV
One tailed hypothesis
Two tailed hypothesis
Person, Object, Measurement
Write suitably detailed hypotheses for the following three words (Students own words)
The one tailed alternate hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The one tailed experimental hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The two tailed hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The null hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Experimental and research design
Independent Groups
When the sample of participants is split into 2 or more groups
The control group (DV measured) and experimental group (IV introduced, DV measured)
E.g. Short participants throw and catch a ball against a wall. Tall participants do the same. The op of the DV is how many are caught. The op of the IV is in cms. Short is 170 cms and below, tall is 171 cms and above
Matched Pairs
This is the same as independent groups but where a possibly confounding participant variable is controlled.
E.g. The average IQ of group A matches the average IQ of group B when the sample is split and tested on learning a new language either online or with a teacher
Repeated Measures
When the sample group remains whole but carries out the control test followed by the experimental test (or vice versa)
E.g. The group learn French online followed by Italian with a teacher over 2 x 60 hour courses
Outline one possible experiment you could carry out using independent groups
Outline one where you feel matched pairs would be preferable
Outline one where repeated measures would need to be employed
Order Effects
Using repeated measures has one main weakness. Order effects
They occur when condition A influences the results in test B
Example One
Practice effect…where performance in test A improves or hinders performance in test B
Explain a detrimental effect using the recall of words in a list (control) and similar words with corresponding images (experimental)
Example Two
Fatigue effect … where performance in test B hinders performance in test A due to either physical or psychological tiredness. Explain using a physiological IV on a psychological DV
In order to control possible order effects which could confound results and damage the internal validity of results, the following techniques are used.
Counterbalancing
Split the sample in half
Group 1 carry out test A then B
Group 2 carry out test B then A
This balances any possible positive or negative effects on the D.V
Randomisation
This can operate should there be more than 2 conditions
A-B-C, C-A-B, B-C-A
This aids validity to a greater extent as all possible combinations lessen order effects.
A = words only B = images only C = words and images only
Situational and Participant Variables
These extraneous variables occur more often when there is less control over the experiment. They lower the internal reliability of any study.
Examples of Situational Variables Examples of Participant Variables
Reliability
The extent to which a study could be identically replicated
Validity
The extent to which the operationalisation of the variables (IV and DV) measure what they intended to measure.
Thought
Is it possible to have one without the other in terms of reliability and validity?
Answer this fully and correctly and you are a fully-fledged member of the clever party
Research the following
Researcher effects
What are they?
Give examples
Demand Characteristics
What are they?
Give examples
Draw a diagram to show how researchers attempt to protect the IV’s effect on the DV
Inferential Statistics
● Statistical analysis of raw results ● Testing to what extent the results may be down to chance● Offering a statement of probability and certainty regarding the hypothesis
Levels of significance
p < 99% or 0.01 states that there is a 1% chance that the results were down to chance and not the result of the IV on the DV (the cause on the effect)
p < 95% or 0.05 states that there is a 5% chance that the results were down to chance and not the result of the IV on the DV (the cause on the effect)
Statistical analysis must be stringent to at least 95% certainty to accept an experimental/alternate hypothesis. If it does not reach this level, the null hypothesis must be accepted.
For particularly sensitive research, such as anti-psychotic drugs, testing must be much more rigorous than p > 0.01
Which test should I use?
Follow the 3 D method. Consider the study at hand and answer the following questions
Difference or Correlation
Is this a test of cause and effect, or strength of association between variables?
Design
Is this independent groups/matched pairs or repeated measures?
Data
Is the raw data nominal or ordinal?
Nominal data – Tally data, basic data
Ordinal/Interval data – The data can be rank ordered from the lowest to highest score
If it is a one tailed hypothesis, we test to p > 95% or p < 0.05If it is a two tailed hypothesis, we split the rejection of the hypothesis into two, as there are two possible outcomes. p here
would only be p > 90% or 0.10
Observed and Critical Values
The critical value is the point at which a hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. It is a purely statistical point and has nothing to do with the behavioural element of
many studies.
Hypothesis testing for reliability
1. Decide which test is appropriate for your study (3Ds)2. Gather your raw data and calculate the observed value. This can be done easily
online although the exam will ask for some aspect of the test to be completed manually.
3. Have your hypothesis at hand4. Remember how many participants (N) took part
5. Decide which level of significance you wish to test for6. Go to the correct statistical table, compare the observed and critical values, and
claim (or otherwise) significance of results7. If the results are significant, accept the directional hypothesis. If they are not, reject it
and accept the null hypothesisWhich Test?
Type I Error
A type I error occurs when one rejects the null hypothesis when it is true. The probability of a type I error is the level of significance of the test of hypothesis, and is denoted by *alpha* (a).
Type II Error
A type II error occurs when one rejects the alternative hypothesis (fails to reject the null hypothesis) when the alternative hypothesis is true. The probability of a type II error is
denoted by *beta* (b)
Evidence of Practical
During the psychology course, you will conduct the following research studies
● Social – A survey by questionnaire ● Cognitive – A laboratory experiment● Biological – A correlational study
● Learning – An observation Guidelines for study
Each study must be designed, carried out, analysed, and concluded by the acceptance or rejection of both the null and experimental hypothesis.
Write in the past tense where necessary
1. Title – Ask a question here2. Aim – Offer the IV and DV in this sentence3. Hypothesis – Offer the correctly operationalised IV and DV here. State the one tailed
and null hypothesis4. Method – Identify the type of research method you5. Design – Identify which design you used6. Sampling method – Identify the sampling method you used 7. Procedure – Offer a step by step set of guidelines such that your project could be
carried in exactly the same way ten years later. Include● Time of study● List of apparatus● Diagram (if appropriate)● How the sample was gathered● Who did what and how● How you ensured it was ethical (follow the BPS code)
8. Results section to show descriptive and inferential statistics9. What the results tell you about the significance of the study10.Relationship of results to hypothesis and concluded theory11.Evaluation of the study (GRAVE)12.How would you improve aspects of the study in terms of validity, reliability and ethics
Specific requirements for each study are outlined
This should be presented in a report style
Social Approach
The Questionnaire (from the syllabus)
In conducting the practical research exercise, studentsmust:
● design and conduct a questionnaire to gather bothqualitative and quantitative data to look for a difference
● collect, present and comment on data gathered,including using measures of central tendency (mean,
median, mode as appropriate); measures of dispersion(including range and standard deviation as appropriate);
bar graph, histogram, frequency graph as relevant;normal distribution if appropriate and draw conclusions
● use a Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon non-parametric testof difference to test significance (as appropriate),
including level of significance and critical/observedvalues
● consider strengths and weaknesses of the experiment,and possible improvements
● write up the procedure, results and discussion section ofa report.
Suitable examples● Dual task experiment to investigate components of
working memory.
● An experiment to look at the levels of processing model of memory
Biological Approach
The Correlational Study (From the syllabus)
In conducting the practical research exercise, studentsmust:
● design and conduct a correlational study
● link their research to aggression or attitudes to drug use
● include inferential statistical testing (Spearman’s rho)and explain the significance of the result and the use oflevels of significance. Students must also be able to usedescriptive statistics (strength/direction) to explain the
relationship
● produce an abstract of the research method and adiscussion section which includes conclusions
● include research question/hypothesis, research method,sampling, ethical considerations, data-collection tools,
data analysis, results, discussion.
Suitable examples
● A correlation into age and attitudes to drug use.
● A correlation to see if there is a relationship betweenheight and a self-rating of aggressive tendencies.
The Learning Approach
The Observation
● ensure that observations relate to an aspect of learnedbehaviour, such as behaviour of different sexes, drivingcharacteristics, age-related behaviour, politeness and
helping behaviour
● ensure that observations enable the gathering of bothqualitative and quantitative data (including the use of note
taking, tallying and thematic analysis)
● analyse the findings to produce results, including using achi squared test
● evaluate the studies in terms of validity, reliability,generalisability and credibility
● write up the results of the quantitative data, includingappropriate graphs and tables
● write up the results of the qualitative analysis (thematicanalysis).
Suitable examples● How age and sex affect driving speed.
● Investigating the differences in helpful or polite behaviourin men and women.
