Year in Review

Lab safety

• Safety equipment– E.g.. Fire extinguisher, first aid, eye wash, etc

• Safety symbols – WHMIS

• Smart working– No fooling around, common sense

• Following procedure– Do what you are asked to. etc

Labs

• Variables– Manipulated – what you change– Responding – what happens due to

manipulated variable changing– Controlled – what you have to keep the same

• Conclusion– Answers to the problem of lab - statement

Environmental Chemistry

Chemicals in the environment

• Nutrients – required for all animal growth– Organic – Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids

(Fats)– Inorganic – Minerals

• Fertilizers – required for plant growth– Nitrogen – leaf growth– Phosphorus – roots and fruit– Potassium – flowers and tolerance to change

• Problems in the Environment and Food– Pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides

• E.g. DDT – effect more than what they are intended to do

– Bioaccumulation• Food chain• Increased concentrations to top of food chain• E.g. Bugs – fish – birds – top predator

Acids & Bases

• pH scale– 0 to 14– 7 is neutral– <7 is an acid– >7 is a base– Further away from 7 the stronger it is

• Indicators– Through a color change show strength– E.g. Litmus paper; Red=acid, Blue=base

• Neutralization – when one reacts with the other– acid + base salt + water– e.g. Liming (base) of acidic lakes – to make neutral – pH 7

Air Pollution

• Acid rain– pH less than 5.6

– Caused by SO2, NO2, CO2

– Moved around the world by global winds• Global problem from industries

• Particulates and gases– Removed from exhaust by scrubbers and

filters

Pollutants

• Anything not naturally occurring in the environment

• Toxicity– Acute vs. Chronic

• Short term or long term to effect something

• LD50 – Lethal dose 50%– How much will be the Lethal to 50% of a population

• PPM – parts per million– 1/1 000 000 or 1mL/1 000 000mL

Water Pollutants• Point source

– Coming from one definable location– close to release point– e.g. waste from factory into river

• Non point source– Location of origin not known– distant to release point– e.g. air pollution from cars (driving all over the place)

• Indicator tests– DO2 – dissolved oxygen– Phosphates – enhances growth– Nitrates – growth– Biological indicators

• Landfills– Sanitary vs. secure– Leaching of chemicals

• Local problems (close to site very concentrated)• Further away it gets diluted

• 4R’s– Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover

• Environmental issues– Energy Conservation– Seen from many point of views (perspectives)

• Environmental• Political• Economic• Social

Chemistry

Chemicals

• Safety– Chemical symbols– WHMIS

• Workplace hazardous

materials information

system• Symbols

• Matter– Solid (s), Liquid (l), Gas (g)– Mixtures vs. pure substances

• Mixtures – mechanical & solutions• Pure substances – elements & compounds

Changes

• Physical Change– Size– Shape– State Change (s to l to g)

• Chemical change– New substance– Gas released (smell)– Temp change– Color change

Chemical structure

• Atom– Electrons (-) & nucleus– nucleus contains protons (+), neutrons (no charge)

• Elements– Symbols – e.g. C, O, H, Na, Cl …– Periodic Table – information about elements

• Atomic # equals # of electrons or # of protons• Mass – atomic # equals # of neutrons

• Compounds– 2 or more different elements combined

• E.g. H2O, CO2, NaCl, C6H12O6, CH4, H2O2, NH3

Chemical formulas• Compound makeup

– H2O – 2 Hydrogen atoms & 1 oxygen atom– CO2 – 1 carbon atom & 2 oxygen atoms

• Molecular compounds– Share electrons – e.g. CO– made up of non metals

• Ionic Compounds– Transfer electrons from one atom to another– Ions (+ or -)– made of a metal and a non metal– Good conductivity in water due to ions

• Electrons are loose in the Molecule

– E.g. NaCl – table salt – in water good conductor

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical equations– Reactants Products– H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)– (g) gas, (l) liquid, (s) solid,

(aq) aqueous - in solution

• Endothermic– Feels cold – energy gained in reaction

• Exothermic– Feels Hot – energy released in reaction

Corrosion• Oxidation of metals

– A reaction where Oxygen is used up

• E.g. Rust on iron (exothermic)

• Fast reaction– Hot and wet

environments

• Slow Reaction– Dry and cold

environments

• Combustion• involves combining a

substance with oxygen

• highly exothermic (produces heat)

• requires heat, oxygen and fuel

• e.g. burning wood• e.g. gas combustion

in a car

Reaction Rate• How fast a reaction will take place• Four factors affecting Reaction Rate

– Surface area• ↑ Surface Area of reactants ↑ Reaction Rate

– Concentration• ↑ Concentration or reactants ↑ Reaction Rate

– Temperature• ↑ Temp of reactants ↑ Reaction Rate

– Stirring (agitation)• ↑ Stirring of reactants ↑ Reaction Rate

– Catalyst – speeds up reaction, is not used up

Electricity

Charges

• Electric Charges – caused by the movement of electrons (-)– Positive– Negative– Neutral

• Law of Charges– Like charges repel + & +, - & -– Unlike charges attract + & -– Charged attracts neutral + & neutral, - & neutral

Materials in electricity

• Insulators– Stops flow of electrons

• Conductors– Allows flow of electrons

• Superconductors– Flow of electrons with no loss of energy

• Resistors– Slows the flow of electrons

Circuits

• Pathway for electricity• Electric Circuits

– Large current & voltage, long distances• Controlled by switches

– Circuit diagrams• Symbols• Working or not???

• Micro-electronic circuits – (circuit boards)– Small current and voltage, short distance

• Controlled by transistors

Circuits

• Parallel– Each load has its own path for elec.– Lights stay bright with additional ones added

• Series– Loads share paths for elec.– Lights get dimmer with additional ones added

Measuring Electricity

• Current (l)– Unit is the ampere (amp – A)– Flow of electrons (e)

• Voltage (V)– Unit is the volt (v)– Potential difference

• Resistance (R) – Unit is the Ohm (Ω)

• Ohm’s Law R = V / l

Making / Using Electricity

• Battery – Chemical to Electrical– 2 different metals (electrodes) & electrolyte solution

• Thermocouple – Heat to Elec.– 2 different metals attached at one end

• Resistor – Elec. to heat• Motor – elec. to mechanical• Generator – mechanical to elec.• Light bulb – electricity to light• Solar cell – light to elec.• Speaker – elec. to sound • Crystal – sound to elec

Electric Motors

• 4 main parts of a DC motor– Brushes

• Connect elec. to motor and commutator

• Commutator– Changes direction of current every half turn

• Armature– Elec. Magnets that spin

• Permanent magnets– Must be opposite poles

Electric Safety

• Prevent overheating, shock, and appliance damage– Fuses

• One time use, wire burns out

• Circuit breakers– Automatic switch – turns off with too much

current– If loads add up to more Amps than breaker

rated for, it cuts off

Electricity Calculations

• EfficiencyEfficiency = (Output (useful) E / Input (total) E) x 100%

• Power (P)Power = Energy / time

• CostCost = kWh (usage) x $/kWh

Electricity & Environment

• Efficiency and conservation– Using energy efficient appliances

• E.G. Florescent (efficient) vs. incandescent (not)

• Making Electricity– Renewable – good for environment

• Wind, hydro, sun, tidal, ….

– Non-renewable – negative impact• Gas, coal, oil, nuclear, ….• Alberta is primarily non-renewable

SPACE

Frames of reference

• Geocentric– Earth centered model

• Heliocentric– Sun centered model

• 1 day – earth’s rotation

• 1 year – rotation around sun

Space Co-ordinates

• Used to show a location of a space object

• Azimuth– 360° for north– Compass bearing used to measure

• Altitude– Height above horizon– Astrolabe used to measure

Telescopes

• Refracting– Lenses (objective & eyepiece)

• Reflecting– Mirror (main objective, secondary, eyepiece, aperture

opening)

• Radio– Radio waves – big picture – connecting telescopes

• Best images– From space – Hubble telescope – no distortion

(adaptive optics)

Spectra

• Light patterns that show what a star is made of• 3 types

– Bright line & continuous & dark line

• Spectral analysis (reading the finger prints of stars)– Combining dark line spectra of elements

• Doppler effect– Blue shift – moving towards you– Red shift – moving away from you

Distance in space

• Triangulation – to measure distance to an object– Require baseline length and 2 angles– The longer the base line the more accurate the

measurement• Parallax

– Movement of distant stars relative to a close one• Astronomical unit (AU)

– Distance to sun from earth( about 1 500 000 km)• Light Year

– Distance light travels in a year (63240 AU) or (about 9 500 000 000 000 km)

Space Travel

• Rockets– Carry payloads to space– Fuel vs. lift (mass)

• Satellites– Low-earth orbit

• Moving around the earth• E.g. GPS, cameras, remote sensing

– Geosynchronous • Stationary to earth• E.g. communication (TV & Radio)

Solar System

• Planets and natural satellites around sun– Elliptical orbits

• Inner planets– Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

• Small, terrestrial, few moons

• Outer Planets– Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto

• Large, Gaseous, lots of moons

• Natural satellites: (reflecting sun’s light)– Moon – a natural satellite to earth– Planets – natural satellites to sun

People in Space

• Biggest concern – dealing with near zero gravity (micro-gravity)– Effects on human body – bone loss, etc…

• Life support– Oxygen and food for long travel

• Time– Physical & mental constraints of living in a

space craft for years

Biological Diversity

Diversity

• Differences– Different species

• cat, dog, rose, amoeba– Kingdoms – Animal, Plant, fungi, virus,

• How to tell them apart– Variation with in a species

• Size, color, height, breeds, …

• Survival– Structural Adaptations

• Size, wings, beaks, etc…– Behavioral adaptation

• Learnt things, migration, etc…

• Niche– Where it lives (ecosystem – Habitat) & what it does in

relation to other organisms

• Dependencies– Symbiotic relationship (symbiosis)

• Mutualism: Benefit to both species• Commensalism: Benefit to one species, no harm to the other• Parasitism: Benefit to one species, harm to the other

• Competition for survival– Predator/prey relationship

• Both follow any population changes (both up and down at the same period)

– Competition for same food

Reproduction• Asexual

– Only one parent – fast – multiplies easily• Spores (ferns)• Binary fission (bacteria & Amoebas)• Budding – animals (hydra) & plants

• Sexual– 2 parents (variations) – gametes zygotes

• Animals – sperm & egg– External vs. internal fertilization

• Plants – pollen & ovum– Cones vs. flowers – contain both reproductive parts

– Gametes have ½ the number of chromosomes compared to the zygote

Genetic Information

• Variation– Continuous – many forms – e.g.. Height, mass,

color…– Discrete – few forms – e.g. sex, thumb, earlobe, …

• Traits– Characteristics (similar things) – Dominant or

Recessive– Heritable vs. Non-heritable

• Mutations – changes in DNA– Good and bad– Adaptations – e.g.. Parasites (diseases) adapting to

withstand medications

DNA

• DNA

• Chromosomes – strands of DNA

• Genes – section of chromosomes– Coding for a protein or trait

• Genetic Engineering– Making a new hybrid species for other DNA– Inserting genes into chromosomes

Production of Cells in Multi-cellular Organisms

Mitosis• responsible for growth &

repair … in every cell of the body (somatic cells)

• starts with duplicating of chromosomes

• then cell splits… forming 2 daughter cells – genetically identical to parent

Meiosis• responsible for producing

sex cells – gametes• cells go through mitosis• then a 2nd cell division

happens to daughter cells• producing a total of 4

cells (gametes), each with ½ number of original chromosomes

Selection

• Natural Selection– Survival of best suited for environment– Adaptations in genetics assist to survive– Darwin – Finch birds – many different beaks

for specific niche and survival

• Artificial Selection– Best for human use– Selective breeding

Human Impacts

• Negative– Habitat loss – human land usage

• Extirpation (gone from a smaller area) vs. extinction (gone from earth)

• Positive– Preserving biodiversity (Genetic Biodiversity)

• Natural – establishing preserves• Zoos for animal biodiversity• Seed banks for plant Biodiversity

Provincial Achievement Exam

PAT

• 55 questions– 50 multiple choice and 5 numeric response– take your time… read questions carefully

• 1 hour and 30 minutes – PLUS extra 30 min if needed

– DO NOT RUSH

• 2 Answer sheets• Bring

– Pencils, sharpener eraser, calculator, book to read after

• Write on your test book– This is your scrap paper (use it)