Yun-Pi Yuan1 Outline of Semantics Outline of Semantics Forms of thought Forms of thought Mapping...

Yun-Pi YuanYun-Pi Yuan 11

Outline of SemanticsOutline of SemanticsForms of thoughtForms of thoughtMapping meaning onto languageMapping meaning onto languageWord meaningWord meaning Semantic featuresSemantic features Prototypes and StereotypesPrototypes and Stereotypes Relational meaningsRelational meanings(Word meaning and) longer expressions (Word meaning and) longer expressions

Reference and Sense Reference and Sense Sentence meaning Sentence meaning

propositions propositions sentence v.s. utterance sentence v.s. utterance

Discourse meaning : cohesion, coherence, Discourse meaning : cohesion, coherence, background knowledge, the cooperative principlebackground knowledge, the cooperative principle

MarkednessMarkedness


Forms of thoughtForms of thought• A thought may be compared to a A thought may be compared to a

cloud shedding a shower of words. cloud shedding a shower of words.

• Mental representation: Mental representation:

Have you ever had the experience of Have you ever had the experience of wanting to express a thought, but wanting to express a thought, but you couldn't find the words for it? you couldn't find the words for it?

• Language is Language is NOTNOT the basic form of the basic form of thought.thought.


Mental RepresentationMental Representation

• Mental imageries:Mental imageries:

A.A. sound imagessound images

B.B. visual imagesvisual images

C.C. mathmath

D.D. movement—action patternsmovement—action patterns


Sound ImagesSound Images

• You can “play” music in your head, You can “play” music in your head, no?no?

• Reading musicReading music


Visual ImagesVisual Images

• ““Pictures in your mind”Pictures in your mind”• How do you find your way home? How do you find your way home? • Remembering scenery: the apt. I stayed in Remembering scenery: the apt. I stayed in

NYC, in Hsintien, and the one I stay now. NYC, in Hsintien, and the one I stay now. • Recognizing people: matching pictures alRecognizing people: matching pictures al

ready in memory with what you see now.ready in memory with what you see now.• Painters: MichelangeloPainters: Michelangelo• Matching color; dressing.Matching color; dressing.


MathMath

• Doing math problems in your head. Doing math problems in your head. (“Hsin Swan” (“Hsin Swan” 心算心算 ))


Movement (Action Movement (Action Patterns)Patterns)

• How to tie knots; use tools; dance; How to tie knots; use tools; dance; write Chinese calligraphy; tie your write Chinese calligraphy; tie your shoes; braid hair; use chopsticks, etc.shoes; braid hair; use chopsticks, etc.

• Books explained with pictures and Books explained with pictures and words: often easier just to follow words: often easier just to follow picturespictures


Transfer among Different Transfer among Different Forms of ThoughtForms of Thought

• Yes, we do it all the time:Yes, we do it all the time:e.g. We describe pictures in mind in e.g. We describe pictures in mind in words; form pictures from words words; form pictures from words heard; put some sort of process into heard; put some sort of process into math—then explain in words; for math—then explain in words; for dance draw pictures of steps, etc. dance draw pictures of steps, etc.

• Therefore, language is not the basic Therefore, language is not the basic form of thought. form of thought.


SemanticsSemantics

• Definition: the study of meaning in Definition: the study of meaning in language; how meaning is language; how meaning is represented in language represented in language

• Importance of meaning: the basic Importance of meaning: the basic function of language is communicationfunction of language is communication

• Difficulty to define “semantics” Difficulty to define “semantics” completelycompletely


Mapping Meaning onto Mapping Meaning onto language (1)language (1)• ExamplesExamples

English, Chinese, & Spanish:English, Chinese, & Spanish: He gave me a pen. He gave me a pen. (Nash 92)(Nash 92)

Turkish:Turkish: Babam bana topu verdi.Babam bana topu verdi.

(father to-me ball gave) (father to-me ball gave)

actor recipient object actionactor recipient object action

(possessed by speaker) (definite) (past, 3rd person, singular)(possessed by speaker) (definite) (past, 3rd person, singular)

(witnessed by speaker)(witnessed by speaker)

Hebrew:Hebrew: Aba natan li et ha kadur.Aba natan li et ha kadur.

(daddy gave me the bal(daddy gave me the ball)l) actor action recipient actor action recipient definite object definite object

(past, 3rd person, singular, masculine) (past, 3rd person, singular, masculine)

object particle


Mapping meaning onto Mapping meaning onto language (2)language (2)

• Problems of mapping meaning onto Problems of mapping meaning onto language: not all straightforward beyond language: not all straightforward beyond the basic 4 elements (i.e., number, the basic 4 elements (i.e., number, gender, definiteness of participants and gender, definiteness of participants and where/how this information is to be where/how this information is to be encoded).encoded).



• Examples of “my”: present different Examples of “my”: present different kinds of possessions.kinds of possessions.A. my shoes—can be thrown away A. my shoes—can be thrown away when when worn out, but worn out, but other people other people not likely to not likely to wear themwear themB. my chair—but others can sit in itB. my chair—but others can sit in itC. my nose—has nothing to do with C. my nose—has nothing to do with

others, nor will I others, nor will I “throw it “throw it away”away”



• Note the differences:Note the differences:A. HeA. He hashas a big nose. a big nose.

(“Have”: I “possess” something; more (“Have”: I “possess” something; more general general than “own”)than “own”)B. *HeB. *He ownsowns a big nose.a big nose.

(You cannot own parts of your body; (You cannot own parts of your body; only only materials or object which you can give materials or object which you can give away away or buy/sell it, can be owned.)or buy/sell it, can be owned.)C. He is theC. He is the possessorpossessor of his big nose. of his big nose. (“Possess”—closer to “own” than to (“Possess”—closer to “own” than to “have”)“have”)



• How does a child learn semantics? How does a child learn semantics? • Slobin Model Slobin Model (Nash 91)(Nash 91)

KNOWLEDGE of the world

Parts of KNOWLEDGE marked in HUMAN LANGUAGE

Parts of KNOWLEDGE marked in language X (language the child is learning)



• The child’s problem of mapping meaning The child’s problem of mapping meaning onto language: onto language: A. Which aspects of knowledge of world A. Which aspects of knowledge of world would would likely to be marked?likely to be marked?B. Which aspects must be marked in a B. Which aspects must be marked in a particular language?particular language?C. How are they marked? (words; word C. How are they marked? (words; word order, affixes, function word, …) order, affixes, function word, …)

• So, we’ll work hard to explain how some So, we’ll work hard to explain how some aspects of our knowledge of meaning are aspects of our knowledge of meaning are expressed in language.expressed in language.


Word meaning Word meaning

• Word meaning including:Word meaning including:

A.A. featuresfeatures

B.B. prototypesprototypes

C.C. stereotypesstereotypes

D.D. relational meanings relational meanings (degree, (degree, direction)direction)E.E. reference and sensereference and sense (take us into (take us into semantics semantics of longer expressions) of longer expressions)


FeaturesFeatures

• Definition: more basic concepts/ideas that Definition: more basic concepts/ideas that cannot be “defined” any further; primitive cannot be “defined” any further; primitive semantic elements. semantic elements.

• Combinations of features: [+ -] Combinations of features: [+ -] (e.g., see Nash 94-95)(e.g., see Nash 94-95)

A. AdvantagesA. Advantages1.1. a universal element found in all langs.a universal element found in all langs.

(Nash 95)(Nash 95)

2.2. similar to phonological featuressimilar to phonological features

B. Disadvantage: very limited applicationB. Disadvantage: very limited application


Advantage 1: Universal Advantage 1: Universal

• While we may speak different While we may speak different languages, we’re all humans with the languages, we’re all humans with the same human brain, & perceive the same human brain, & perceive the world with the same human senses.world with the same human senses.

e.g. [+HUMAN], [+ANIMATE], e.g. [+HUMAN], [+ANIMATE], [+ROUND], [+ROUND], [+MALE], [+FEMALE], [+MALE], [+FEMALE], [+LIQUID], [+LIQUID], [- MOVEABLE], etc. [- MOVEABLE], etc.


Advantage 2: Similar to Advantage 2: Similar to Phonological FeaturesPhonological Features

• Psychologically similar to Psychologically similar to phonological featuresphonological features

• Same kind of mental operation; from Same kind of mental operation; from phonology phonology semantics semantics

• Phonemes: defined by its featuresPhonemes: defined by its features

e.g. /p/=+consonantal, -voiced, e.g. /p/=+consonantal, -voiced, +stop, +stop, +bilabial +bilabial


DisadvantageDisadvantage

• Very limited application—do not work for Very limited application—do not work for many wordsmany words

e.g. A. chair/stool/bench/bean bage.g. A. chair/stool/bench/bean bag

B. ugly/beautifulB. ugly/beautiful

C. red/greenC. red/green

D. table/deskD. table/desk

E. book/pamphlet E. book/pamphlet

• Lead to idea of Lead to idea of prototypesprototypes


PrototypePrototype• Definition: a typical/ideal example (serving to represDefinition: a typical/ideal example (serving to repres

ent the whole class); an examplarent the whole class); an examplar• Concept of prototype: helps explain meaning of certConcept of prototype: helps explain meaning of cert

ain words in terms of resemblance to the clearest exain words in terms of resemblance to the clearest examplar.amplar.

• Eleanor Rosch’s experiments: Eleanor Rosch’s experiments: A.A. birdbird: :

Robin, sparrow, canary, dove, lark, parrot, owl, peacoRobin, sparrow, canary, dove, lark, parrot, owl, peacock, ck, duck, penguin, ostrich, batduck, penguin, ostrich, batB.B. clothingclothing: :

shirts, dresses, skirts, bathing suit, pajamas, shoes, shirts, dresses, skirts, bathing suit, pajamas, shoes, ststockings, the hat, glovesockings, the hat, glovesC.C. vegetablevegetable::

pea, carrot, cauliflower, onion, potato, mushroompea, carrot, cauliflower, onion, potato, mushroom


Stereotype Stereotype

• Definition: a list of typical Definition: a list of typical characteristics of describing characteristics of describing something; more abstract something; more abstract representation of possible qualitiesrepresentation of possible qualities

e.g. bird: feathers, wings, beak, fly, lay e.g. bird: feathers, wings, beak, fly, lay eggseggs


Relational MeaningsRelational Meanings • Words may differ +- a feature. But, many sets of Words may differ +- a feature. But, many sets of

words differ, or may be grouped, in other ways, words differ, or may be grouped, in other ways, including “degree” and “direction.”including “degree” and “direction.”

• DegreeDegree: amount—contrast to +- of features: amount—contrast to +- of features e.g. hot/cold, long/short, tall/short, e.g. hot/cold, long/short, tall/short,

hard/soft, hard/soft, good/bad, wet/dry, beautiful/ugly good/bad, wet/dry, beautiful/ugly• DirectionDirection: for example, buy/sell, come/go, : for example, buy/sell, come/go,

give/receive, borrow/lend, give/receive, borrow/lend, read/write. read/write.

• Note: A. “father”—also relational (in a different Note: A. “father”—also relational (in a different way)way)

B. kill and hurt—cause and effect relationsB. kill and hurt—cause and effect relations (Nash 97)(Nash 97)


Longer ExpressionsLonger Expressions• Reference and senseReference and sense: applying to semantics of : applying to semantics of

both words and longer expressionsboth words and longer expressions• ReferenceReference: dealing with the relationships : dealing with the relationships

between language and the world between language and the world (Nash 98)(Nash 98)

e.g. “e.g. “My sonMy son is inis in the beech treethe beech tree.”.” identify personidentify person identify thingidentify thing

• SenseSense: dealing with relationships inside the : dealing with relationships inside the language.language.

e.g. e.g. The moonThe moon was bright last night. (reference) was bright last night. (reference)

My love is like the moon. (sense)My love is like the moon. (sense)


Reference and Sense (1)Reference and Sense (1)

• Sense but not reference: function words, Sense but not reference: function words, such as such as andand, , oror, , nevernever, , perhapsperhaps, , otherwiseotherwise, , butbut. These make connections between . These make connections between meanings of different units of language.meanings of different units of language.

• Same reference but different sense: Same reference but different sense:

e.g. The evening star e.g. The evening star west. (sunset)west. (sunset)

The morning star The morning star east. (sunrise)east. (sunrise)

Same object (same reference) but different Same object (same reference) but different sense (different aspect); different ways of sense (different aspect); different ways of referring to the same thing. referring to the same thing.

VenuVenuss



• The same word can have more than one The same word can have more than one sense. For example,“bank” sense. For example,“bank” a. I have an account at the Bank of Scotland.a. I have an account at the Bank of Scotland.

b. We steered the safe to the other bank of the b. We steered the safe to the other bank of the river.river.

c. The DC-10 banked sharply to avoid a crash.c. The DC-10 banked sharply to avoid a crash.

d. I banked the furnace up with coke last night.d. I banked the furnace up with coke last night.

e. a bank shote. a bank shot



• Other examples: Other examples: my father/ the man who married my momy father/ the man who married my mother/ther/ 我先生我先生 // 孩子的爸孩子的爸different senses, although refer to the sadifferent senses, although refer to the same person (=same reference)me person (=same reference)

• Could have different referenceCould have different referencee.g. stepfather or illegitimate child e.g. stepfather or illegitimate child


Sentence Meaning (1)Sentence Meaning (1)• Proposition= the basic idea/thought of the sentence; Proposition= the basic idea/thought of the sentence;

events or states; say something about events/states.events or states; say something about events/states.• Proposition: Proposition: predicatepredicate + +argument(s)argument(s) (Nash 19-20. 84+)(Nash 19-20. 84+)

• A sentence can have more than one propositions.A sentence can have more than one propositions.• sentencesentence: (see definition) : (see definition)

utteranceutterance: what speakers say or write: what speakers say or write

Aspect of entity, quality, state, activity, relation with other entity/ things.

entity (some sort of thing)


Sentence Sentence

• Definition: a unit of language (an Definition: a unit of language (an abstract thing, a part of language abstract thing, a part of language itself), a string of words put together itself), a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of a by the grammatical rules of a language.language.

• Meanings of a sentence come from Meanings of a sentence come from only within the language only within the language independent of context.independent of context.


UtteranceUtterance• Definition: the meaning of an utterance comes from Definition: the meaning of an utterance comes from

both both the languagethe language & the & the contextcontext & from & from features of features of languagelanguage (e.g. intonation, stress, gestures) (e.g. intonation, stress, gestures)

• What speakers say or write: you can give the time, What speakers say or write: you can give the time, date, place of an utterance (including intonation, date, place of an utterance (including intonation, stress, patterns and gestures)stress, patterns and gestures)

• An event in the world which can be thought as an An event in the world which can be thought as an example of a sentence, or of part of a sentence (e.g., example of a sentence, or of part of a sentence (e.g., a phrase or a word)a phrase or a word)

• Different functions in context:Different functions in context:statement of fact statement of fact thanksthanks apologyapologyexplanationexplanation tease tease promisepromisesuggestionsuggestion insultinsultdenialdenial request, compliment request, compliment e.g. e.g. Mr. NashMr. Nash likeslikes teatea.. (Nash 20, 99)(Nash 20, 99)

argument argument argument argument predicate (shows relationship)predicate (shows relationship)


Sentence Meaning (2)Sentence Meaning (2)

• Propositional meaning (sentence) vs. Propositional meaning (sentence) vs. interpersonal meaning (utterance)interpersonal meaning (utterance)

• Proposition vs. utterance analysis Proposition vs. utterance analysis

the difference: (Nash 100-101)the difference: (Nash 100-101)

e.g. “The book is open.”—accusatione.g. “The book is open.”—accusation

“ “Tom opened the book”—Tom opened the book”—defense defense against against accusation; accusation; put blame on put blame on somebody somebody else else



• Examples of utterance:Examples of utterance:““Can you open the window?”—mother to Can you open the window?”—mother to child (order)child (order)““Is your homework ready?” Is your homework ready?” ––student student (=can I copy it?)student student (=can I copy it?)

– –teacher students (=now, turn it in)teacher students (=now, turn it in)• Meaning of utterances based on the Meaning of utterances based on the

contextcontext (depending on the interactions of (depending on the interactions of the speakers and their relationship).the speakers and their relationship).



• Sentence vs. utteranceSentence vs. utterance

e.g. He loves her.—sentencee.g. He loves her.—sentence

“ “He loves her.”—utteranceHe loves her.”—utterance

• Expressions without propositional meaning, Expressions without propositional meaning, only international meaning: e.g. Hello, only international meaning: e.g. Hello, Goodbye, pardon, Hey (something like Goodbye, pardon, Hey (something like verbal gestures)verbal gestures)

(understand, (understand, but who are but who are they?)they?)(with knowledge of reference of pronouns)



• Utterance meaning has to be Utterance meaning has to be determined from the determined from the contextcontext (intentions of speaker/hearer, their (intentions of speaker/hearer, their relationship; the time, place, roles)relationship; the time, place, roles)

• Sentence meaning (propositions) Sentence meaning (propositions) independent of context.independent of context.


Sentence Meaning (6)Sentence Meaning (6)• Practice:Practice:

UtterancUtterance e

SentencSentence e

PropositionPropositionss

Can be loud or Can be loud or quietquiet

Can be Can be grammatical or grammatical or not not

Can be true or Can be true or falsefalse

In a particular In a particular regional accentregional accent

In a particular In a particular languagelanguage


Sentence Meaning (7)Sentence Meaning (7)• Practice: Practice:

UtterancUtterance e

SentencSentences es

propositiopropositionsns

Can be loud or Can be loud or quietquiet

++ -- --

Can be Can be grammatical or grammatical or notnot

++ ++ --

Can be true or Can be true or falsefalse

++ ++ ++

In a particular In a particular regional accentregional accent

++ -- --

In a particular langIn a particular languageuage

++ ++ --


• Family tree relationship:Family tree relationship:

propositionproposition

sentencesentence sentencesentencesentencesentence

utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utterance utteranceutterance


physical actions physical actions [gesture][gesture]

mental processesmental processes[thoughts][thoughts]

abstract semantic abstract semantic entitiesentities

[propositions] [propositions]

Linguistic entities Linguistic entities [e.g. sentences][e.g. sentences]

Actions [e.g. utterances]Actions [e.g. utterances]


Discourse (1)Discourse (1)• Language longer than a sentence Language longer than a sentence • Important at many levels: syntax+ morpImportant at many levels: syntax+ morp

hology; discourse structures—the structhology; discourse structures—the structures of units longer than a sentence. ures of units longer than a sentence.

• TEXT e.g.: TEXT e.g.: (Nash 101)(Nash 101)

The monster danced with Yang Li-Hua. The monster danced with Yang Li-Hua. HHee enjoyed enjoyed itit. . SheShe didn’tdidn’t..


Discourse (2)Discourse (2)• Examples of different discourse structuresExamples of different discourse structures

A. writingA. writinga. paragrapha. paragraphb. composition (longer organization) b. composition (longer organization) c. book (chapter…)c. book (chapter…)d. story—typical structure: chronological d. story—typical structure: chronological

order orderB. apartment descriptionsB. apartment descriptionsC. conversation: casual/classroom/ ordered C. conversation: casual/classroom/ ordered didiscussion/debate/interview/ritual (e.g. scussion/debate/interview/ritual (e.g. church church ritual, graduation, wedding ritual, ritual, graduation, wedding ritual, classroclassroom ritual—om ritual— 起立起立 .. 敬禮敬禮 .. 坐下坐下 .. 報告報告 ))


Discourse (3)Discourse (3)

• Some important elements in Some important elements in discourse: cohesion, coherence, discourse: cohesion, coherence, background knowledge, the co-background knowledge, the co-operative principleoperative principle

• CohesionCohesion: “the ties and connections : “the ties and connections which exist within which exist within texttexts.”s.”

Text: a piece of spoken or written language.


Cohesion (1)Cohesion (1)• Examples of cohesion: Examples of cohesion: (Yule 140)(Yule 140)

pronouns, (e.g. he, my, I , it); lexical pronouns, (e.g. he, my, I , it); lexical connections (e.g. Lincoln convertible—connections (e.g. Lincoln convertible—the car—the convertible); general the car—the convertible); general connections with shared meaning connections with shared meaning elements (e.g. “money”—bought—elements (e.g. “money”—bought—sawing—penny—worth a fortune—soldsawing—penny—worth a fortune—sold—pay); relationship marker (e.g. —pay); relationship marker (e.g. “however”); tense—first 4 sentences: “however”); tense—first 4 sentences: past tense, last one: present—a past tense, last one: present—a different time. different time.


Cohesion (2)Cohesion (2)• Cohesion: the Cohesion: the grammaticalgrammatical and/ or and/ or

lexicallexical relationships between the relationships between the different elements of a text. This may different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts sentences or between different parts of a sentence.of a sentence. Example:Example:A: A: IsIs JaneJane comingcoming to the party? to the party?B. Yes, B. Yes, sheshe isis. . There is a link betweenThere is a link between Jane Jane andand she she, , also betweenalso between is… coming is… coming andand is is. .


Coherence (1)Coherence (1)

• The relationships which link the meanings The relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the the of utterances in a discourse or of the the sentences in a text. sentences in a text.

• These links may be based on the speakers’ These links may be based on the speakers’ shared knowledge (background knowledge)shared knowledge (background knowledge)

e.g. A: Could you give me a ride home?e.g. A: Could you give me a ride home?

B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister. B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.

There’s no grammatical or lexical link There’s no grammatical or lexical link between A’s Q and B’s reply, but the between A’s Q and B’s reply, but the exchange has coherence, because both A exchange has coherence, because both A and B know that B’s sister lives in the and B know that B’s sister lives in the opposite direction to A’s home. opposite direction to A’s home.


Coherence (2)Coherence (2)• Coherence: that the text makes Coherence: that the text makes

sense—coherence achieved more by sense—coherence achieved more by peoplepeople than by texts (than by than by texts (than by language itself)—we expect language itself)—we expect coherence—we “try to arrive at an coherence—we “try to arrive at an interpretation which is in line with interpretation which is in line with [our] experience of the way the world [our] experience of the way the world is” is” (Yule 141).(Yule 141).

• An example of coherence without An example of coherence without cohesion cohesion (Yule 142)(Yule 142)


Coherence (3)Coherence (3)

• Obviously, there’s something else Obviously, there’s something else involved [what is it?] in the involved [what is it?] in the interpretation of a conversation, except interpretation of a conversation, except the information expressed in the the information expressed in the sentences. sentences.

• It is clear that language users must It is clear that language users must have a lot of knowledge of how have a lot of knowledge of how conversational interaction works which conversational interaction works which is not simply “linguistic knowledge.”is not simply “linguistic knowledge.”


Background knowledgeBackground knowledge• Examples (Yule 146-47)—inference, build-Examples (Yule 146-47)—inference, build-

up, changing influenceup, changing influence

2nd sentence: Who is John?2nd sentence: Who is John?

How’s he traveling?How’s he traveling?

33rd rd sentencesentence : Who’s John? (How traveling?): Who’s John? (How traveling?)

44th th sentence: Who’s John?sentence: Who’s John?

55th th sentence: surprisesentence: surprise

• We create what the text is about (not just We create what the text is about (not just the text does this), based on expectation the text does this), based on expectation of of what normally happenswhat normally happens (=background (=background knowledge).knowledge).


The Cooperative Principle The Cooperative Principle (1)(1)

• In conversation participants are assumed In conversation participants are assumed (by others) to be cooperating.(by others) to be cooperating.

• Four Maxims: set out by Grice (1975)Four Maxims: set out by Grice (1975)QuantityQuantity: an informative as is required, no : an informative as is required, no

more, no less. more, no less.QualityQuality: Don’t say something you believe : Don’t say something you believe

to be false or something to be false or something you don’t you don’t know.know.RelationRelation: Be relevant: Be relevantMannerManner: Be clear, brief and orderly: Be clear, brief and orderly



• These are the These are the normal normal expectations expectations

e.g. expectations about e.g. expectations about QuantityQuantity: “To : “To make a long story short,” “I won’t make a long story short,” “I won’t bore you with all the details.” bore you with all the details.”

QualityQuality: “An far as I know;” “Correct : “An far as I know;” “Correct me if I am wrong;” “I think;” “I feel;” me if I am wrong;” “I think;” “I feel;” “It’s possible that…” (“maybe”)“It’s possible that…” (“maybe”)



•The 4 maxims and the whole principle The 4 maxims and the whole principle allow interpretations allow interpretations (see Yule 145 (see Yule 145 bottom)bottom)

Carol: Are you coming to the party Carol: Are you coming to the party tonight?tonight?

Lara: I’ve got an exam tomorrow.Lara: I’ve got an exam tomorrow.

• Just a brief introduction to Discourse—Just a brief introduction to Discourse—many more elements involved, very many more elements involved, very complex. complex.


Lexicon (1) Lexicon (1) • Q: Do the lexical items (words) of a Q: Do the lexical items (words) of a

language have some sort of overall language have some sort of overall structure/organization like structure/organization like phonology, morphology, and syntax phonology, morphology, and syntax have?have?

• What’s the exact nature of a unit for What’s the exact nature of a unit for definition? That is, what is a lexical definition? That is, what is a lexical unit?unit?


Lexicon (2)Lexicon (2)• Dictionary entry is not exactly what we Dictionary entry is not exactly what we

think of as a word. It’s really a paradigm: think of as a word. It’s really a paradigm: an example of all the forms of a word, an example of all the forms of a word, used to represent the whole set. used to represent the whole set. Examples: Examples: child—represents child—represents childchild, , child’schild’s, , childrenchildren, ,

children’schildren’s

take—takes, taking, took, taken.take—takes, taking, took, taken.Some sets include only one member:Some sets include only one member: howhow, , yetyet, , oftenoften


Lexicon (3)Lexicon (3)

• How is the paradigmatic form How is the paradigmatic form chosen?chosen?

e.g. find a new word e.g. find a new word

ritualisticritualistic look up look up ritualritual

larger larger look up look up largelarge


Unmarked Unmarked • The paradigmatic form is the unmarked The paradigmatic form is the unmarked

form: the form which does not seem form: the form which does not seem “special” in any way, that seems most “special” in any way, that seems most “basic”, that has “basic”, that has nothing addednothing added (phonemes, (phonemes, sounds, morphemes). sounds, morphemes).

e.g. e.g. childchild: child: child’s’s, child, childrenren

largelarge: larg: largerer

carcar: car: carss

ritualritual: ritual: ritualisticistic

stranglestrangle: strang: strangulationulation

old/young: “How old is she?” the old/young: “How old is she?” the normal Qnormal Q


Markedness (1)Markedness (1)• The theory that in the languages of world certain The theory that in the languages of world certain

linguistics elements are morelinguistics elements are more BASICBASIC,, NationalNational, , andand FrequentFrequent (these elements are(these elements are unmarkedunmarked; ; less basic, national, frequent elements areless basic, national, frequent elements are markedmarked))

• Examples: Examples:

A. Singular examples: car—cars A. Singular examples: car—cars (singular=unmarked; plural=marked)(singular=unmarked; plural=marked)

B. unmarked: S-V-O sentence: I dislike such B. unmarked: S-V-O sentence: I dislike such people.people.

marked: O-S-V sentence: Such people I marked: O-S-V sentence: Such people I dislike. dislike.


Markedness (2)Markedness (2)

• Marking may be a basic principle for Marking may be a basic principle for assigningassigning universaluniversal (and possibly(and possibly innateinnate) values to certain kinds of ) values to certain kinds of featuresfeatures

(Nash 91)

Slobin Model



C. more frequent=unmarked C. more frequent=unmarked

e.g. Falling intonation vs. rising intonation e.g. Falling intonation vs. rising intonation

D. more specific=marked D. more specific=marked

(more common=unmarked)(more common=unmarked)

e.g. dog (unmarked) vs. bitch (marked)e.g. dog (unmarked) vs. bitch (marked)

E. distribution—unrestricted (unmarked)E. distribution—unrestricted (unmarked)

e.g. How tall is John? vs. How short is John?e.g. How tall is John? vs. How short is John?


Markedness (4)Markedness (4)• Markedness theory applies at all levels:Markedness theory applies at all levels:

A. Phonology A. Phonology e.g. /p, t, k, s, n/ unmarked e.g. /p, t, k, s, n/ unmarked

consonants consonants /v, z, /v, z, Q,Q, ð/ more marked ð/ more markedfalling intonation=unmarkedfalling intonation=unmarked

rising intonation=markedrising intonation=markedB. lexicon e.g. dog/ bitch (marked)B. lexicon e.g. dog/ bitch (marked)C. morphology e.g. car/ cars (marked)C. morphology e.g. car/ cars (marked)D. syntax e.g. active vs. passive (marked)D. syntax e.g. active vs. passive (marked)



• Discourse e.g. politenessDiscourse e.g. politeness

too polite too polite unmarked unmarked too too informalinformal

(marked)(marked) (marked)(marked)Would you be so kind? just let me borrow your pencil for a minute?

Without saying anything, just grasp the pencil.

Could you lend me a pencil?



• Unmarked elements: easier to acquireUnmarked elements: easier to acquire

• Marked elements: more difficult to acquire Marked elements: more difficult to acquire

• Some experimental evidence shows that Some experimental evidence shows that teaching teaching marked formsmarked forms can lead to faster can lead to faster acquisition of acquisition of bothboth marked and unmarked marked and unmarked forms, but teaching forms, but teaching unmarkedunmarked forms forms won’t help students learn won’t help students learn markedmarked forms. forms.

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Yun-Pi Yuan1 Outline of Semantics Outline of Semantics Forms of thought Forms of thought Mapping...

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