Xtra Introduction-Mass Communication

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UNIT 3-THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Structure

3.0 Unit Objectives

3.1 Introduction3.2 Theories of Mass Communication

Authoritarian theory 3.2.2 Libertarian theory 3.2.3 Social Responsibility

3.2.4 Soviet Media 3.2.5 Development Communication 3.2.6 Democratization Theory

3.3 Summary3.4 Exercises and Questions3.5 Further Reading

3.0UNIT OBJECTIVES

To learn the concept of various theories of Mass communication To understand each theory through diagrammatic representation To study the importance of theories of Mass Communication

3.1INTRODUCTION

Of all the times in history to be studying the mass media, this is probably the best.

Not only the dizzying technological and economic upheavals within the media

industries themselves make it so, but also the outpouring of theory, argument, and

research on the mass media from diverse academic fields. Theories about mass

communication have never been more plural or more contentious.

The area of knowledge we provisionally call Mass Communication Theories is

an unsettled terrain, something of a frontier, and frontiers are known for adventuresand dangers, lawlessness and open vistas. It deals with central traditions of study,

topics of debate, and conceptual problems in media studies.

Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch of social theory.

Indeed, the attempt to theorize society and communication arise in the same

moment. A theorist is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections to


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larger problems. Theory is not only something that people do in their armchairs; it

is an art that every scholar, if not citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories

are a re-approach with the past of an established theory.

3.2 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

3.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of

printing. At that time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is,

the governing agency. Thus there was strict control of the press through the

licensing of printers by the throne. Censorship was practiced if the ruler thought

that information should be with held from the masses. Therefore, although thegovernment did not necessarily own the press, it was looked on as being an

advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that their countries are

governed according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse libertarian

concepts, but behind the scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.

This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is

subordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies

advance censorship and punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines.

Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy, or offences

against moral codes should be criminal offences. Under certain circumstances,

media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic regimes as well,

especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other

media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is

free, lost its independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The

authorities can and do use the provisions of official secrets act to deny free access

to information, thereby hampering the freedom of press.


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The table below will highlight the practice of this theory:

Complete Control to varying Degrees of control

Complete press Criticism Special press Suppression

control allowed, but laws lead to of pressgovernment arrest of editors opposition is

invokes more covertCensorship

Soviet Union

China Colombia South Africa TurkeyYugoslavia Egypt Iran, Iraq Argentina

Syria Pakistan Indonesia

Lebanon

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Name countries, which have, complete control over the press?

3.2.2 Libertarian Theory

Today the open market place of ideas and the self-righting process define the

boundaries of the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John

Milton defended the concepts of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling

right from wrong, good from bad, and truth from falsehood in a powerful argument

for intellectual freedom. Other exponents of this philosophy were John Stuart,

Thomas Jefferson and other who believed in freedom of expression, rationalism, and

natural rights. They saw as the presss function to inform, to sell, to entertain, to

uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press ownership in countriesespousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and should be free from

defamation, obscenity, impropriety and wartime sedition.

Countries practicing the libertarian philosophy today are the United States, Great

Britain, and other western European nations. Other theories related to libertarian

theory are the social responsibility theory and the objective theory of the press.


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Libertarian theory is also called as the free press theory and is based on the

fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as

the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple

form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it

is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble

and organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident

from the first amendment to the American constitution, which states that congress

shall make no lawabridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply

an absolute right of the citizen.

But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart

Mill and many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening

good morals and the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de

Sola Pool (1973), no nation will indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press thatserves to divided the country and to open the flood gates of criticism against the

freely chosen government that leads its. Moreover, much difficulty has arisen

because press freedom has become identified with property rights (private

ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory or the

libertarian theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal

expression to the rights o editors and journalists or of the audiences.

3.2.3 Social Responsibility Theory

The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in that the

press recognizes that it has a responsibility to society to carry out its essential

functions. The social responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions

to the press as the libertarian theory:

1. Providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs

2. Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of self government3. Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its

watchdog function

4. Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing togetherbuyer, seller, and advertiser

5. Providing entertainment6. Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic

self-sufficiency.


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The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution

through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and

professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social

interests. This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is

evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations.

The social responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serve

essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fulfill certain

obligations to the society. These obligations are to be met by setting high

professional standards in communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity

and balance. In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be

self-regulatory within the framework of law and established institutions. In the

public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to crime,

violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities. The

media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their society and allowaccess to various points of view, including the right to reply.

This theory has lead to the establishment of self-regulatory bodies like the Press

Council, which is responsible for

Drawing up of statutes to protect editorial and journalistic practice

Framing of codes of ethics Ensuring implementation of anti-monopoly legislation, and

Regulation of advertising

3.2.4 Soviet Media Theory

This is also called as the communist media theory. Just as the social

responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet-communist

theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory. However, whereas according to

the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet media

theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the soviet-

media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system

and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This system is found

mainly in the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In addition to the

authoritarian theory this theory is related to the power of the press, gate

keeping/information control, and agenda-setting theories.


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Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917. This theory is derived

mainly from basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the

control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private

ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive

functions in society relating to information, education, motivation, and mobilization.

The media must project society in accordance with the Marxist-Leninist principles.

They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.

The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state and

are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media

are expected to be self-regulatory. They must

Act with responsibility Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and Respond to peoples needs and aspirations.

The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of

the authoritarian theory.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1.Give another name of Soviet Media Theory.

3.2.6 Democratization Theory

This is the most recent addition to the list of normative theories; is relevant to the

developed liberal societies but has some elements of the development media theory.

Mc Quail notes that it is most difficult to formulate this theory partly because it

lacks full legitimization and incorporation into media institutions and partly because

some of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories. In his

opinion, this theory represents a challenge to the reigning theories and merits

separate identification.


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The main feature of the democratic participant theory relates

to the needs, interests, and aspirations of the active receiver

in a political society. It is concerned with the right to

information, the right to answer back, the right to use the

means of communication for interaction in the small-scalesettings of the community. The theory favors

Multiplicity of media Smallness of scale, of operation and Horizontality of communication at all levels. It

opposes uniform, centralized, high cost, highly

professionalized and state-controlled media.

It is argued that the media should exist primarily for the

audiences and not for media organizations and professionals.

3.3 SUMMARY

Mass communication theory is best understood as a branch

of social theory. Indeed, the attempt to theorize society

and communication arise in the same moment. A theorist

is, one who argues, gives reasons and makes connections tolarger problems. Theory is not only something that people

do in their armchairs; it is an art that every scholar, if not

citizen and human, should cultivate. All theories are a re-

approach with the past of an established theory.

3.4 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

Q1. Discuss any two theories of Mass Communication?

Q2. What are the salient features of Authoritarian theory?Q3. What do we mean by Development Communication?Q4. What is the social responsibility of the press?

Q5. Explain the features of the Soviet Media?

3.5FURTHER READING

1.Mass Communication & Development Dr. Baldev Raj


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Gupta

2.Mass Communication in India Keval J Kumar3.Mass Communication Journalism in India D S Mehta4.Mass Communication Theory Denis Mc Quail

CHAPTER 1:

Development of Human Communication

The Meaning of Communication

Communication is an ever continuing process and an integral partof the world of all living things. The need for communication is

as basic as the hunger for food and drink, perhaps even more so.

It is an individual as well as a social need.

Derived form the Latin word communis, meaning common,

communication is a synonym for interchange, dialogue, sharing,

interaction or communion. It is the passing of meaningful

messages and the receiving of feedback. The Encyclopedia

Britannicadefines communication as the exchange of meaning

between indi viduals or groups through a common system of

symbols or l anguage.

Denis McQuail (Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication,

1975) sees human communication as the sending of meaningful

messages from one person to another. These messages could be

oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also includes laws,

practices, customs, ways of dressing, gestures, military parades

and flags as methods of communication.

Human communication went through different stages of

development. At first this development was driven by the process

of mankinds evolution from the lower species, later it was drivenby technological human progress.

Historical Survey of Communication:

The Age of Signs and Signals

The Age of Speech and Language


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The Age of Writing

The Age of Printing

The Mass Communication Age

The Age of Information Revolution

1. The Age of Signs and Signals

Prehistoric humans were physically unable to talk.

Communication was limited and determined by instincts. It was

the age of signs and signals - drum messages, smoke signals,music, dance etc.

2. The Age of Speech and Language

Mans first achievement was speech and language. It gave him an

eminent position over others. Growth of different languages gave

birth to different expressions that denoted distinctions within

communities. Certain languages acquired the traits of others, e.g.,

the language of conquerors was absorbed into the local dialect.

This then became the language of administration and commerce.

3. The Age of Writing

About 5,000 years ago, hieroglyphic writing was developed by

the Mayans and the Chinese. They used pictures with a

standardized meaning. The Sumerians developed a different form

of writing that represented sounds by symbols. This allowed

information to be stored and for traditions to be passed on in

writing. Clay, stone and later papyrus were developed and used

as portable media. Writing gave permanence to the spokenlanguage. Writing was slow to develop because the clergy, who

were the seats of power, wanted it to be their sole privilege.

4. The Age of Print

In the 1st century A.D, China invented paper. In the 8th century

the Arab world began to manufacture paper. In the 15th century,

the Gutenberg press was invented and printing began in Europe.


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As a consequence, information could be copied much faster and

with far fewer mistakes than before. Availability of information

was no longer restricted to the Roman Church and to nobility, but

open to a wider section of European societies. This was the basis

for further historical development that culminated in the Thirty-

Years-War. Books were followed by the development ofpamphlets and then newspapers in the 17th century. Some

newspapers began to be edited by the then subjugated Asians and

Africans in spite of severe opposition. Revolutionary journals

began to see the light of day and enjoyed wide readership.

5. The Mass Communication Age

In the 19th century, communication was determined by several

media forms. Print media, especially newspapers, were

supplemented by telegraph and telephone. The introduction ofradio, film and television in the 20th century saw the emergence

of the Mass Communication era.

6. The Age of Information Revolution

At present, we are living amidst an information revolution.

Integrated multimedia applications are now possible due to

networks established from the development of digital

communication technology. Hypertext structures form the basis

for communication and navigation within the system.

CONCLUSIONS

Communication is a carrier of a social process and man is a social

being because of communication.

Communication influences others and in turn is influenced by

them.

Communication gives people a sense of belonging and reduces

loneliness and frustration by helping people adapt to theirenvironment.

The communication revolution has marched along with the

industrial revolution and the media has been shaped by powerful

economic and social forces, such as the rise of democracy.


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CHAPTER 2:

Theories of Communication

Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages ofCommunication and summed up Communication as a complex

and dynamic process leading to the evolution of meaning.

The study of communication and mass media has led to the

formulation of many theories: structural and functional theories

believe that social structures are real and function in ways that

can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories

tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist

theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive

theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own

experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict

of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates

domination of one group over another .

The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists

Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their bookFour Theories Of

the Press (1956). These were termed "normative theories" by

McQuail in the sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the

media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing

set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or

classical theories is based on a particular political theory oreconomic scenario.

CLASSICAL THEORIES

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct

control of the State, had to follow its bidding. Under an

Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought

was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were

concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and wereworried about the effects of printed matter on their thought

process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression.

The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory

promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and

reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the

censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the

press was justified on the ground that the State always took

precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.


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This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy ofPlato

(407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the

hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a

British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was

sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a

German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating thatfreedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control

over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and

advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dates back

to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible

to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. TheState was thought of as a major source of interference on the

rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded

taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was

granted precedence over the power of State.

Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century

philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century,

John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart

Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton inAeropagitica in 1644,

referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted

"let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their

Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may

speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the

idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined

libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want

to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the

Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.

What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social

responsibility.

Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm,

Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their bookFour Theories Of

Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and

obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the

Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have

been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The

Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free


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market approach to press freedom had only increased the power

of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-

off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the

need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory

advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A

judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and highprofessional standards were imperative.

Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in

which the duty to one"s conscience was the primary basis of the

right of free expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that

"the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was

thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeoisideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being

incompatible with freedom of press and that modern

technological means of information must be controlled for

enjoying effective freedom of press.

The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to

educate the great masses of workers and not to give out

information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it

was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.

Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of thepress" were not fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of

Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social

and economic development on their own terms. The two theories

were:

Development Communication Theory

The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that

there can be no development without communication. Under the

four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the

Development communication theory, or Development SupportCommunication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the

role of carrying out positive developmental programmes,

accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media

subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and

cultural needs. Hence the stress on "development

communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit

support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this


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theory is that "development" is often equated with government

propaganda.

Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of

modern media and its top-down non-participant character. The

need for access and right to communicate is stressed.

Bureaucratic control of media is decried.

2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/

STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study

on Communication, but knowledge about mass communication

was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda

efforts, the Magic Bullet orHypodermic Needle Theory cameinto existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a

powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately

alter or control peoples' behaviour.

Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects

of mass media. His research findings are as follows: "Mass-

media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient

cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of

mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render

mass-communication as a contributory agent in a process of

reinforcing the existing conditions."

The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for

the functions and effects of mass communications are

- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves

to those mass communications which are in agreement with their

attitudes and interests; and

- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to

organize the meaning of mass communication messages into

accord with their already existing views.

3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld,

Berelson and Goudet conducted an American survey on mass

campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships

had played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals

selected content from the media campaign. The study also

indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers

to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of


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society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of

influence on people and mould the way they select media content

and act on it.

Figure 2.1

Source: CIA Advertising atwww.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)

4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media

channels communicate directly to the mass audience without the

message being filtered by opinion leaders.

5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in

the communication flow from a source to a large audience.

6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how

people use media for gratification of their needs. An outcome of

Abraham Maslow'sHeirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact

that people choose what they want to see or read and the different

media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.

In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a

pyramid with the basic needs such as food and clothing at thebase and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The

fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual

looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches

the superior-most need of self-actualization.

Figure 2.2


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Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University atchiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by permission)

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people

use media for many purposes. As media users become

increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct

our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that

families used television for communication facilitation,

relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In

general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:

1. Information - we want to find out about society and the

world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news

and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are

learning about the world.

2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to

look for models for our behaviour. So, for example, we may

identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help

us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their

actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.

3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media inorder to find out more about the circumstances of other people.

Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the

lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the

characters in programme as friends.

4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for

enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time.


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Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used

adventure stories from the media for group games while

individual children used media stories for fantasizing and

daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the

same messages from the media for different purposes.

Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with

the question "what do people do with the media?" Katz,

Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by

individuals to meet the following specific needs :

Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and

understanding);

Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);

Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);

Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);

Tension release needs (escape and diversion)

McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following

individual needs categories:

1) Diversion (emotional release)

2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for

companionship).

3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value

reinforcement, self understanding.)

4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual

accomplish tasks.)

B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of

"new technology" by examining VCR use. They found the

following motives for VCR use:

1) library storage of movies and shows

2) watching music videos

3) Using exercise tapes

4) renting movies

5) letting children view

6) time-shifting7) Socializing by viewing with others

8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes

7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that

the media publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people

adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being

isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being


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accepted will express it, whilst those who think themselves as

being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change

agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear

isolation.

Figure 2.3

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about

people"s need for consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In

order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief,

judgments and action people expose themselves to information

that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out

other communications.

9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING

THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the

significance of events in the public's mind. The media set the

agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and

organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and

gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the

agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation

between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people

most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high

need for orientation

10) Media Dependency Theory
http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.ukl/http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.ukl/http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.ukl/


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Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind

this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet

needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems

interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in

the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by thenumber and centrality of information functions and social

stability. Some questions that this theory raised were :

Do media create needs?

Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy

needs?

Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of

these?

"The media are our friends"??

11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of

people into the mass media in their after hours is a matter of

subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism

nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety

producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can

become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in

the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior.

13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce longterm effects that are very difficult to measure. The effects are like

stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and

the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite

theories.

MEANING THEORYMedia experiences mould meanings by putting things in a

particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world


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of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are

coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.

CULTIVATION THEORYGeorge Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on

viewers" ideas of the environment they lived in. He found thatdominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it

homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a

bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the

world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages,

meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth.

Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are

established.

Figure 2.4

Source : From the Internet at www.colorado.edu/.../Theory/

cultivation/sld001.htm

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State

University this theory traces the process by which a new idea or

practice is communicated through certain channels over time

among members of a social system. The model describes the

factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the

process of adopting a new technology or idea.

15) Social learning theory


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Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this

specifies that mass-media messages give audience members an

opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate

behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and

modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the massmedia also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience

members' adoption of the behavior.

Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories

into three broad categories:

1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people

who process information - for example, uses and gratifications,

active audience theory, and reception studies;

2. middle range theories that support the limited effects

perspective of the media - for example, information flow theory,diffusion theory, and

3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact

on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory.

Theories of mass communication have always focused on the

"cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the

process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. Harold

Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea.

Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what

in what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said:

"Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, broughtto the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of

conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).

Figure 2.5

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the

communication process as starting somewhere and ending

somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers

handling and rerouting the great endless current of


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information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail &

Windahl (1981)

16) The Osgood and Schramm circular

model emphasizes the circular nature of

communication.

The participants swap between the roles of

source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

Figure 2.6

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes

the dynamic nature of human communication.


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Figure 2.7

18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a

general model of communication

known after them as the Shannon-

Weaver Model. It involved breaking

down an information system into sub-

systems so as to evaluate the efficiency

of various communication channels

and codes. They propose that all

communication must include six

elements:Source

Encoder

Channel

Message

Decoder

Receiver


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This model is often referred to as an " information model" of

communication. A drawback is that the model looks at

communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the

addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that

disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being

transmitted

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE,

CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model

focuses on the individual characteristics of

communication and stresses the role of the

relationship between the source and the

receiver as an important variable in the

communication process. The more highlydeveloped the communication skills of the

source and the receiver, the more

effectively the message will be encoded

and decoded.

Berlo's model represents a communication

process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts

messages based on one's communication

skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and

cultural system. These MESSAGES aretransmitted along CHANNELS, which can

include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and

taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's

communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and

cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of

feedback

Terms used in the chapter:

Mass-media:It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema,

radio, television and internet, but also to some extent, books

magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media,

and natural communication methods such as rumours, education

and preaching. It is so termed because its reach extends to vast

heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ

technological means to communicate to the masses. They are


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founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe

defined mass media as those readily available to the general

public.

Selective attention:

The media are full of competing messages. The process ofscreening vast amount of information in which one has no

interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for

example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the news

while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.

Selective perception:This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in

terms of one"s existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological

character same media content in different ways. This depends on

factors such as age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective

perception is influenced by social relationships.

Selective retention:The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind

while ignoring others is called selective retention. This is

influenced by various psychological and physiological factors

such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.

Selective exposure:Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages

while some are not. This screening aspect depends on many

factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural

acceptability, taboos, etc.

Opinion leaders/change agents:The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they

hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a

group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and

behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion".

The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to

education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the

information they receive and then give their judgement on it.

Encoder:In the process of communication, the sender or source of the

message is referred to as the encoder.

Decoder:The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as

the decoder.


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Feedback:Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It

refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be

positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative;

instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed.

Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particularmessage put forth or situation that has taken place.

Noise:In all communication, there is a sender, a

message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a

message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is

transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes

it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the

way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication

does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering thecommunication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or

psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play

to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication.

Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of

meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese

Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the

original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the

final player

Chapter 3:

Uses and Effects of mass media

Chapter 2 focused on the various theories of communication and

the effects that the tools of media have on the audiences.

This chapter will focus on the several types of communication

classified on the basis of the social group in which it takes placeand upon the technical tools used for its facilitation. The various

types are:

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is one-way communication.

Individual contemplation, internal reflection, prayers, etc. are

types of intrapersonal communication. This type can also be

termed as a form of internal persuasion. There are two types of


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messages, nonverbal and verbal. Examples of nonverbal

communication are facial expressions, posture, gestures, tone of

voice, touching, spacing and systematic use of time. Verbal

communication can be divided into three disciplines; syntactics,

semantics, and pragmatics.

In the persuasion context, one person is attempting to induce

change in the belief, attitude, or behavior in one other person. For

example: Jane persuading her sister Sarah to lend her pearls for

Janes school party.

In the persuasion context, there are various theories that explain

internal communication

Balance TheoryThis theory advocated by Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb

in 1946 states that when tensions arise between or inside people,they attempt to reduce these tensions through self-persuasion or

trying to persuade others. Balance theory proposes that there are

three ways in which a person can feel balance. First the source

and receiver can both dislike as well as like each other, so they

experience comfort and balance. Second, the source and receiver

can have a positive attitude toward an object or idea and display

positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing

comfort and balance. Third, the source and the receiver can

disagree about an idea or object and also dislike each other,

therefore experiencing comfort because they know that theydisagree about the values of certain objects or ideas.

Example:

Mary likes to do things in a planned, orderly manner and Joe

does not like orderliness in everything. Yet Mary likes Adam,

and values their relationship therefore this system is now in

imbalance. If Mary would change her attitude about orderliness

in everything, this system would be in balance.

Cognitive Dissonance TheoryThis theory propagated by Leon Festinger in 1962 says that

human beings often have conflicting beliefs with actions they

take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a tension

and tension reduction is automatically sought by changing our

evaluations by some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you

have two good choices and you make your decision then you find

yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. The

theory of Cognitive Dissonance implies that when there is tension


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we change a belief or an action. Many times selective exposure is

used which prevents dissonance. This theory also implies that we

experience more dissonance when the issue is more important,

when we put off a decision and the decision is permanent.

Example:

When marketers want to persuade their audience to buy a product

they must convince them that this is a good action and if their

beliefs do not match this action, they must persuade them to

change their beliefs. For instance if a health drink is introduced in

the market, and some consumers feel that it is really not essential

that they switch over to the new product from their usual cereal,

the advertisers will have to focus on the fact the health drink

contains health benefits such as cholesterol fighting, fat reducing

ingredients that their usual cereal lacks.

Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)

Theorist Steve A. McCornackpropounded this theory in 1992.

This states that a speaker purposefully and covertly violates one

of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and

manner with the intention of deceiving his/her listener.

Example:

X has an important school project due Wednesday. His professor

does not accept late papers. Monday night he went to the soccermatch and didn't start on the paper. Tuesday night he browsed the

net for information related to the project and managed to almost

finish the project. Wednesday morning, X overslept and arrived

only after class was over. He goes to see his professor

immediately after. How will he answer his professor on why he

wasn't in class to turn in his paper?

Quantity: "I am sorry professor. I overslept."

Quality: "Our power got cut and my alarm didn't go off."

Relation: "I've had a really bad week. I had a fight with my

roommate, I forgot to pay the electricity bill, the electricity wasturned off and my boss has threatened to fire me if Im late

again."

Manner: "I badly need to score well in this project. My paper was

already finished, I just overslept".

The Inoculation Theory (1961) by William McGuire states that

inoculation is used to describe the attribution of greater resistance

to individuals or the process of supplying information to


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receivers before the communication process takes place in the

hope that the information would make the receiver more resistant.

This theory stresses on the importance of the nature of the

presentation of the message. One method involves passive

reading in which receivers read the defensive material. Another

method is to read the material and underline the passages relatingto the arguments presented in the defense. Next, experimenters

supply an outline where the defensive material is to be written

out. The last method is to write out the arguments without any

help.

Example:

McGuires basic method included constructing a persuasive

message attacking a cultural truism such as, An apple a day,

keeps the doctor away. This message would contain statements

like eatingtoo many apples can cause digestive problems.

Prior to this message, material would be introduced that should

strengthen the belief in the truism.

Rank's Model of Persuasion, 1976 (Theorist: Hugh Rank)

states that persuaders use two major strategies to achieve their

goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas

known as (1) intensify, and (2) downplay. The persuader will do

this in one of four methods.

1) Intensify their own strong points.

2) Intensify the weak points of the opposition.3) Downplay their own weak points.

4) Downplay the strong points of the opposition.

Example:

While arguing about their favorite movies, Damien continues to

insist to Joey that the Terminator movies were much better than

the Matrix movies. Rank's Model contends that Damien will use

one of four main strategies to argue his point to Joey. He will

either:

1) Stress the great performances that were given by Terminator

lead actor Arnold Schwarzeneger, while pointing out the acclaim

that he received for the movies, OR

2) Stress what he believed was poor acting by Matrix lead actor

Keanu Reeves, OR

3) Downplay the weak points of the Terminator movies, OR

4) Downplay the terrific performance by the Matrix actors.


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Interpersonal Communication is an interactional process

between two people, either face-to-face or through mediated

forms. It is, in other words, a dialogue or conversation that is

personal, direct and intimate. A lot depends on the relationshipbetween the two individuals, their equality of status, the socio-

cultural environment in which the exchange takes place etc.

When a mechanical device mediates in an interpersonal

exchange, it is termed interpersonal mediated

communication. Feedback is instantaneous and easy to

measure. The following important aspects are stressed on:

Relational (Qualitative)Communication in which the roles of sender and receiver are

shared

by two people simultaneously in order to create meaning.Situational (Contextual)Communication that occurs between two people in a specific

context.

QuantitativeDyadic interactions, including impersonal communication.

Functional (Strategic)Communication for the purpose of achieving interpersonal goals.

Group Communication is an interactional process that occurs

among

three or more people interacting in an attempt to achievecommonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through

mediated forms. The larger the group, the less intimate and

personal is the possibility of exchange. Feedback is the key word

here. Feedback is not instantaneous and is difficult to measure.

Groupthinkis an important aspect in group communication.

This occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group is so

concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate

all their alternatives. Groupthink members see themselves as part

of an in-group working against an outgroup opposed to their

goals. Groups engaged in groupthink tend to make faulty

decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been

reached using a fair, open, and rational decision-making process.

Group thinking groups tend to:

1- fail to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives,

2- fail to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's

decision,

3- fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to reexamine their


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worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative,

4- not seek expert advice,

5- select and use only information that supports their position and

conclusions, and does not make contingency plans in case their

decision and resulting actions fail.

Group leaders can prevent groupthink by:

1- encouraging members to raise objections and concerns;

2- refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the

group's activities;

3- allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate

group with a different leader;

4- splitting the group into sub-groups, each with different

chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then bringing

the sub-groups together to hammer out differences;

5- allowing group members to get feedback on the group'sdecisions from their own constituents;

6- seeking input from experts outside the group;

7- assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's

advocate;

8- requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events

upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each scenario;

and

9- calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in

which all group members are expected to critically review the

decision before final approval is given.

Mass Communication

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a

homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through

the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of

the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction

as in other communication contexts.

Group communication has now been extended by the tools of

mass communication: the press, radio, television, video and

cinema. A lot of discussion has been generated on thepower of the mass media (termed by Daniel Learner as

mobility multipliers and by Schrammas magic

multipliers). A mass media, according to Schramm, is

essentially a working group organized around some device for

circulating the same message, at about the same time to large

numbers of people. Mass media are founded on the idea of mass

production and mass distribution.


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Functions of The Mass Media

The following are the basic functions performed by the mass

media:

1- Information: Surveillance of the environment relates to news

about the happenings in society. The mass media carry out this

function by keeping us informed about the latest events in and

around the world.

2- Entertainment: Mass media help us relax with family and

friends and pass time. They also fulfill our psychological and

social needs.

3- Symbolic Function: Mass media provide a shared symbolic

environment. George Gerbner sees television as the central

symbol of American culture.

4- Development: The mass media in developing countries of

Asia, Africa and Latin America perform the function offacilitators of development communication focusing on

the socio-economic needs of the backward sections of society.

5- Advertising: This is a commercial function that helps keep the

economic status of a country healthy. At the same time it would

be suicidal to let this function dominate over the other functions

of the mass media.

Effects

The word effects connotes different meanings for

different people. For e.g. a sociologist talks about social

effects. A psychologist has psychological effects in

mind while employing the term; an anthropologist - cultural

effects, the advertiser- the market effects and so on.

Bernard Berelsonarrived at the conclusion that some kinds

of communication on some kinds of issues, brought to the

attention of some kinds of people under some kind of conditions

have some kinds of effects.

Theories Of Media Effects

The Medium Not the Message

Marshall McLuhansaid The medium is the message. No


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matter what the contents of the programmes, he argued that the

audiences will watch televisionit commands their attention as

no other medium has. Mass Communications are neither good

nor bad, but rather mystical devices that possess powers to

change the way humans lead their lives.

Reinforcement

McLuhans theory did not find total support. Joseph

Klapper and other theorists believed in the reinforcement

function of mass media. Only after reinforcing existing values

and attitudes can programmes of the media be popular with the

majority of social groups interested in perpetuating their own

traditions and status.

Narcosis

Lazarsfeld and Merton held that the mass media could not be

relied upon to work for changes, even minor ones, in the social

structure. They perceived in mass communication a

narcotising dysfunction that distracts and prevents

audiences from facing real problems. Exposure to a flood of

information serve to narcotize rather than energize the average

audience.. This theory is now outdated as the media today have a

galvanizing effect in bringing about many revolutionary changes

example, bringing about an end to the Vietnam War, bringing

about Nixons exit through Watergate exposure etc.

Catharsis

Seymour Feshbach, the main exponent of this theory, argued

that the media may have a cathartic effect on the

audiences and purges them of anti-social or unfulfilled desires

and frustrations. A study was conducted on a group of college

students. They were subject to savage insults and criticisms by

experimenters. A portion of the group was shown an aggressive

film of a brutal boxing match, another portion was shown a dull

control film. It was found that those students who had

seen the aggressive film felt less hostile to their experimenters

than those who had seen the control film.

But in a parallel study conducted by Berkovitz, it was found that

the aggressive film was responsible for the aggressive response

of the students. Other experiments have shown that children are

likely to imitate violence in films.


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\

Manipulation

The manipulation theory by Ernst Van Haag is an extreme view

that states that mass communications are demeaning,

depersonalizing instruments of manipulation. But it is to be noted

that social and economic circumstances and not mass media

alone foster such hedonism.

Windows On The World

Edward Shils and David M. White are of the view that mass

media constitute windows on the world dealing in new

and popular culture that bring more of the good to more

people than ever before in history. But White talks about the

gate-keeper aspect of the editor who sees to it that only

those events which he believes to be true should reach the

audience.

Corruptive

Frederick Wertham also holds an extreme view that the content

of the media is corruptive and inculcates materialism and anti-

social behaviour towards others.

Receiver Factors

Several factors determine media influence. The role played by

primary, secondary and reference groups and by public opinion

leaders are important. Receiver factors are related intimately to

every aspect of the personality of the audience and must not be

considered in isolation. The main receiver factors are attitudes,

beliefs, opinions, interests, motivation and the manner of

processing, retaining and rejecting of information.


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CHAPTER 4:

Communication skills

Chapter 4 and 5 focus on the communication skills needed forpresenting news through the media with special reference to

reporting and editing for press journalism.

CHAPTER 5:

Journalistic WritingGood journalism has always been associated with competent

writing and competent writing has always required an easy

command of correct language and style. The style of a writer is

an involuntary and intimate expression of his personality. The

writer should match the mood of the audience. Style must be

most unobtrusive.

There are many ground rules for good writing. For example, good

writing follows the ABCD principle: Accuracy, Brevity,

Conciseness and Directness. A careful writer must remember thedistinction between denotation (direct meaning) and connotation

(suggested meaning). The use of active voice should be avoided

as it leads to brevity. The use of prepositions leads to the danger

of circumlocution. The principle of innate selection and control

of words most appropriate to the context must be followed.

Today's StyleNewspaper style in recent years has moved increasingly in the

direction of uncluttered writing. Simple, direct sentences are

desired. Complex and compound sentences may provide the best

vehicle for thought under certain circumstances, but also increase

the probability of ambiguity. The desire for economy in words

has produced tight, swiftly paced writing that has proved to be a

boon to newspaper reading. Loose writing is inefficient writing

that leads to wasting of words.

Tight writing is characterized by the absence of 'breaks' (commas

etc.) in the flow of simple sentences. But tightening that leads to

omitting should not be overdone.


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Today's journalistic style has the following characteristics:

Compact, usually short sentences, every word selected and placed

for maximum effect.

Short, terse paragraphs, each complete in itself and capable of

being removed without destroying the sense of the story.Conciseness, directness and simplicity through elimination of

unnecessary words and phrases

Factualness without editorial opinions and dogmatic expressions

'Strong' verbs and nouns preferred over hackneyed words and

expressions

Observance of grammatical and word usage rules.

Conciseness

The objective of effective journalistic writing should be to avoid

cumbersomeness without becoming repetitive. Relaxing the rulethat all of the 5 W's and H (Who, Why, What, Where, When and

How) must be included in the first paragraph of the news story

leads to uncluttered writing.

Superfluous Words

The articles the, a and an can be eliminated, as

Weak: The Harvard students who heard the lecture...

Better: Harvard students who heard the lectur...

The sentences may be shortened and made more forceful by

making the verbs more direct, as:

Weak: The group arrived at a decision.

Better: The group decided.

Weak: They did away with the old building.

Better: They razed the old building.

In theirArt of Editing (MacMillan, 1972) Floyd Baskette and

Jack Sissors list 48 'pet' circumlocutions that can be reduced to

save 100 words. Some of them are listed below:

A good part (much)

A little less than (almost)

Accidentally stumbled (stumbled)

Disclosed for the first time (disclosed)

Jewish Rabbi (Rabbi)

Due to the fact that (because)

Easter Sunday (Easter)


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Entered a bid of (bid)

Grand total (total)

In the immediate vicinity (near) etc.

It is not necessary to include the state with the names of large

cities, or to mention the state with the name of the city in thesame state as the place where the newspaper is published.

Weak: She lives in Los Angeles, California

Better: She lives in Los Angeles.

But:

Vague: He lives in Catskill.

Clear: He lives in Catskill, Pennsylvania

Don't waste words in giving dates, as:Weak: The meeting will be held at 12 o' clock noon.

Better: The meeting will be held at noon.

Superfluous Phrases

Weak: The meeting was held for the purpose of voting for the

Chairman.

Better: The meeting was held to vote for the Chairman.

Weak: The colour of the dress was redBetter: The dress was red.

Weak: A baby with brown eyes.

Better: A brown-eyed baby

Superfluous Clauses:

Weak: All women who are interested should come.

Better: All interested women should come.

Weak: John Donne, who is the President of the Engineer's club,

will be there.

Better: John Donne, President of the Engineer's club will be

there.

Redundancy:


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The following is a short list of redundant words commonly used:

1- assemble together

2- carbon copy

3- each and every

4- necessary requirement

5- first and foremost6- other alternative

7- totally necessary

8- small in size

9- postpone until later

10- rules and regulations etc

Simplicity:

This is obtained by avoiding 'elegant' words:

1- Aboutis better than with reference to2- agreementis better than concordance

3- burned is better than destroyed by fire

4- i fis better than in the event of

5- meeting is better than rendezvousand so on.

Active and Passive Voice:

The active voice is usually more emphatic than passive voice.

However, sometimes the later is preferred to the former:

e.g: Henry Stroke has been appointed chairman of the Republicancampaign committee.

In other cases, the active voice is preferable:

e.g.: Weak: The accident was witnessed by ten people

Better: Ten people witnessed the accident.

Figures Of Speech:

The following are examples of age-old figures of speech that

should be avoided as they are likely to be misused and mark their

user as callow.1- alike as peas in a pod

2- nipped in the bud

3- hail of bullets

4- watery grave

5- white as a sheet and so on

Journalese:


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Newspapers have exhausted the effectiveness of a number of

words through indiscriminate repetition. Such words as follows

should be avoided:

1- hot seat

2- brutally murdered

3- man hunt4- crime wave

5- infuriated mob

6- war clouds

7- whirlwind tour

8- quiz

9- grilled by the police

10- news leaked out and so on

Gobbledygook:

Pretentious phrasing or gobbledygook scares the reader away

from the story, for e.g.

National Association for Advancement of Gay People's Rights

attorneys told the Supreme Court today that overt public

resistance is insufficient cause to nullify federal court

desegregation orders.

Readability Formulas

Shortly after World War II, the two major press associations and

several magazines and newspapers experimented with readability

formulas that stressed brevity. The Associated Press reduced its

average lead sentence length from 27 to 23 words. The United

Press simplified its writing style to be suitable for readers with

11.7 years of education, whereas formerly it was writing for

readers who had gone to school 16.7 years.

Leads/Intros

A lead is the first paragraph or introduction of a news story thatgives the summary of the news to follow. Different kinds of leads

can be used to make the news story readable and interesting.

Some of the different kinds of leads are:

1- The 5 W's and one H: As already mentioned earlier in the

chapter, the who, why, what, where, when and how of the news


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need not be mentioned all together. A judicious use of the

necessary W's and H makes this kind of lead interesting.

2- The Quotation Lead: In reporting speeches, public

statements, etc. it is always better to typify the feature in thereporter's own words rather than by a direct quotation, e.g. :

Weak: "A sharp decline in mortality rates, medical progress and

greater economic prosperity have enabled welfare agencies to

solve most of their problems except that of the emotionally

disturbed child", Horace V. Updike, Council of Social Welfare

director said yesterday.

Better: "The emotionally disturbed child is the 'No. 1 problem'

facing welfare agencies today, Horace V. Updike, Council Of

Welfare director, said yesterday."

3- The Question Lead: Ordinarily a reporter should answer, not

ask questions in his news stories. To do otherwise merely delays

telling the news, as in the case of a lead beginning, "What causes

emotional apathy?" followed by a summary of a new idea

advanced by some authority on the subject.

4- The Staccato Lead: When the time element is to be

emphasized, this lead is used. It consists of a series of phrases,

punctuated either by periods or dashes and usually is a form ofdescriptive lead. E.g.: Almost thirty years ago-back in 1973-in a

different era-in a different life, after years of happiness in her

simple home, the light went out of Mrs X's life -she became stone

blind. Torturous, long years passed and suddenly her prayers

were answered - Mrs X could see.

5- The Explosive Lead: Similar to the Staccato lead but

consisting of grammatically complete sentences, the explosive

lead is usually used for feature articles.

6- The Dialogue Lead: Minor court stories with strong human

interest can be handled effectively by this kind of lead. The lead

consists of the dialogue between two people and then followed by

a summary or play-by-play account of the event.

7- The Cartridge Lead: When war is declared or ends, when a


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famous personality dies or on similar important occasions, it is

customary to tell the gist of the news in the fewest possible

words. E.g. Mayor Charles Canterbury is dead. This style should

not be frequently used but reserved for special occasions.

8- The Punch Lead: Similar to the Cartridge lead but not so

abrupt or definite is the Punch lead.

9- The Descriptive Lead: A graphic description of a person,

place or object to give the tone or feeling necessary for proper

understanding and appreciation. The best descriptive leads are

written by eyewitnesses.

10- The Parody Lead: Popular songs, titles of best-sellers,newly coined phrases etc. may be used while still fresh, usually

in parodied form to brighten an occasional news story lead.

CHAPTER 6:

Changes in the Social and Economic

Scenario

In today's modern democratic society, it is a common belief thatthe freedom enjoyed by the media is an essential prerequisite.

Yet, at the same time, it is also believed that the media are

turning politics into a trivial entertainment for couch potatoes.

Yet the mass media was created for citizens of a democracy to

decide the important issues of the day amongst themselves

through public debate, including in print. In the late-eighteenth

centuries, this participative form of media freedom was put into

practice. The exercise of the fundamental right of the freedom of

expression was made possible by the widespread ownership of

cheap wooden printing presses.Despite its libertarian claims, media freedom was the monopoly

in the hands of a few rich men, who could produce only a limited

number of expensive copies of publication. However, the

industrialization of printing allowed printed material to become

cheap enough for almost everyone to purchase. When the new

electronic media were introduced, information production

spiraled and was made available free to their audiences. But now


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the news content was determined by the management hierarchical

business institutions or the State.

The role of the media now came under the magnifying glass, with

different functions being attributed to it by different people. For

some, the interests of the audience were best served by the mediabeing objective and truthful in its reporting. For others, the media

had to serve the future interests of the people by disseminating

revolutionary ideas. But there was one common thing - the

complete passivity of the audience. Although almost everyone

could receive the output of the media, most people weren't able to

use the media to express their own views.

Over the past few years, the introduction of new information

technologies has intensified the centralization of the media. The

spread of new technologies has also encouraged the growth of

community media such as radio stations, cable televisionchannels and e-mail, having mass distribution potentiality. For

example, in cyberspace, a single global network or a web is being

spun out of a network of contributors and bulletin boards. The

community media are used by all sections of society as a means

of free expression.

Karl Deutsch, in his "Social Mobilization and Political

Participation", developed the concept of social mobilization, the

process whereby people become uprooted from their traditions

and become available for new patterns of communication andbehavior. According to him, the process of modernization should

be accompanied by an increase of exposure to mass media. Shaun

Moores in his 'Media and Everyday Life in Modern Society' talks

about the position that television, radio or other electronic media

like telephones and computers have come to occupy in people's

day-to-day lives and social relationships. He discusses how these

communication and information technologies have helped

construct new arrangements of time, space and place in a culture

with globalizing tendencies, and the types of identity, experience

and interaction the electronic media make available to their

different audiences or users. Combining theory with empirical

research, he discusses topics such as the meanings of satellite

dishes, the formation of imagined communities and the

presentation of self in virtual realities.

Communication and Development: Socio-Economic Impacts

of Media on the Traditional Structures of Developing

Countries


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Scholars have made interesting efforts to fashion meaningful

theories about the role of mass mediated communication in the

national development process. Most studies indicate relationships

among factors like economics, religion, press freedom etc. Daniel

Learner's study entitled 'The Passing Of Traditional Society'

noted high correlation among four factors: urbanization, literacy,media participation and political participation. Deutsch pointed

out a correlation between mass communication of a country and

its national spirit and action.

One school of thought attributed to the Western media an

essential role in overcoming undemocratic and unjust social

structures, while another school looked upon it as the essential

agent of destruction of indigenous cultures and identities.

Similar discussions about the socio-economic impacts of

information technologies (ITs) on society, independent of thediscussion concerning the developing countries, have led to the

argument on one hand that advancing technicalization of our

societies puts different individuals on the same platform and

blends them together; while on the other hand the opponents of

this thought argue that ITs break up societies into single groups,

which brings about disintegration and waning of solidarity.

John T. McNelly of the University of Wisconsin has written of

the lack of well-developed theories of the role of mass

communication in national development., but postulates at least 4general positions or points in the same context:

1- The Null Position: This holds that mass communication has

little or nothing to do with national development. Those taking

this position place emphasis on literacy and education and not on

the mass media

2- Enthusiastic Position: This is usually a position held by

UNESCO and other development-oriented agencies and

individuals. Here the mass media has a decisive role not only in

development but also establishing peace and stability.

3- Cautious Position: The 2-step flow theory (seeChapter 2 -

Theories of Communication) proposed by Katz and Lazarsfeld

relates to this position. This position supports that mass

communication is not omnipotent and a number of social and

cultural factors (such as opinions of opinion leaders) serve to

mediate or even nullify the impact of the mass media.
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4- Pragmatic Position: Persons accepting this position realize that

there are no adequate theories to predict the impact of

information flow for all types of messages in different societies,

in all situations. McNelly advocates adopting the pragmatic

position where the researcher seeks empirical evidence on the

effects of mass communication in a culture or society.

Digital Information Revolution

While the mass media (the press, radio, TV) facilitate one-to-

many communication processes and the interpersonal media

(telex, telephone) enable one-to-one communication processes,

the Internet ( an interactive network) is a many-to-many process.

The question therefore is whether the experiences gained from

mass and telecommunications media can be applied to interactive

networks too.

Hiltz & Turoff (1993) have coined the term "superconnectivity"

to mean

"1. The phenomenon of almost perfect transmission of

communication and information throughout the human

habitations of the universe, via computers. 2. The

interconnections of all social and economic institutions as a result

of communication via computer networks."

Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy led to the

emergence of radio broadcasts almost 100 years ago. Since that

time, there have been major advances in broadcasting including;

radio, television, cable networks, the Internet, and more recent

innovations.

Two new "medias" that have put broadcasting onto the 'next

generation' course are Interactive Television and Personalized

Broadcasting. Microsoft acquired WebTV Networks, Inc. in

1997, a company that serves thousands today with their

technology that integrates the television and the Internet. It

consists of a set-top box and a subscription service. The serviceallows consumers to get access to the World Wide Web, e-mail,

and other interactive experiences not normally available through

the traditional cable or satellite services. Another service is the

'UltimateTV', that consists of a set-top box and modified

computer keyboard along with the satellite TV service. The

television then becomes a VCR, an ISP, an e-mail program, and a

TV all in one service; the convergence of entertainment and

information in an interactive environment.


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The wireless/mobile broadcasting medium is also experiencing

explosive growth. This type of broadcasting works on the idea

that a consumer can access news and information through any

wireless device such as a cell phone and receive it in audio

instead of text. Several General Audio Download, Mobile AudioCommunications and Personalized Broadcast (PB) companies

have entered the market to whet the public's appetite for

information

This is just the tip of the iceberg. From the initial invention of the

radio to the new media technology of today, it is clear that

consumer demand for personalization is driving broadcasting and

media. Consumers want more choices and more control over the

information they receive.

The consumers of the new media can now go interactive with

their TV sets. Public television is uniquely positioned to take full

advantage of new digital technology to serve the needs of its

viewers of all ages and ethnic backgrounds. For the past several

years, public television has been an industry leader in bringing

digital TV's (DTV) many new possibilities to reality. The digital

transition signifies the biggest change in the TV medium since

the advent of television itself. DTV technology provides a host of

new opportunities for public television to provide interactive

education and training programs never before possible with

today's analog broadcasting standard.

The Internet is viewed as the 'information utopia', the fulfillment

of an ancient dream of a free information flow uninfluenced by

government. But the principle of freedom must be complemented

by social responsibility. Communication connects people with

one another, breaks down prejudices, increases people's

knowledge about one another, and supports peaceful coexistence.

In all of these cases,

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