7 . f itfitiitifi - Mines Magazine

F I F T E E N T H

A N N U A L

P E T R O L E U M

N U M B E R

7 . f i t f i t i i t i f i —

NEHRAShA EASTERN COLOPADO OIL DiscovrriES CIT-CON LUBRICANT REFINERY IMOTO GtOLCGICAL STUDIES GrOPH/SICAL TOOLS GfcOI'HiSIC^ AT MINES OIL IN UTAH T30LS AND METHODS OIL WELL DRILLING REFINING BY PLATFORMING GEOLOGICAL MODELS CANADIAN OIL DEVELOPMENTS METALLURGY IN REFINING COAL GASIFICATION UNDERGROUND CREOLE REFINERY. VENEZUELA ^ EXICAN SEISMIC EXPLORATION

O C T O B E R 1 9 5 0

NUMBER 10

P R I C E S 2 . 0 C

This is o n e ot f o u r i d e n t i c a l G a l e s V u k o Rope D r i v e s in H u m b l e O i l ' s v a s i r e f i n e r y a l B a y l o w n , T e x a s , e a c h o f w h i c h ( r o n s m l l s 6 5 0 h o r s e p o w e r f r o m a D i e s e l e n g i n e l o a c c n i r i f u g a l p u m p . In d e s i g n i n g i h e d r i v e s , Ihe i d l e r { n e e d e d f o r b e l l t o k e - u p ) w a s so p l a c e d as to i n c r e a s e i h e w r a p o f Ihe be l t s a r o u n d the l a r g e p u l l e y to the p o i n t w h e r e t h a i p u l l e y c o u l d be f i a t — s a v i n g the cost o f a l a r g e g r o o v e d s h e o v e .

To see for yourself the belt-saving importance of the Concave Side, just pick up any V-belt and bend it as it bends when it goes around a pulley.

As the belt bends, grip its sides firmly with your fingers. Yon will feel the sides of the belt change shape. This is because the top of the belt is under tension and, hence, grows narroiver ivliile the body, under compression, bulges out. (See figure 1 and 1-A)

Now look at figures 2 and 2-A. There you see how the bending changes the shape of the belt that is built with the Concave Side —The Gates Vulco Rope. The concave sides of this belt merely Jill out and become perfectly straight. There is no side-bulge. This belt, when hent^ precisely Jits its sheave groove.

Avery distinct saving in belt wear results. No side-bulge means that the sides press evenly against the V pulley and therefore wear wni/orm/j—resulting in longer life for the sidewall and, naturally, longer lije Jor the belt!

If you care about cutting your belt costs, it will pay you to make sure, whenever you buy V-Belts, that you get the V-Belt with the Concave Sides...the Gates Vulco Rope!

T H E G A T E S R U B B E R C O M P A N Y

D E N V E R , U . S . A .

W o r l d ' s L a r g e s t M a k e r s o f V - B e i t s

W h a t H a p p e n s

W h e n a V - B e i t B e n d s

S t r a r g h t - S i d e d V - B e l t

H o w S t r a i g h t - S i d e d V - B e l t B u l g e s in S h e a v e - G r o o v e . S i d e s Press U n e v e n l y A g a i n s t V - P u l l e y C o u s i n g E x f r o W e a r a t P o i n t S h o w n by A r r o w s .

G a l e s V u l c o R o p e w i t h C o n c a v e S i d e

The C o n c a v e S i d e FiSIs O u t l o a Prec ise Fit in the S h e a v e G r o o v e , N o S i d e B u l g e ! S ides Press E v e n l y A g o l n s i ihe V - P u l i e y — U n i f o r m W e a r — Longe r L i f e !

cs-5oe

V U L <

R . % D I 1 I M S Engiiievring-OFlieet and Jobber-Sloclti '

N A L L I N D U S T R I A L C E N T E R S ol Hie U. S. and 71 Fsietgn Count! iet

Y O U W A N T R O P E that's extra t o u g h , extra s trong , ' ^ - ' ^

extra l o n g - l i v e d ! A n d y o u get these extras i n R o e b l i n g

P r e f o r m e d " R l u e C e n t e r " W i r e R o p e , for " B l u e C e n t u .

steel has c o m p l e t e l y s u p e r i o r res is tance to a b r a s i o n , s h o c k a n d

fa t igue . R o e b l i n g d e v e l o p e d a n d is the o n l y m a k e r of " B l u e

C e n t e r " s t e e l . . . a n d R o e b l i n g research , w o r k m a n s h i p a n d m o d e r n ,

p r e c i s i o n m a c h i n e s are y o u r a d d e d assurance of r o p e q u a l i t y that p a y s ofF.

B u t f o r e v e r y t h i n g w i r e r o p e c a n g ive , be sure to get P r e f o r m e d . R o e b l

P r e f o r m i n g m a k e s r o p e easier to h a n d l e a n d in.stal l It c a n b e c u t w i t h o t

i n g . It spools bet ter . . . is not i n c l i n e d to set or k i n k . . . m i n i m i z e s v i b r

w h i p p i n g .

T h e r e ' s a R o e b l i n g w i r e rope o f the r i g h t c o n s t r u c t i o n , g r a d e a n d size for e v e r y t y p e

a n d m a k e of r o p e - r i g g e d e q u i p m e n t . H a v e y o u r R o e b H n g F i e l d M a n tell y o u w h i c h r o p e

w i l l g i v e the best a n d the lowest-cost p e r f o r m a n c e

f o r e v e r y ins ta l la t ion . J o h n A . R o e b l i n g ' s Sons

C o m p a n y , T r e n t o n 2, N e w Jersey. A CENTURY Of CONFIDENCB

D I S T R I B U T E D B Y

T H E N A T I O N A L S U P P L Y C O M P A N Y

R E P U B L I C S U P P L Y C O M P A N Y

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

N O V / . • •

q u a l i t y i n c r e a s e s

p r o d u c t i o n x t v

B O O S T E R S E R V I C E

R E . P R E S S U R I N G

J V I R - G A S L I F T

Packaged booster compressor units—fea

turing world-famous Gardner-Denver

compressors—are now available in a wide

range of capacities and pressure ratings

from 5 to 275 h.p.

^ / Check your requirements:

9 P o r t a b l e o r s t a t i o n a r y u n i t s

& E l e c t r i c m o t o r o r g o s e n g i n e

d r i v e

® S i n g l e - s t a g e o r t w o - s t a g e

u n i t s

® V e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l c o m

p r e s s o r s

Call your nearest Gardner-Denver office

for complete details on any type or size,

or write us for further information.

S i n c e 1 8 5 9

G a r d n e r - D e n v e r C o m p a n y , Q u i n c y , I l i i t i o i s

D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o

Gas engine driven 12 and 6 x 13 compressor jor re-pressuring service.

Engine driven model ABE jor re-pressuring or booster service.

Engine driven 8x9 gas booster compressor.

Engine driven 5Y2x9 booster compressor.


Frank H. Storms, '24, resigneJ his position with Ingersoii-Rand Company in South A m e r i c a to become associated with Iron Mines Company of Veneziieta. H e is addressed in their care, Apar tado Postal 2271, Caracas , D . F . , Venezuela.

John D. Strasser, '41. called at the A l u m n i office recently while on vacation from his work as Project Engineer for Colgate-Pahnolive-Peet Company. H i s home address is 1133 Stannage, Albany , Ca l i forn ia .

Benjamin E. Terry, '33, who recently resigned as Geophysicist with the General Petroleum Company, has accepted position as Party Chief with Hei iand E x p i o r -atioii Company of Shreyeport, L a . , and win be stationed in western Canada .

Robert E. Thompson, 'SO, is Junior E n gineer, Arkansas Natura l G a s C o r p o r a tion, his mai l ing address being 23+ Oline Street, Shreveport, Louis iana.

C. IVenderotb, Ex-'36, has moved his residence in Wich i ta , Kansas , to 3807

E . Engl i sh Street. H e is Plant Superintendent for Pepsi Co la Bottling Company.

James P. ffilliams, M.Sc, '34, has been appointed by Ka i ser Steel Corporatton as D i v i s i o n Manager , Engineering and Planning, H e was formerly their Chief Production Engineer. H i s mai l ing address is Box 217, Fontana, Ca l i forn ia .

E. J. Acker, '49, resigned his position with Stanolind O i l & G a s Company to accept one with the Grea t Western Sugar Company. H i s new home and mai l ing address is 2003-9th Street, Greeley, Colo . _

James II. Alkire, '49, Junior Geophysical Engineer for M a g n o l i a Petroleum Company, has a change of address to Uox 402. Ozona, Texas .

floicard A, Anderson, Jr., '50, has been called to active duty with the M a r i n e Corps, his present address being 1st L i e u tenant, H d q . Squadron, 1st M . A . W . , c/o

F. P . O . , San Francisco, C a l i f . IVilliam M. Aubrey, Jr., '43. Meta l lur

gist, R a w Mater ia l s Laboratory, Bethlehem Steel Company, has moved his residence to 549 East H i g h Street, Lebanon, Penna.

Sidney M. Baker, '47, is, at present, being addressed Box 967, Borger, Texas . He is Geophysical Computer for Phil l ips Petroleum Company,

T. J. Barbour, '47, has been transferred by the Chapman Chemical Company, f rom Houston to Memphis , T e n n . H i s new a d dress is 110 N . Greer , Memphis 11.

Cart F. Beilharz., '25, was vacationing in Colorado last month and called at the alumni office. H e is Geologist for T h e Pure O i l Company with address Box 239, Houston, Texas .

Robert J. Blair, '39, Assistant Genera l Superintendent of Mines , T h e Black D i a mond Coa l M i n i n g Company, is addressed at his home, 1113 West 46th Street, B i r m ingham, A l a b a m a .

IJeiuey D, BoujUng, '49, Junior E x p l o i tation Engineer, Shell O i ! Company, finds that he is on the move so much that his mail cannot keep up with him and he asks that his home address be used, 2318 Ford Street, Golden, Colo.

R. G. Bonvman, '11, is associated with the Anaconda Copper M i n i n g Company, .'\naconda, Montana , with address Box 497.

Major Louis E. Bremkamp, '38, has a change of address to H q . E n g r . Section, Japan Logistical Command, A . P . O . 343, c/o Postmaster, San Francisco, Cal i f .

Albert M. Cavaliere, '49, has recently

accepted a position with Stearns-Roger

(Continued on page 4 )

A N O T H E R D E N V E R " S U B - A " A P P L I C A T I O N

7 < f f f i a f iHnCea t f j i'.t€Htf.i Aittiptct ^ctirA<f'. au^ b>e.i((4ti-\'

S E N D Y O U R A S S A Y W O R K T O

2114 Curt i s Street M A i n 1852 Denver, Coiorado

G O L D O R S I L V E R , 75c E A C H Complete Price L i s t on Request. Prompt Service—Accurate Results

INGINEiRS — DESIGNERS — FABRICATORS

4800 Y O R K S T . I

A l b u q u a r q u e — B i l l i n g s — C a s p e r — G r e a t F a l l s — H u l c h i n s o n — O m a h a — P h o e n i x

ManuSacturers oi

"National" Brands Safety Fuse for use in all Blasting Operations

Brands

Sylvanite Black Monarch Bear Black Aztec Triple Tape

D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o Established 1900

Rocky Mountain Dis t r ibu tors—Primacord-Bickford Detonating Fuse fo r deep wel l blasting.

B y C . A . H E I L A N D , D . S c P r o f e s s o r of G e o p h y s i c s , C o h i r o d o S c h o o l o i M i n e s

1013 Pages 536 Illustrations 6 x 9 $10.00 F O R T H E E N G I N E E R , T H E G E O L O G I S T , T H E G E O P H Y S T C I S T ,

T H E P E T R O L E U M P R O D U C E R , A N D T H E S C I E N T I S T Tlie ait ol Geophysical Prospecting is presented from a systematic point of view, laying stress

(in fimdamcnlai concepts, liislriimrnts and proceduies are described. General principals are discussed; rock properties and methods and instruments for determining them arc cicariy covered. A portion ol the book covers Geophysics in an elementary way easily understandable.

Gravirationai, magnetic, seismic, electrical methods, electrical logging, temperature loeasure-ments, radio activity logging, gas logging, photo electric measurements, soil testing and many other metliods are covered.

F o r sale by T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E

734 Cooper Bldg . Denver , C o l o .

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950 3

S84 OUTSSDE U. S. A .

A l a s k a n

C a n a d a 1 4 8

M e x i c o 8 9

C u b a 3

L a t i n A m « B - . 1 2 7

E u r o p e 9 0

A f r i c a 3 1

F a r E a s t 4 2

P h i l i p p i n e s 3 7

Many o{ these are repeat orders

• HE wide acceplance ol Matey Mills both in the United States and in the lar comets ol the world is based upon cetlain principles ol design and operation.

In an open-end Maicy Mill the difference in elevation between the incoming leed and the lower point of discharge causes Ihe lines to travel faster lhan the coarser particles. Thus the iinished material is removed more quicltly, better exposing Ihe coarser material lor further grinding.

With impact on a smaller body ol ore, maximum drop lor impact and far less cushioning, more rapid grinding is effected. Obviously, in closed circuit grinding In open-end Maicys there are manv more circuits per hour. Equally obvious are the accruing advantages of increased lonnage, lower per Ion cost and more salislaclory metallurgy in any subsequent flow-sheet operations.

e Permit us lo present field records which substantiate these statements.

Main Office: DENVER, COLORADO, U.S.A.: Et P»oi Solt Loke City; 1775 Broadway, New York, H.Y.! Canadian Viekers, Ltd., Monlreali W. R. Judson, Sanlleqa and Limn: The Edward J. Nell Co.. Moniio, P. I.; Tlic Ore & Chomieol Corp., SO Broad SI,. New feik 4, N, 1., Representafivei (or Continental Europe.

(Continued from page 3 )

M a n u f a c t u r i n g Company as Assistant Engineer on Construction and, at present, is addressed in care of the company, A d a , Oklahoma,

' Rex E. Cheek, '43, has been transferred by Stanolind O i l & G a s Company from the Hugoton A r e a to the West E d m o n d A r e a where he ia serving as F ie ld E n g i neer. H i s new address is in care of tbe company. Route No . 2, Box 2S9, Oklahoma City , O k l a .

Dr. William R. Chedsey, '08, Professor of M i n i n g Engineering, Univers i ty of I l linois, stopped over in Denver the early part of September on his way home f r o m C a l i f o r n i a . H i s address is in care of the university, 308, C e r . Bui id ing , U r b a n a , Illinois.

Peter C. Cresto, Ex-'SO, has moved from Greeley, to Florence, Coiorado, where he is addressed !2B No. F r a z i e r Street.

fFilliam G. Cutler, '48, Petroleum E n g i neer for the C a l i f o r n i a Company, has a change of address to Box 20, Venice, Louis iana.

George A. Davidson, '31, accompanied by M r s . D a v i d s o n , left N e w Y o r k by plane August 12 f o r India where he wi l l be stationed at least a year as Superintendent of Maintenance on a new ammonium sulphate plant which Chemical Construction Corporat ion (subsidiary of A m e r i c a n Cyanamid Company) has built for the government of India. H i s address there is c/o Chemical Construction C o r poration, Pathardihi P . O. M a n b h u m D i s trict, B ihar , India .

Carlos J. Delgado, '32, has a change of address in Caracas , Venezuela, to A p a r t ado No. 2641, H e is Sales Engineer for C . A . A r m c o Venezolana.

Joseph R. Driear, 'SO, has been awarded a scholarship by the Lincoln A r c W e l d i n g Foundation of Cleveland, Ohio. H i s paper.

entitled "Underwater A r c W e l d i n g was selected to receive the $100 scholarship in the 1949-50 Engineer ing Undergraduate A w a r d and Scholarship program. H e began his graduate work last month, _

JVilliam F. Dukes, 'SO, Tra inee , Junior Engineer and Geologist, F r e d M . M a n n ing, Inc., has a change of address to Box 51 Breckenridge, Texas .

Charles J. Dunn, HI, '49, is, at present, being addressed Box 753, Crane, Texas , where he is serving as Engineer Tra inee for G u l f O i ! Corporat ion.

Hugh fV. Eva7ts, '49, who is associated with Kennecott Copper Corporation, has been transferred from Bingham to Salt Lake City, Utah, where he is addressed 1269 East 1st St., South,

Frank A. Foley, '49, C i v i l Engineer for M a c c o Corporat ion, has moved from L o n g Beach to Huntington. C a l i f o r n i a , with address 6928-D, Mi les Avenue .

Martin S. French, 'SO. has completed the roughnecking phase of his training with Shell O i l Company and has been transferred to Lake Charles , L a . , for scouting and roustabouting. H i s present address is Whitehouse T r a i l e r Park, 2900 E . Broad , Lake Charles .

Richard H. Fulton, SO, Petroleum E n g i neer for Mid-States O i l Company, is addressed in their care. Genera l Del ivery , Dickinson, Texas ,

N. F. Gallucci, '20, is Superintendent, M a r i n e T e r m i n a i Edgington O i l Refinery, residing at 1122 W . Chandler Street, Wi lmington , C a l i f o r n i a ,

Thomas E. Gaynor, Jr., '48, Engineer for I d a h o - M a r y l a n d Mines Corporation, is addressed Box 60, Grass Val ley , Cal i f .

IValter P. Gillingham, '47, is employed by T h e N e w Jersey Z i n c Company at G i l -man, Colorado. H i s mai l ing address is Box 331, M i l l i k e n , Colorado.

Harry D. Hall, '49, is addressed 47S6 H a n a u e r Street, M u r r a y , Utah . H e is employed by U . S. Smelting, Rei ining & M i n ing Company.

M. G. Heitzman, '17, M a n a g e r of Operations, Silver K i n g Coalit ion Mines Co., has been transferred to Sait Lake C i t y ; his residence and mai l ing address there is 26 So. Wolcott Avenue .

Robert A. Hopper. '43, Sales Engineer for Colorado Fue l & Iron Corporation, receives mai l G r e e n A c r e Apartments, No. 90, A m a r i l l o , Texas .

Glenn T. Horlbeck, '36, called at the alumni office the early part of September while on vacation f rom his duties as E n g i neer for Ideal Cement Company at A d a , Oklahoma.

A. T, Ireson, '48, was also on vacation in Denver last month. H e is Exploitation Engineer for Shell O i l Company, his ma i l ing address being Box 149, E l k City, Oklahoma,

IVilliam H. Johnson, '34, resigned his position with Denver Equipment C o m pany to become Manager , Sheet Meta l Div i s ion , Electron Corporat ion of Litt leton, Colorado. H i s home and mai l ing address is 1518 Washington Avenue, Golden, Colo.

M. A. Jorgensen, '28, is now associated with the T r i u m p h M i n i n g Company at T r i u m p h , Idaho.

George E. Jaynes, Jr., '40, resigned as Chief Metal lurgist for A i r c r a f t Mechanics in Colorado Springs to accept a position as Staif member for the Univers i ty of C a i i f o r n i a at the Los A lamos Scientific Laboratory. H i s new address is 2557 D . 36th Street, Los Alamos, N e w Mexico .

D, D. Kerstetter, '39, has moved his

residence to 10404 Brookmoor D r i v e , Si l -

(Continued on page 7 )


O i l Operators hire Contract Seismograph Crews for only one reason: To he!p fhem

find oil. To solve this difficult and expensive problem, Ihe very best equipment and

bcit trained personnel ore required.

^ • 1

n i i

Century carries on a continuous program of research and development to assure

the oil industry that Century v/ili have avai lable ihe most modern geophysical

insfruinents. The technical staff on the field crews is composed of the best

trained a n d best educated personnel avai lable , but they are also given the

benefit of constant research to devise better interpretationol lechniques.

Interpretational procedures a n d field operation techniques are

quickly changed lo fit new problems as they arise. Century

field crews have always operated on the very simple policy

of doing everything possible to assist the operator in hii

search to discover new oil reserves. O u r clients are

assured of complete cooperation in conformity with

, their requirements.

C o n f a c f C e n t u r y f o r c o n ^ r a c i c r e w s .

E X P O R T O F F I C E :

149 Broadway, New York

G E O P H Y S I C A L C O R P O R ;

T U L S A , O K L A H O M A 615 8fh Avenue

Calgary, Alta., C m .

A . E . A n d e r s o n , Booking Cruises to South America

5031 Laureicrest Lane

Seattle 5 Washlnq+on

D a n i e l L B e c k , ' 1 2

Aptitude Testing—Sales Training

Executives SeiecHon & Training Institute

956 Maccabee 8idq. Detroit 2, Mich

B y r o n B . Boa+r ighf , ' 2 2

C o n s u i t i n g P e t r o l e u m & N a t u r a l G a s E n g i n e e r

C a p i t a ! N a t i o n a l Bank B u i l d i n q

A u s t i n , Texas

W a r r e n T . Bos+wick, Ex- '31 Lease Broker

Oil & Gas Leases Acquired f o r • Your Account

264 Elizabeth Si. Phone: EAst i636 Denver 6, C o l o r a d o

G e o r g e R . B r o w n , ' 2 2

Brown & Root, Inc.

Engineering Construction

Houston Austin Corpus Christ:

W . W . C l i n e , E x - ' 2 9 President

San Joaquin Drilling Company, Inc.

417 S . Hiil St. Los Angeies, C a l i '

W i l l H . C o g h i l l . ' 0 3

No Consultations

145 W . Lincoln Ave. Delaware, Ohio

R a l p h D . C u r t i s , ' 2 6

Production Manager

C . H . Murphy & C o .

I si Nat'l Bank Bldg. El Dorado, Ark.

E . E . D a w s o n , ' 38

Manager, Foreign Operations

Brown DrilMng Company

L o n g Beach California

E a r l o u g h e r E n g i n e e r i n g

Petroleum Consultants — C o i e Analysis

319 E. F o u r t h S t . Tulsa 3, O k l a

R, C . Earlougher, '36, Registered Engineer

e r t C . H a r d i n g , ' 3 7

G e n e r a l M a n a g e r

Black Hills Bentonite, Inc.

M o o r c r o f t W y o m i n g

T h o m a s S . H a r r i s o n , 'Ol

Consulting O i l Oaologisi

H04 First National Bonk Bldg.

Denver, Colorado

A M E R I C A N P A U L I N S Y S T E M

M O D E L M-1 . . . Range

6 ,000 feet ( - 1 0 0 0 ' 1 0 + 5000 '} in i n f e f v a l i of 1'

Range

3 ! 0 , -

i l 3 '

M O D E L M - S . . . Range

15 ,000 feet ( 0 ' to ! 5 , -

0 0 0 ' ) in i n l e f v a l i o f ' S '

M O D E L M M - 1 . . . Ronae

5 ,000 mefec i (0 to 5 ,000

meters) in mtervols of 1

meter

$300 E A C H wi th loothef

c a i e , The fmomele r . M a g

n i f i e r , a n d O p e f o t i o n a i

Procedures,

Don't guess • !

altitude readings —

Only American Paulin

System Altimeters are

g r a d u a t e d in e a s i l y

read 1 foot divisions.

M O D E L S A ' I . . . Range

4 , 3 6 0 f e e l { - 7 6 0 ' to +

3 , 6 0 0 ' ) In Intervals of 2 '

M O D E L S A - 3 . . . Range

10 ,600 feef 1 - 9 0 0 ' t o +

9 , 7 0 0 ' ) In i n t e r v a l ! of 5 '

M O D E L S A - 5 . . . Ronga

1 5 , 0 0 0 feet 1 - 5 0 0 ' t o +

U , 5 0 0 ' ) i n i n l e r v d l i o f l O '

J 2 0 0 E A C H wi th leother

case, Ti ie imometer , M a g

n i f i e r , a n d O p e r a t i o n a l

Procedures .

L i t e r a t u r e a n d T e c h n i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n s A v a i l a b l e o n R e q u e s t

Hic^ A M E R I C A N P A U L I N S Y S T E M A •v. y 1 8 4 7 S. F L O W E R • LOS A N G E L E S 15, C A L I F O R N I A , U . S . A .

Cleaning, oiling and adjusting of Surveying Instruments eliminates major repairs and errors, improves efficiency.

Repairs take longer in rush season (spring, summer) .

Eventually—why not right now?

1641 California St. Denver 2, Colo.

6 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1

K a n s a s r e p o r t s . . .

BAVMOUO C, WOCWE

T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F K A N S A S

S T A T E G E O L O G I C A L S U R V E Y

LAWRENCE

J u l y 27, 1950

JOHN C, F«V£

1847 South Street Los Angeles 15, Calif .

Gentlemen;

A l t i , . e t e x - J " M o d e l ° l f ' L f ^ ' ' ''^ ^^'^"ved a s i , ip„ent of th,.

' water [veil ele-

certain dearff

T E R R A

PERSONAL NOTES (Continued from page 4 )

ver Spring, M a r y l a n d . H e is Physicist for

the N a v a l Ordnance Laboratory. J. E. Lee, Jr., '37, President, Amer ican

Exploration Company, has a new residence address in Lafayette, Louisiana, SOO V\L St. Patrick.

James R. Leonard, '42, is Assistant H i g h w a y Engineer for the State of C a l i fornia, residing at 838 E u c l i d Avenue , Santa M o n i c a .

Peter A. MacQueen, '50, has entered the University of Oklahoma for graduate work in petroleum engineering. H e is heing addressed 217 East Boyd, Norman, Okla .

Robert E. Mann, '38, Junior M i n i n g Engineer, Phelps Dodge Corporation, was vacationing in Denver last month. H i s

mai l ing address is Bnx 182, Cl i f ton, A r i zona.

Robert S. Mann, '40, resigned his position as District Geologist with Shell O i l Company In Western C a n a d a to become associated with Thornton Davis , Consulting Geologist and Independent Operator in San Antonio, Texas , H e is now being addressed 2023 A l a m o Nat ional Bui ld ing , San Antonio 5, Texas .

Kaaren, the elder daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Robert L. Marsh, 'SO, is recovering most successfully f rom her attack of polio and spinal meningitis. She is now able to run and play almost normally. T h e family home is 7262 Patr ic ia Lane, Houston, Texas .

Sol Meltzer, '50, is employed by Cities Service O i l Company as Recorder Helper, His mai l ing address is Box 350, A m a r i l l o , Texas ,

Eugene A. Mills, '39, M i n i n g Engineer with Ol iver Iron M i n i n g Company who has been on an assignment in Venezuela, has returned to the States and, at present, is addressed at his home Route 4, Box 530, Riverside, Cal i f .

Capt. Roland E. Morrison, '41, has been transferred to A I C H I A r e a , 441 C I C D e tachment, A . P . O . 710, c/o Postmaster, San Francisco, C a l i f o r n i a .

K. E. Neugebauer, '06, Consulting E n g i neer for Hercules M i n i n g Syndicate, is very ill in a Pueblo hospital. His address is 314 Colorado Avenue, Pueblo, Colorado,

D. H. Mullen, '25, Supervising E n g i neer, U . S, Bureau of Mines , at R a p i d City, South Dakota, was in Denver for a few da3's last month.

L. B. Myers, '48, was on vacation last month from his duties with Phil l ips Petro-eum Company, and called at the alumni office. H e is addressed Box 8t, Eureka , Kansas .

Capt. Thomas E. Northrop, '32, has been transferred to the Lordstown O r d nance Depot at W a r r e n , Ohio,

Stanley Ohlsivager, '49, Assistant T e c h nologist, Grease Research, Sinclair Research & Development Corporation, has moved his resilience to 21207 So, Locust, Matteson, Iliinois.

J. F. O'Neill, '24, Engineer, U . S, B u reau of Mines , resides at 1450 E . H a r grove Road, Tuscaloosa, A l a b a m a .

fV. C. Page, '15, Assistant Genera l Manager , Western Operations, U , S, Smelting, Refining & M i n i n g Company, receives mai l at his home, 20 South 13th East, Salt Lake City, Utah.

/Falter L. Patty, '41, Is Technica l Representative, E . I, du Pont de Nemours & Co., residing at 2031 So, Pearl Street, Jopl in, Missour i ,

G . N. P f e i f f e r , '05, has moved his residence from H e r r i n , Illinois, to 2805 P r a i rie Avenue , Mattoon, Illinois. H e Is C o n sulting Engineer and member of firm, Pfeiffer and Sauter.

E. C. Philpy, '49, Geologist, Regional Explorat ion Department, Shell O i i Co. , Inc., Is addressed Box 1S09, M i d l a n d , Texas .

Jack A. Ramsdetl, '49, who Is employed by Continental O i l Company, is addressed Conoco Sels. C r e w No. 1, Sprlnghil l , L a .

Major Da'vid Roberts, '40, is now being addressed, L A , G . S. U . S. A , R. Carib . , Box 2031, Balboa Heights, Canal Zone.

tVilliam W. Sabin, '49, Chemical E n g i neer, Utah O i l Refining Company, Is addressed at his home, 881 First Avenue, Sait Lake City. Utah,

Earl I.. Sackett, '33, formerly Assistant Div is ion Metallurgist , Baro id Sales D i v i sion, National Lead Company, is now Superintendent, Washington County, M i s souri, operations for the same company and is being addressed at Box 218, Potosi, Missour i .

Rodney L. Samuelsan, '48, is employed by the Coast Pacific Lumber Company, residing at ] 14 So. 11th, Cottage Grove , Oregon.

Robert H. Sayre, Jr., '34, has returned to the States from Nicaragua and has accepted a position with the Athletic M i n ing Company at Klondyke, A r i z o n a .

H. K. Schmuck, '40, was on vacation last month, part of which was spent in Denver. H e Is Sales Engineer for Haynes Steilite Company of Houston, His mai l ing address is Box 9097, Houston 11, Texas .

Bert J. Shelton, V . '44, called at the alumni office last month, en route to Oregon State College, Corvallts , Oregon, where he Is now taking graduate work.

C C o n t i n u e d on page 79)

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 1950 7

Those interested in any of the positions listed may make application through "Mines" Capability Exchange, 734 Cooper Building, Denver 2, Colorado,

(841) m S U E A N O E S A L E S M E N . A n old established life insurance company oSers excellent op-portuiiitieB for inexperienced and experienced Balesmen, T h e type of men wanted should be capable of eamiiiff several thousand dollars per year. (11531 P H Y S I C I S T S A N D R E S E A R C H E N G I N E E R . A research orsanization established in the rniddlewest has positions open for physicists, and electrical engineers with Kood baokEround iu pUvsics, electronics and electrical research. A p plicants should have Master's or Doctor's deKrees, Salary open.

(1155) M I N I N G A N D M E T A L L U R G I C A L E N G I N E E R , A company operatiuK non-metal lie mines in tho south has a position open for graduate euKineer to work in open pi t minins; and carry on research work for the flotation of non-nietal-!icB, However, several months training wi l l bo required before tak ing on an executive position. Salary open.

(1171) M I L L F O R E M A N . A South American mil l ing company has a position open for a Eradu-ate metallprgist as M i l l Foreman, Appl icant must have had experience i n the operation of fiotation and concentration equipment. Must have a eood working knowledge of Spanish and be able to suceesafully handle South American employees. Must report single status for six months. Salary open with l iberal vacation allowance and free livitiff quarters. Bonus to the r ight man.

(117G) M E T A L L U R G I S T , A n aircraft manufacturer has position open for metallurgical graduate with education and experience covering metai hirgica! testing of ferrous and non-ferrous metals as wel l as physical processing, heat treat-meTit, welding practices and abil ity to coordinate these practices with tlie application of metals for manufacturing. Salary open,

(1178) J U N I O a M E T A L L U R G I S T . A ni ining company in South Amer ica has position open for Junior Metal lurgist wi th some experience in ore-dressing and laboratory work. Knowledge of Spanish is desirable. Start ing salary, $3000 per year plus l iv ing quarters. Transportation by air, free. Yearly bonus of I month, 3-year contract.

E v e r y p i e c e m a d e

t o p e r f o r m i t s j o b

e f R c i e n t l y . D F C o n

the p r o d u c t — m e a n s

s a f / s f a c f / o n o n t i i e

j o b . B e c e r t a i n —

D e m a n d D F C .

for dependable assaying you musf

use dependable cfay goods.

D F C C R U C I B L E S

D F C M U F F L E S

D F C A N N E A L I N G

C U P S

D F C C U P E L S

D F C R O A S T I N G

D I S H E S

D F C S C O R I F I E R S

A N D T R A Y S

D E R W B R F I R E C L A Y

EL PASO, TEXAS WEW VOflK, fJ. r,

SAIT LAKE CITY, UTAH

C A R D C A R S are engineered to combine

operating ease and speed with rugged bui ld that

can take severe service.

Furthermore, they are engineered to meet

specific conditions in Y O U R mine!

Ask f o r Bulletin RD-7

D E N V E R , C O L O - , U , S. A .

(1182) S A L E S ICNGINfCER. A large steel company has position open for Sales & Service Eaî-neer. Must be thorouEhly acquainted with oilfield practice and have had C to 10 years experience. Appl icant must have administrative ability and excellent personality. F ine opportunity for the man who can meet requirements. Salary depends upon experience and abi l i ty of applicant. (1188) D R A F T S M A N & D E S I G N I N G E N G I

N E E R , W e l l known consulting engineering organization located in the middle-west has a position open for designing engineer who has had extensive experience wi th the cement industry. Should have had from 5 to 10 years experience of which 3 to 4 years have been draft ing and designing. Probable salary. $4Q0 to $500 per month.

(1197) R E S E A R C H M E T A L L U R G I S T . A wel l known research organization is setting up a new department covering research in connection with projects for pyro- and hydro-metallurgy. A p p l i cant must be able to direct research and be well grounded in physical chemistry and especially thermodynamics. Should have few yeai^ experience in concentration of ores. Salary w i l l depend upon the experience and abil ity of applicant, (1190) P E T R O L E U M E N G I N E E R . A company operating in a southern state has position open for Petroleum Engineer 30 to 40 yeara of age with experience in natural gas transmisison and distribution. W i l l be necessary to travel approximately 50% of the time. Salary open. (1209) M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . Company operating in South Amer ica has position open for assistant to M i n i n g Superintendent. Man must have had a few years min ing experience, be able to stand high altitudes and report single status. Three year contract. Probable salary, $400 to $500 per month.

(1215) M I N E F O R E M A N , A South Amer ican mining company has position open for Mine Foreman who has had several years experience in metal mining and ia a college graduate. Must have working knowledge of Spanish and be either single or wi l l ing to go single status for at least six months. Three year contract. Start ing salary, $4200 per year plus a bonus of one month salary for each year. Four weeks vacation. Free l iv ing quarters.

(1216) M I L L S U P E R I N T E N D E N T . A well known mining company in South Amer ica has position open for M i l ! Superintendent with several years experience in m i l l i n g operation. L a t i n American background ia essential. Three year contract with housing provided. Approximate starting salary, $5000 per year.

(Continued on page 128)

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

P o s t - w a r m o d e l f o r

u s e w i t h e i t h e r

v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l

s y s t e m s .

he HEILAND RESEARCH CORPORATION has been

appointed exclusive American sales and service rep

resentative for the internationally known SCHMIDT-

ASKANIA line of magnetic prospecting equipment.

^ Cal ibrat ion coils

var iat ion recording equi

W r i t e f o r

c o m p l e t e d e t a i l s

H E I L A N D

1 3 0 E a s t F i f t h A v e .

D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o

D E N V E R

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R , 1950

r o f e d d i o n a

K . L K o e i k e r , ' 1 4

Coniulting Mining Engineer

318 Joplin St. Joplin, M o .

J e a n M c C a l l u m , ' 1 0 Wining & Me+eliurgical Engineer

Consulting

722 Chestnut St. St. Louis I, Mo.

V i n c e n t M i l l e r . ' 3 5

Exploration Servico Company

Bartiesville Oklahoma

C l e v e l a n d O . M o s s , ' 0 2 Consulting Petroleum Engineer

Es t ima tes o i O i l a n d G a s Reserves

V a l u a t i o n — P r o d u c t i o n P r o b l e m s — P r o r a t i o n

208 M i d c o B l d g . Tulsa 3. O k l a

J . Ross R e e d , ' 3 7 Division Manager

National Electric Coil Company

751 New York Dr. Altadena, Calif.

J o s e p h J . S a n n a , '41 Christensen Diamond Products Co. Mining—Petroieum—Construcii on

Diamond Bits & Supplies 975 South 2 n d W e s t , Sa l t L a k e C i t y 13, U t a h

W m . D . W a l f m a n , ' 9 9

325 So. Plymoyth Boulevard

Los Angeles 5 California

E l m e r R . W i l f l e y . ' 1 4

Wilfley Cantrifugal Pumpt

Denver, Colo ,

J o h n H . W i l s o n , ' 2 3

Independent Exploration Company

1411 Electric Building

Ft. Worth, Texas

J o h n H . W i n c h e l l , ' 1 7 Attorney «f Law

315 Majestic Bldg. Denver. Colo

ALpine B251

H a r r y J . W o l f . ' 0 3

Mining and Consulting Engineer

420 Madison Ave. Now York 17, N. Y

FINDS HIS WORK INTERESTING F r o m B, J . B e k m e s , '50, Box 102, Miami 33, Florida.

Please change the maiHng address for my Mines Magazine to the above. I am now with the G r o u n d W a t e r Branch of the U . S. G . S. her in M i a m i . So far

the work is interesting, consisting of sitting on welis, assisting in the water level measurement program and making assoeiated geologic studies. It has given me a chance to use the engineering as wel! as geologic training I received at Mines.

MISSING HIS COPIES O F MINES MAGAZINE F r o m J o h n A . J a m e s o n , '50, Box 99, Jacksonville, Texas.

I have just visited with three of my classmates over in K i l g o r e : Denny Gregg , B o b Thompson and D o n Andrews . I noticed that Denny had his copies of Mines Magazine for both July and Augus t ; now I've been wondering where my copies are? I haven't received the July nor August and I'd sure like to have them, W o u l d you please send them to the address given above.

I reported to work the third of July here in Jacksonville and I am working for Geophysical Associates. T h e work is fine and things are going along very good. T h e company seems to have a good immediate future for me so I know things wi l l work out fine.

I'd sure appreciate receiving my Mines Magazine so please send them as soon as

possible.

ANNOUNCES ARRIVAL OF ANOTHER DAUGHTER F r o m S t a n [ , e y J . M a r c u s , '4-5, 1604 A. Radford St., China Lake, Calif.

1 want to announce my fourth (yes, 4-th) daughter, born M a y 2, 19S0, named M a r -jorie Anne . T h e anti-trust lawyers have already been pestering us!

Recently became involved in the design and development of a new anti-tank rocket and before I knew it found myself in Japan and K o r e a . W h i l e there ran into another Miner, Bernard Zohn, who is now a M a j o r in the A i r Force in Japan. H e is A i r Installation officer for a large area there and has come a long way from the days when he was my C / O in advanced military.

ENJOYED TRIP TO SOUTH AMERICA F r o m Louis H i r s c h , '49, c/o Cerro de Pasco Copper Corp., Staff House, Oroya, Peru, S. A.

A r r i v e d in Oroya August 23 after a very pieasant journey. I particularly enjoyed the trip f rom L i m a thru the rugged, beautiful Andes mountains. T h e altitude hasn't bothered me much. Everyone is fr iendly and the recreational facilities seem good.

Please send Mines Magazine and other maii to the address given above.

1 hope to hear from fellow Miners and wi l l promptly answer their letters.

BACK IN STATES AFTER SOME TRAVELING Prom S. K . CHAKRAVORi'i', '47, Department of Geology, Uni-versily of Kansas, Lav^rence,

Ka?isas.

Being in and out of this country a few times during the past two years I have not

been able to keep pace with the activities of Mines Alumni Association. So, also, the rea

son for the delay in sending you my dues.

I hope tilts wi l l c lar i fy yonr files a little bit. Please note the change of address.

INTERESTING NEWS F r o m C h a r l e s A . E i n a r s e n , '47, 2941 Travis Street, Fori Worth, Texas.

T h i s is to advise you of a change of address to that shown above. T b e company has

now transferred me to their Fort W o r t h Div i s ion office where I am serving as petroleum

engineer.

It's a iittie late, but as many people put off writ ing so have I. In this regard I have

neglected to send you news of our daughter's birth, Jeanne Lucil le , on last December 30,

1949. Seems a bit late to cal l it news, doesn't it?

W e , my wife and I, both immensely enjoy Mines Magazine for we find that very

often fellow graduates are almost neighbors.

Enclosed find A l u m n i Association ballot and directory card for the new Directory

and Yearbook.

REPORTS CHANGE OF ADDRESS F r o m A l b e r t H . F l e i t m a n , '49, 4711 Drexal, Chicago, Illinois.

T h i s is to report a change of address to the above.

H a v e seen Charles L u n d i n and Charley Fitch of the class of '49 recently.

A s always it's a pleasure to hear f rom yon and to receive Mines Magazine.

NEWS FROM THE PHILIPPINES F r o m L a w r e n c e E . S m i t h , '31, Resident Manager, Mindanao Mother Lode Mines, Inc.,

Box 29, Surigao, Surigao, Philippines.

It has been six months since my last letter lo you. Claude Fertig, Ex-'27, seems to

provide the best news of the Philippines thru Mines Magazine.

I made my first postwar trip to Baguio with my wife in A p r i l to pay a visit to our three children who attend Brent school. Incitlentally we were able to see M r . and M r s . Claude Fert ig , M r . and M r s . F r a n k Delahunty, M r . and M r s . Charles B , Foster, M r . and M r s . H u g h Bein, M r . and M r s . Luther Lennox, and Char l i e Burgess.

D u r i n g the past two years we have had the opportunity to renew friendships with

jack Newsom and B . E . Kent, both with W a r Damage Corporation, and M . M . A y c a r d o

and R. E . K a h n , of Soriano & Company, and E . C, Bengzon, all in M a n i l a .

I often see E . P. Bugar in , mi l l superintendent for Surigao Consolidated. In fact,

Enrique assisted us greatly in the first pour of the new cyanide plant addition to M i n

danao Mother Lode Mines last M a r c h .


THE MINES M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R . 1950

f o r 11 P{i\o S a l n v i i l Cuts

Com bit u ) \ C u i t t L t l i i p i S t i t l i o u

I t takes a lot of horsepo'wer to move 330 million cubic feet of gas from Texas to California. Here in the Guadalupe Station alone (one of 6 compressor stations on the E l Paso Natural Gas Line), there is a total of twenty, 1000-hp compressors—all Ingersoll-Rand K V G gas-engine-driven units. Fourteen of them, shown above, are located in the main compressor plant, and six more (on the loop) are in an adjacent building. And 5 additional, similar units will be installed here in the near future.

In applications like this, dependability is a most important requirement . . . as are economy of operation and ease of maintenance. That's why IngersoU-Rand K V G gas-engine-driven compressors are first choice with so many gas-line operators and maintenance men. They know, from experience, that these compact, rugged and

powerful units can always be depended on to stay on the job, 24 hours a day, year after year, with minimum attention. And their 4-cycle, V-angle design permits maximum operating efficiency.

Whatever your compressor requirements, your nearest I-R representative is qualified to give you expert guidance . . . to help you select the equipment best suited to your needs.

11 BROADWAY, NEW YOKK 4, N. 'Y. 505-6

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R , 1950

7 b m ^ i o L C^nJtax±

Here is a valve having no metal part coming tn con

tact wi+h the material being handled. They are recom

mended for installations where transporting abrasive

and/or corrosive pulps and liquids cause severe wear on

metal type valves.

The Massco-Grigsby Rubber Pinch Valves incorporate

the simplest yet most practical construction — just one

wearing part, the long life easily replaceable rubber

sleeve. A positive, leak proof, closure is obtained even

when both solid particles and liquids are present. These

valves also have wide application where control of fine

dry material is required.

6

Natural rubber or Neoprene h used in the valve

sleeve, and is reinforced with fabr ic to withstand pres

sures up to !50psi. A l l sleeves are moulded with a

patented " H i n g e " or recess on opposite sides of the

sleeve interior, to prevent undue strains and wear f rom

valve operation. Sleeve ends f i t between flanges to form

a perfect seal.

Temperatures from below freezing to I 8 0 ° F are per

missible. Full area is provided thru the entire valve re

sulting in a straight unobstructed flow passage minimiz

ing friction loss. Valve is not affected by scale formation.

Siies available: I " , 2" , 3", 4" , 6", 8", 10" and ! 2 " .

Wr i t e for free bulletin and price information.

\ Left : Cu t showing special 10" Massco-Grigsby valves

with fabricated spacers. These spacers were used to

eliminate high strains in long pipe lines having a large

number of valves in series.

Right: C u t showing an 8" Massco-Grigsby valve with

motor-reducer closing mechanism. Such an arrangement

allows easy and remote control of valve operation.

- r ' ' " J

G . G . G R I G S B Y

E . M .

C . S . M . 1914

Manufactured Exclusively

C O N T A C T Y O U R NEAREST M A S S C O OFFICE Main Office: DENVER, C O L O . . U . S . A . : E) Paso; Salt Lake City; 1775 Bondway, New York; N . Y . Representatives: Canadion Vickers,'Ltd., Monfreah W. R. Judson, Santiaeio and Lima; The Edward J . Neil Co., Manila, P., I . ; The Ore & CItemicai Corp., e o Broad St., New York 4 , N. Y., for Continental Europe.

12 THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

O U T S T A N D I N G F E A T U R E S O F " N I T R A M O N " S

* M a x i m u m s o f e t y . • W a t e r - r e s i s t a n t

« C h a r g e s e a s i l y c o n t a i n e r s .

a s s e m b l e d . S t u r d y c a n s r e s i s t

• P r o p e r p r i m i n g p r e s s u r e .

a s s u r e d .

* S t r o n g , r i g i d c o l u m n s . • Q u i c k e r l o a d i n g . * S t r o n g , r i g i d c o l u m n s .

Q u i c k e r l o a d i n g .

« L e s s f r i c t i o n . . . l e s s « N o n - h e a d a c h e -

p o l i n g . p r o d u c i n g .

N O W A V A I L A B L E I N T H R E E S I Z E S

Diameter Weight

2 - i n c h 1 I b . o r 4 l b s .

21/2- inch 1 I b . o r 5 l b s .

5 l b s . o r 1 0 l b s .

M a x i m u m E f f i c i e n c y O b t a i n e d

w i t h " N i t r a m o n " S

Seismic party chiefs and shooters enthusiastically

approve D u Pont "Nitramon" S blasting agent.

Why? Because, first of all, it is relatively safe to

handle. It is easy to assemble charges of the re

quired weight . . . easy to load, and these features

enable crew members to keep well up on work

schedules.

"Nitramon" S is supplied in three practical sizes

(diameters) to meet every requirement in reflec

tion shooting. It is also extensively used for re

fraction operations.

Write for illustrated booklet, "How to Use

D u Pont'Nitramon' S and other D u Pont Seismic

Products"... or ask any D u Pont Explosives repre

sentative for complete information about this de

pendable, widely used blasting agent.

E . I . d u P o n t d e N e m o u r s & C o . ( I n c . )

E x p l o s i v e s D e p a r t m e n t

4 4 4 1 7 t h S t r e e t , D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o


TRADE MAHK

A Product of Du Pont Explosives Research

"£6.U.S.PAT, o'f

BETTER THINGS FOR BETTER LIVING . . . THROUGH CHEMISTRY

13

\

"Improving" any machine really means

increasing its productive capacity. That

means tinkering with speeds and weights

and strength—ending up with alloy steels.

Which alloy steel?—the one that meets

physical requirements at the lowest cost.

Molybdenum steels fill that bill. Good

hardenability, plus freedom from temper

brittleness, plus reasonable price enable

them to do it.

Send for our comprehensive 400-page

book, free; " M O L Y B D E N U M : STEELS,

IRONS, A L L O Y S . "

CLIMAX FURHiSHES AUTHORITATIVE ENGINEERING DATA OH MOLYBDENUM APFLICATIOHS

C 2

T H E M i N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

l H S » N S E L E S • liO'ilSTa<i •

PEiiere: (H'lces E t ; j r i \t\\r.i mil Plant

.'BIO SO SDTC STREET. LD3 .1.SG'..^S V. CAUfURNIA

I n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h b e g a n i n 1900 i n G - E l a b o r a t o r y set u p i n b a r n b e h i n d h o m e o f C h a r l e s P . S l e i n m c t z .

When the General Electric Research Laboratory was established in 1900, it was the first industrial laboratory devoted to fundamental research.

At that time E . W. Rice, Jr. , then vice president of General Electric, said:

Although our engineers have always been liberally supplied

with every facility for the development of new and original

designs and improvements of existing standards, it has been

deemed ivise during the past year to establish a laboratory to be

devoted exclusively to original research. It is hoped by this means

that many profitable fields may be discovered.

Many profitable fields wei-e discovered—profitable not only for General Electric but also for industry, the American public, and the world.

A half century ago the industrial experimental laboratory was itself an experiment. This month it begins its second half century with the dedication of a new building, greatly augmenting the facilities it offers to the advancement of man's knowledge.

P N f U M A T i C

A C C E S S O R I E S

R o c k B i t s • T o o l J o i n t s •

C o r e D r i l l s • D r i l l C o l l a r s •

U n i t i z e d B l a d e D r i l l i n g B i t s

* J e t B i t s • R e a m e r s

P N E U M A T I C T O O L S

G r i n d e i s • S a n d o i s •

R o t a r y D r i l l s • R i v » t f i s •

S a n d R a m m e r s • C h i p p e r s

• S c a l i n g T o o l s • I m p a c t

W i r - n c h i - s • S c i f w d i I v o r s •

S u m p P u m p s • P a v i n g

B r e a k e r s • B a c k f i l l T a m p e r s

• T o o l s f o r t h - - s t o m - t i n d i .

A C C E S S O R I E S

M o i l P o i n t s • C h i s e l s •

C o u p l i n g s • V a l v e s • B l o w

G u n s • A i r H o s e • L u b r i

c a t o r s « H o s e N i p p l e s a n d

C l a m p s • L i n e S t r c i i n u r s c i n d

L i n e O i l e r s • H o s o M e n d e r s

You get extra safety, economy and durability

when you use the tools that bear these names.

H O U S T O N 1 , T E X A S

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 ) T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E d O C T O B E R , 1950 17

P r o f e d d i o n a i ' . .

R . L e e S c o t t , ' 4 2 Sales Engineer

Colorado Fuel & Iron Corporation 22i9 Marb+ S+reei Denver, Colo.

R o b e r t M c M i l l a n , '41 Vice President. Geophoto Services

Consulting Geologists

1305 E. & C . Bldq. Denver, Co lo . |

M . H . R o b i n e a u , ' 2 3 410 Boston Building

.Denver Colorado

E d w i n F . W h i t e , ' 3 6 Manager

Denver Machine Shop 1409 Blake Street Denver, Coio.j

R . E . K n i g h t , ' 07 Alliance National Bank

i Alliance Nebraska

Russe l l H . V o l k . ' 2 6 president

Plains Exploration Company

,524 University Bldg. Denver, Colo.

E d w a r d J . B r o o k , ' 2 3 McElroY Ranch Company

Fort Worth

I rwin R . S o l o m o n , ' 1 3 Federated Metals Division

American Smelting 4 Refining C o .

I Whiting l -"^'^"'

M a x W . B a l l , ' 0 6

D o u g l a s B a l l , ' 4 3 Oil and Sas Consultants

1025 Vermont Ave., N.W. , Wash. 5, D. C . l

C o u r t n e y E . C o o k , ' 4 9

5542 Hiv/ay, No. 9

I Corpus Christi Texas

J . N . G r e g o r y , ' 2 3 Seologisi and Mining Engineer

San Angelo National Bank Bldq.

I San Angelo "'"exasl

E . H . S h a n n o n , ' 3 6 jSeophysicai Supervisor, Louisiana Div.|

The Texas Company

New Orleans Louisiana

F l o y d L S t e w a r t , ' 43

The Hanover Oii C o . of California

12828 Junipero St. long Beach, Calif.

These contributors to "Mines" Placement Service assure its success and continuous expansion. It makes it possible for "Mines" M e n to improve their employment by automatically presenting their qualifications to the employer best suited to make

use of their services. Y o u r contribution now may insure your future advancement or that of some other "Mines" M a n who has the ability but not the contacts with the better job. E v e r y "Mines" M a n takes a pride in watching this list grow.

M . T . Honke, J r . , '48 George Baekeland, '22 M a x Schott, Hon . , '40 J . L . Fusselman, '42 H . V . Stewart, '49

G . F . K a u f m a n n , '21 N . J . Christie, '35

H . D . G r a h a m , '48

V . G . G a b r i e l , '31; '33 W i l f r e d Fullerton, '12 M . John Bernstein, '47 H . L . Muench , '40 G . N . Meade , '41 T . N . A l l en , '41

G . W . Schneider, '21

H . J . M c M i c h a e i , '39 Robert M c M i l l a n , '41

E . E . Dav i s , Ex-'29 C . W . Desgrey, '26 F loyd L . Stewart, '43 M . S. Patton, Jr . , '40

D . M . Davis , '25 John Biegel, '39 L . F . Elkins , '40 R. G . F in lay , '39 L . E . Smith, '31

F . C . Bowman, '01 F . F . Fr ick , '08 Frank l in Crane , '43

B . F . Zwick , '29 J . A . M c C a r t y , '35 Hi ldre th Frost, Jr . . '39 H . W . Evans . '49 J . R. M e d a r i s , '49 P . B . Shanklin, '48 M . W . M i l l e r , '49 T . A . Hoy, *49 J . R. Newby, '49 J . P . Bonard i , '21

C . A , Weintz , '27 F . D . K a y , '21

J . C . Andersen, Jr . , '45

T . L . Goudvi s , '40

R. E . Buel l , '41

Danie l H . Dell inger, '31

A . C . H a r d i n g , '37

R. L . Scott, '42

P. W . C r a w f o r d , '22

M . L . Gi lbreath , '33

R. F . Dewey, '43

J . A , K a v e n a u g h , '38

J . G . Johnstone, '48

W m . C . LiefFers, '48

F . E . W o o d a r d , '42

W m . H . Bashor, J r . , '49

T . H . A l l a n , '18

T . F . A d a m s , '29

C . V . W o o d a r d , '44

Otto Herres, '11

E . J . Brook, '23

J . W . Gabelman, '43

J . B . Ferguson, '30

D . W . Butner, '15

A . G . Hoel . Jr . , '40

R. L . M c L a r e n , '32

J . A . D a v i s . '39

C . D . Reese, '43

W . F . Distler, '39

G . W . Mitchei i , '23

N . H . Dona ld , Jr . , '39

Parker L idde l l , '03

G . M . M i n e r , '48 J . B . Larsen, '36 J . A . C lark , '21

H . E . Lawrence, '48 F . W . C . Wenderoth, Ex-'36 V . R , M a r t i n , '41 T . J . Lawson, '36 M a r v i n Yoches, '40

C. C . T o w l e , Jr . , '34 J . N . G r a y , '37

D . W . Reese, '48 S. E . Anderson, '32 Herbert Schlundt, '43

F . E . Johnson, '22 W . E . Norden, '34 P. A . Jennings, '34 W . R. Parks, '38 M a s a m i Hayashi , '48

G . R. Rogers, '48 G . O. A r g a l l , Jr . '35 J . R. M c M i n n , '42 R. M . Frost. '48

R. D . E a k i n , '48 K . B . Hutchinson, '39

W . S. C h i n , '49 K . W . Nickerson. J r . , '48 T . V . Canning , '32

L . O . Green , '32

James Colasanti , '35

W . E . Bush, '41 R. C . Pruess, '42

B . E . Coles, J r . , '49 Finley M a j o r , '47

W . J . M c Q u i n n , '46 R. E . Cheek, '43

G . H . Shefelbine, '35

W . H . Nikola , '41

S. E . Zelenkov, '36 G . H . Fentress, '49

J . L . Bruce, '01

W . L . Falconer, '41

G . P. M a h o o d , '24

J . A . Bowler, '39

W . C . K e n d a l l , Ex-'47

J . C . Smith, Ex-'35

E . L . D u r b i n , '36

W . D . Caton, '35

W . A . Conley, '19

H . H . Christy, '22

F . E . Lewis, '01

E . C . Royer, '40

E . A . Berg , '41

G . A . Smith, '34

H . L . Jacques, '08

S. C . Sandusky, '48

J . W . R. C r a w f o r d , III, '48

O . P. D o l p h , '25

A . M . Keenan, '35

W . H . Breeding, '39

N . S. Whi tmore , '29

R. G . H i l i , '39

L . E . W i l s o n , '27

L . P. Corbin , Jr . , '40

W . J . Rupnik, '29

F . C . A l d r i c h , '48

R. H . Sayre, J r . , '34

R. W . E v a n s , '36

J . D . M o o d y , '40

M . F . Barrus , '43

A . E . Perry , Jr . , '37 E . F . Petersen, Jr . , '37 W . H . Friedhoff, '07

R. R . A l l e n , '40

F . A . Seeton, '47 W . C . Pearson, '39

N . M . Hannon , J r . , '47 M . W . B a i l , '06 M . M . Tong i sh , '43 J . E . Tutt ie , '49 £ . E . Fletcher, '45 R. D . Segur, '41 W . A . Elser, '48

E . S. Rugg , '43 R . L . Bradley , '47 F . Cl inton E d w a r d s , '41 E . D . H y m a n , '48 Niko la i Belaef, '27

G . S. Schonewald, '48 S. J . M a r c u s , '45

A . H . Logan , '38 P. M . Howel l , '38

A . D . Swift , '23 H . D . Campbel l , '42 R . R. B r y a n , '08

R . W . K n a p p . '40 S. H . Hochberger, '48

G . V . Atkinson, '48 Robert Bernstein, '42 C . G . Hayes, '41

I. R. T a y l o r , '48

E . G . Snedaker, '14

R. L . Brown, '44

H . C . Bishop, J r . , '43

G . G . G r i s w o l d , Jr . , '14

V . N . Burnhart , '32

K . E . Bodine, '48

H . F . Hol l iday , '42

R . D . Locke, '44

B . E . Duke, '39

W . D . L o r d , Jr . , '44

Chr i s t ian K u e h n , '41

Douglas B a l l , '43

L . I. Rai l ing , J r . . '47

H . F . Carpenter, '23

R . P . Olsen, '49

E . M . Watts , Ex-'26

L . O . Storm, '40

W . B . Barbour , '37

J . R. Hailock, '49

E . W . Steffenhagen, '41

W . W . Simon, 'IS

R. F . Corbetta, '48

J . H . Vose. Jr . , '39

J . L . Boiles, '49

B . W . Knowies , '08

G . B . H a r l a n , '49

Gene Meyer , '37

G . A . Parks, '06

C . W . Campbel l , '47

J . N . W i l s o n , '42

J . S. Phill ips, '49

A . F . Beck, '25

F . J . Weishaupl , '49

Victor Bychok, '42

C . F . Fogarty, '42

M . M . A y c a r d o , J r . , '41


T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E O O C T O B E R , 1950

4 . A b s o r p t i o n P l o n l n e c r C a n a d i a n b o r d e r i n c l u d e s m a n y p r o v i s i o n s f o r e f f i c i e n i , c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n u n d e r s eve re w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s — t e m p e r a t u r e s to m i n u s 5 0 ° F,

W o r l d ' s l a f g e s l A b s o r p t i o n a n d R e c y t i l n g P l o n t p r o c e s s i n g 500 ,000 ,000 cu . t l o f g a s

per d o y . L o c a t e d on the G u l f C o o s l .

N o mat te r h o w sma l l o r h o w l a r g e a n a t u r a l g a s o l i n e

p l a n t y o u p l a n — o r w h a t o p e r a t i n g or c l ima t i c cond i t i ons a r e

i n v o l v e d — S T E A R N S - R O G E R has p r o v e d a b i 7 / / y to mee t the

p r o b l e m .

E n g i n e e r i n g , D e s i g n , M a n u f a c t u r i n g , C o n s t r u c t i o n : one

source a n d one u n d i v i d e d r e spons ib i l i t y f r o m start to f i n i s h .

A b s o r b e

o p e r o f i r

p r e s s e d lu ojyu p . s . i . g . r o r in|etTion. rionT l o c a t e d i n T e x a s .

T H E S T E A R . N S - R O G E R . M F G . C O. D E N V E R , C O L , O R . A D O

OFFICE, CITY NATIONAL BIDG. • EL PASO OFFICE, RADIO BLDG.

5:

P a n h a n d l e A b s o r p t i o n P l o n t bu i l t f o r e x t r e m e l y l o v Ufe. C o n s t r u c t e d In 1933

1^ ft m.

A b s o r p t i o n P lan t bu i l t m 1929 to process 30 ,000 ,000 s i d , cu . ft G o s C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d A b s o r p t i o n P l a n t — A b s o r b e r s o p e r o i i n g a l 8 0 0 lbs . — r e s i d u e

o w e f g a s per d a y i n n o f l h e r n L o u i s i a n a . gos c o m p r e s s e d to 5500 p . s . i . g . f r o m 1 0 " v a c u u m inlet p ressure , O n T e x a s G u l f C o a s t .

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 19

*"3

- 9 -1

sensifive, direct reading Instrunient nperature compensated magnetic

It is easy to use and you can upon its accuracy.

Also automatic recording unit, 12 hour recording strip. Other instruments available Include horizontal m a g n e t i c force variometers and ouxlllary equlf brating coils. Write for list

i v i s l o n , 48 A d d i n g t o n S q u a r e , L o n d o n , S.E.S, E n g l a n d A g e n f s : The Jarrell-Ash C o . , 1 6 5 Newbury S f r e e i . B o s f o t t , M a s s .

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950 21

Our metallurgists are always looking for new "angles'' that will add to the durability of CF&I forged steel grinding balls—keep them round. CF&I metallurgical engineers like to visit the plants where our products are used to check performance and to develop new ideas.

It is this attention to possible improvement which is back of the continued high quality of CF&I grinding balls. For the past 18 years these balls have maintained a reputation for homogeneity, hardness, toughness, and wearability.

CF&I engineers are at your service on any grinding media

problems. Let's talk it over.

C F & I G R I N D I N G B A L L S a n d R O D S

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 195i

V O L U M E XL O C T O B E R , 1950 N O . 10

R W . M c C A N N E , ASSISTANT T O T H E M A N A G E R O F P R O D U C T I O N , O H I O OIL C O M P A N Y - - _ _ _ _ 24 :

R E C E N T D I S C O V E R Y A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F OIL A N D G A S RESERVES A L O N G T H E E A S T F L A N K O F T H E J U L E S B U R G BASIN - ^ - - 25

By R. W . McCanne

CIT-CON, W O R L D ' S M O S T M O D E R N L U B R I C A N T REFINERY - - - 33 Laice Charles, Louisiana

P H O T O - G E O L O G I C A L STUDY O F T H E " F L A T L A N D S " - - - - - 37 By Frank A . Melton

O N T H E U S E O F G E O P H Y S I C A L T O O L S - - - 49 By L. L. Nettleton

G E O P H Y S I C S G R O W S A T "MINES" - - - - - 53 By John C . HoUister, '33

S U M M A R Y O F T H E G A S A N D OIL POSSIBILITIES O F U T A H - - - 60

By Dorsey Hager and Mendell M . Bell T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F DIRECTIONAL DRILLING - - - - - - 64

By J. B. Murdoch, Jr. P L A T F O R M I N G 69

By Vladimir Haense! N O T E S O N T H E C O N S T R U C T I O N O F G E O L O G I C S C A L E M O D E L S - - 75

By A . N. McDowell, '40 and Travis J. Parker M E T A L L U R G Y IN P E T R O L E U M REFINING - - - - - - - - 80

By Donald A , Craig, '48 N O T E S F R O M T H E P E R M I A N BASIN - - - - - - - - - 86

By W . A . Waldschmidt R E C E N T OIL A N D G A S D E V E L O P M E N T S IN A L B E R T A , C A N A D A - - 87

By Theo. A . Link D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E C R O S S C U T T E R T Y P E R O C K BIT FOR T H E

P E T R O L E U M INDUSTRY 92 By Curtis L. Horn, '48

P H O T O G E O L O G Y IN T H E T E X A S G U L F C O A S T - - - - - - 97 By Louis Desjardins

N E W R E S E A R C H L A B O R A T O R Y O F C O N T I N E N T A L 102 Continental O i l Company, Ponca City, Oklahoma

G E O L O G I C A L CONSIDERATIONS IN E V A L U A T I O N O F RESIDUAL G R A V m E S 104

By V . G . Gabriel , D .Sc , '33 E X P E R I M E N T A T I O N O N U N D E R G R O U N D G A S I F I C A T I O N O F C O A L - 107

By James L. Elder and Hugh G . G r a h a m A M U A Y B A Y REFINERY A N D C R U D E T E R M I N A L - - - - - - 112

Creole Petroleum Corp., A m u a y Bay, Venezuela "MINES" G E O L O G I C A L M U S E U M U S E F U L T O P E T R O L E U M INDUSTRY 116

By J, Harlan Johnson, M . S c , '23 D I A M O N D DRILLING O P E R A T I O N S • 118

By Joseph J. Sanna, 41' S O M E PROBLEMS IN SEISMIC E X P L O R A T I O N IN M E X I C O - - - - 120

By Ben F, Rummerfield, '40

tmentd-

P E R S O N A L N O T E S - - - -T E C H N I C A L M E N W A N T E D -LETTERS -CONTRIBUTORS T O P L A C E

M E N T F U N D FOR 1950 -W I T H T H E M A N U F A C T U R E R S -

O U € f -

10

18 123

P L A N T N E W S 126

C A T A L O G S A N D T R A D E

PUBLICATIONS - - - 127

F R O M T H E L O C A L SECTIONS - 130

B O O K REVIEWS - - - - 133

Feedstock entering Cii-Con's processing system flows first into the vacuum distillation units, pictured here. See description of Cit-Con Refinery, page 33.

FOR ADVERTISERS LISTINGS, SEE P A G E 144

EDITOR A N D P U B L i C A T i O N DIRECTOR FRANK C. BOWMAN, '0!

HERBERT W. HECKT, '36 Assistant Editor.

W. K. SUtyiMERS Production

MARVIN ESTES, '49 Circulafion

A S S O C I A T E EDITORS

WILLIAM M. TRAVER, '16 Mining

CLAUDE L. BARKER, '3i Coal Mining

CEDRIC E, McWHORTER, '24 Non-MetaMics

HOWARD A. STORM, '29 Metallurgy

SiGMUND L. SMITH, '39 Ferrous-MeSallurgy

RUSSELL H. VOLK, '26 Petroleum

ARTHUR W. BUELL, '08 Petroleum

ROBERT M c M i l l a n . '4i Petroleum

BERNARD M. BENCH, '30 Petroleum

LOWELL C. ATCHISON, '25 Chomiatry

J . HARLAN JOHNSON, '23 Geology

DR.. TRUMAN H. KUHN Economic Geology & Mineralogy

HOWARD A, STORM. '29 Manufacture rs

HOWARD A. STORM, '29 Trade Publications ELLA J . COLBURN

News

S E C T I O N EDITORS

B, G . MESSER, '36 LUTHER W. LENNOX, '05 RICHARD M. BRADLEY, '36

CLYDE OSBORH, '33 HERBERT E. RISSER, '37

FRANK M. STEPHENS, JR., '42 LYNN D. ERVIN, "40

JOSEPH R. GILBERT, '42 ROBERT W, EVANS, '36

ARTHUR C. MOST, JR., '38 STANLEY OHLSWAGER, '49 W. BRUCE BARBOUR, '37 M. M. AYCARDO, JR.. '41

C. B. HULL. '09 FRED D. KAY, '21

H. D. THORNTON, MO PHILIP C. DIXON, '31

M. O, HEGGLUND, '41 W. 1, SEDGLEY, ••)0

ROBERT W. JONES, Ex-'37

FRANK S. CRANE, '43 FLOYD M. BELLEAU. '23 WALLACE W. AGEY, '39

LEROY M. OTIS, 'M

'- ^ fi' 'sl Organ ot the Colorado Sctiool of Mines Alumni Association, Inc. Copyright I9B0. Entered as Second Class Matter at the Postoffice at Denver. Coiorado under ihe Act of Congress of March 3. 1B79. Subscription price %AM a êar. Singie copies 50 cents. JI.OO additional charge for foreign subscriptions. Publishedi l''t[^..i"\°/' Colorado School of Mines Alumni Association, Inc. Address all correspondence, including checks, drafts and money orders to Kobert W. Evans, Secretary, 73'1 Cooper Bldg., Denver, Colo, Address all correspondence relating to Mines Magazine to Frank C. Bowman, Editor, 734 Cooper Buildmq, Denver 2, Colorado.

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E m O C T O B E R , 1950 23:

A n a t i v e o f t h e R o c k y

M o u n t a i n a r e a , R . W . M c -

C a n n e r e c e i v e d h i s e a r l y

e d u c a t i o n a t F t . L u p t o n ,

C o l o r a d o , a n d w a s

g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i

v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o i n

1 9 2 9 w i t h a d e g r e e i n

g e o l o g y .

H e f i r s t w o r k e d f o r T h e

O h i o O i l C o m p a n y b e

t w e e n s c h o o l t e r m s d u r

i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 2 8 , w h e n h e a s s i s t e d m

m a p p i n g a r e a s i n t h e R e d D e s e r t , W y o m i n g .

I n 1 9 2 9 - 3 0 h e c o m p l e t e d t w o s e m e s t e r s o f

g r a d u a t e w o r k i n g e o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f C h i c a g o a n d C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y .

M r . M c C a n n e b e g a n h i s c o n t i n u o u s e m

p l o y m e n t w i t h T h e O h i o i n 1 9 3 0 , a s g e o l o

g i s t i n t h e C a s p e r , W y o m i n g , D i v i s i o n . D u r

i n g t h e n e x t 1 5 y e a r s h e g a i n e d v a l u a b l e

R o c k y M o u n t a i n G e o l o g i c a l a n d p r o d u c t i o n

e x p e r i e n c e — y e a r s i n w h i c h T h e O h i o d i s

c o v e r e d M e d i c i n e B o w , d r i l l e d t h e d e e p

s a n d s i n L a n c e C r e e k , R o c k R i v e r a n d E l k

B a s i n a n d d e v e l o p e d p r o d u c t i o n i n L e a

C o u n t y , N e w M e x i c o . H e w a s a d v a n c e d t o

D i v i s i o n G e o l o g i s t i n 1 9 4 5 a n d d i r e c t e d t h e

g e o l o g i c a l w o r k t h a t l e d t o T h e O h i o ' s d i s

c o v e r y o f t h e E m b a r a n d T e n s l e e p p r o d u c -

24

R. W . M c C A N N E

t i o n i n t h e G a r l a n d , H i d d e n D o m e a n d E n o s

C r e e k f i e l d s , a l s o t h e d e e p T e n s l e e p s a n d

P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e H a t f i e l d a n d M e d i c i n e B o w

f i e l d s . H e w a s i n c h a r g e o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l

a n d G e o p h y s i c a l w o r k t h a t r e s u l t e d i n t h e

C o m p a n y ' s r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e l u l e s -

b u r g B a s i n o f N e b r a s k a a n d C o l o r a d o . I n

F e b r u a r y o f 1 9 5 0 , h e w a s m o v e d t o t h e C o m

p a n y ' s G e n e r a l O f f i c e i n F i n d l a y , O h i o , a s

A s s i s t a n t t o t h e M a n a g e r o f P r o d u c t i o n .

W h i l e s t a t i o n e d a t M c F a d d e n , W y o m i n g ,

i n 1 9 3 5 h e m e t a n d m a r r i e d t h e f o r m e r ,

L u c i l l e B j o r k , a n a t i v e o f M i n n e s o t a , w h o

h a d t r a v e l l e d W e s t t o t e a c h s c h o o l a t t h e

c o l o r f u l R o c k R i v e r C a m p — i n t h e l o c a l e

a n d s p i r i t o f O w e n W i s t e r ' s " V i r g i n i a n .

T h e M c C a n n e s h a v e a t e e n - a g e d a u g h t e r ,

M a r y l i n .

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R . 1950

By R O L L A N D W . M c C A N N E *

Findlay, Ohio

Introduction O n Friday, M a y 13, 1949, T h e

Ohio O i l Company encountered saturated oi l sand at the shallow depth of 4401 feet in its M a r y Egging N o . 1 wildcat we l l , located in Sec. 11, T . 15 N . , R. 49 W . , Cheyenne County, Nebraska. T h e successful completion of this w e l l has led to the development of the Gur ley F i e l d ; followed by discovery of the Huntsman, M c -Lernon and Dorman fields in the same county, and the East A r m strong, Mer ino , W a l k e r and Lee fields in Logan and M o r g a n Counties, Colorado. T b e discovery of oil in C h e y e n n e County, Nebraska, is unique in that it marks the first commercial oil production to be found in the Cornhusker State west of the Nemaha granite ridge. It is also the locale of the first oil to be produced from the Cretaceous s^'stem in Nebraska. T h e only other development in the state lies east of the Nemaha granite ridge in the Forest C i t y Basin, where production is obtained f rom the H u n -ton limestone of Siluro-Devonian age.

It also invited a major land, geophysical and exploration play over a large part of that great structural basin lying east of the Rocky M o u n tain Front c a l l e d the Julesburg Basinf named after tbe town of Julesburg located in Sedgwick County, Colorado. T o date the play has resulted in the finding of eight o i l or gas fields extending f rom tbe Gur l ey Fie ld southwestward across Cheyenne County, N e b r a s k a , and Logan County, Colorado, into M o r g a n County, Colorado, for an overall distance of approximately 100 miles ( F i g . 1) . I n other words, it now appears that a new producing province has been found on the east side of the Julesburg Basin far out on the Great

Plains that offers possibilities of becoming of maj or importance. U n doubtedly a number of other fields w i l l be found, so it might be said that just the first chapter of a long and interesting history has been opened. Limits of the Julesburg Basin

Eastern Colorado and adjacent parts of tbe Great Plains, east of the Rocky Mounta in Front , are underlain by a broad structural depression called the Julesburg Basin. T h e out

line of this structural basin is roughly egg-shaped wi th a length, north and south, of about 400 miles, and a maximum width, at the Fort ieth Paral le l , of about 250 miles. Its limits are defined on the east by the Chadron and Las Animas Arches, on the south by the Apishapa U p l i f t , on the west by the Front range and the H a r t v i l l e U p l i f t , and the north by the Black H i l l s . T h e basin is asymmetrical in that the axis of the basin runs very

/"Assistant to Man.iger of Production, Tlie Ohio Oil Company, Fiiidiay. Ohio; formerly, Division Geoloaist of the Casper, Wyoming, Divi.iion, Tlie writer wishes to thank The Ohio Oil Company for making available the information which it has been necessary to obtain Irom its files.

tUSGS Builetln 796B, Geology, and Oil and Gas Prospects of Northeastern Colorado, Kirtley F. Mather, et ai.

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

•V The Mary Egging No. i oii well In Cheyenne County, Nebraska, was The Ohio Oi l Co.'s discovery well, opening up the Nebraska Panhandle to extensive oil and gas exploration. Following fhis discovery, several oil and gas wells were brought in by Ohio in Cheyenne County,

25

^ unt i l 1930 that the next discovery of J o i l was made along the M o r g a n and 4 ^ W e l d County line at Greasewood.

T h i s discovery was significant not for the volume of o i l it produced, but for the fact that it proved the existence of accumulation of o i l on the east, or gentle dipping flank, of the Basin. F r o m 1930 to 1943 numerous wells were dri l led throughout the Basin wi th tbe greatest concentration being on the east side thereof. Petroleum geologists were especially interested in these wells because of the unusually thick petroliferous shale sections en-countered and the thick, excellent

4 reservoir sands of the Dakota and 4 Lakota formations. M a n y ^ times _ it 4 was brought to mind that if folding 1 of suiiicient magnitude could be found ni on the east r im of the Basin the possi-1 bilities of finding commercial oil and

gas reserves would be excellent.

1 I n 1943 tbe Horse Creek F ie ld was ] found in Laramie County, W y o m i n g , i on the mountainward side of the

Basin. O f a l l the seismic work done in the basin Horse Creek was the first seismograph find, and its discovery indicated to the geologist that it was possible to accurately map Cretaceous structure below the thick Ter t ia ry cover that lies like a blanket over a

, large part of the basin. W i t h this in , 1^ mind T h e Ohio O i l Company ini t i -

ated a seismic program in 1943, and ' '" 1 carried it on into 1944. D u r i n g this

' portion of the program, work was started in the vicinity of Rockport in northern W e l d County, Colorado, and carried south past Greeley. It was this work that established a high on

^ the axis of the Julesburg Basin, in tbe ^v ic in i ty of Greeley, separating the two

places of maximum downwarp at

- | Denver and Cheyenne. T h e seismic 4 work was then carried eastward into

- r | Logan and Washington Counties, in """Ithe vicinity of Sterling and A k r o n ,

! Colorado. Fo l lowing this ini t ial phase I of geophysical work T h e Ohio O i l

Company dril led its H a r d i n wildcat

_ wel l , located 12 miles east of Greeley, BEwoNAL coNTouBs ON *ppBOJii«ATELT THE TOP OF FiBST aud thc Tldcwater Associatcd dri l led SANDSTONE (I1«K0T* GROUP P> BELOW THE OREKNHOBN UMISTfc , , ,

PiPEUNEs ' • wells near the M o r g a n and W e l d |Counties line, located approximately

J s i x and 15 miles south of the old iGreasewood F ie ld . These wells were

T H E OHIO OIL COMPANY'S

REGIONAL MAP

OF

J U L E S B U R G B A S I N COVERING PAHTS OF WYOMtNS, eOLOHAOO

NEBRASKA ANO KANSAS

SANDSTONE

• e iL AND SAS FIELDS

R.W.HO CANNE-FiNOLAY.OHlO

AUGUST - I9S0

close to the mountain front, resulting in a steep dipping west flank and a very gentle dipping east flank. Seismic information indicated two points of maximum downwarp, one centered at Denver called the Denver L o w and the other at Cheyenne, W y o m i n g , termed the Cheyenne L o w ( F i g . 1 ) . Brief His lory of Julesburg Basin Development

T h e search for oil and gas has long been going on in tbe Julesburg Basin.

O i i was first discovered in the Basin in 1862, just three years after Colonel Drake made his famous discovery at T i tusv i l l e , Pennsylvania. T h i s first discovery was made on the soutliwest r im of the Basin at Florence, Colorado, located east of the present city of Canon Ci ty . T h e second discovery was also made on the west side of the Basin in 1901 at Boulder, Colorado. In both of these fields oil was found in fractured shale, the accumulations

few interruptions to the present time. T h i s phase carried the work eastward to the vicinity of Imperial, Chase County, Nebraska, and northward through Perkins, Ke i th , D u e l , Cheyenne and into M o r r i l and Garden Counties. Structural conditions most favorable for the accumulation of o i l were encountered in C h e y e n n e County, and tbe first leases were taken in early 1948.

It is interesting to note that during this latter phase of seismic exploration, and up unt i l the discovery of o i l .

T h e Oh io O i l Company worked wi thout competition or interference f rom

other o i l companies or individuals. Current ly there were in the neighbor-

Firs t Dakota sand 4 5 '

12'

5 ' to 30 '

50'

T h i r d Dakota sand - - - 50 ' to 75 '

Second Dakota sand

, . Idrilled through the Dakota and L a -being in stratigraphic rather than i j , ^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ features of small struc-structural traps. It w as not unt i l 19^3 i^^^^ closure, and were nonproductive, that production was found m sands ^Nevertheless, these wells offered en-on AVellmgton, For t Col l ins and Ber- Jcouragement to the prospector because thoud. T h e first two of these a^t i - |of ^ j . ^ ^hick petroliferous shale section clines contained substantial reserves oij(p,gg^^^g ^^^^ ^j^^ ^j^^^^j

oil and gas. foverlying thick reservoir sands of the A f t e r the discovery of the W e l l m g - p a k o t a and Lakota formations,

ton and For t Col l ins fields, most ot | the remaining anticlinal folds on the | T h e second phase of T h e Ohio O i l mountainward side of the Basin werejCompany's seismic exploration started dri l led without success. It was not fin early 1946, and has continued wi th

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 1950

hood of 100 seismic crews working in other parts of the Rocky Moun ta in Region. Thus , in retrospect it might be assumed that the concensus of the remainder of the industry was that the Ohio was "fishing in poor water." Cheyenne County, Nebraska

Regionally, Cheyenne County lies on the east side of the Julesburg Basin, about 80 miles southwest of the Chadron A r c h , which borders the Basin on the east and northeast, and approximately 125 miles east of the Rocky Moun ta in Front ( F i g . 1) .

Structurally the county is f rom 1500 feet to 2000 feet down the regional dip f rom the crest of tbe Chadron A r c h , and this dip continues on to the west and southwest for about another 100 miles unt i l it reaches the axis of the Basin.

T h e surface formations in Cheyenne County are of Ter t i a ry age. T h i s blanket of Ter t i a ry is approximately 1000 feet thick at a maximum. T h e structural attitude of the underlying Cretaceous and older formations is completely masked by the Ter t ia ry . I n fact, the Ter t ia ry dips generally to the east while the underlying beds dip to the west.

Direc t ly underlying the Ter t ia ry is the Pierre shale of Cretaceous age. Approximately 2700 feet of Pierre shale is present in the County. I n descending order the remainder of the Cretaceous formations and their approximate thicknesses are as follows. Niobrara formation - 250' For t Hayes limestone 100' Code l l sand 10'

Upper Benton shale - 175' Greenhorn limestone 2 5 ' Lower Benton shale -- 220' Dakota formation - 200' Fuson shale 150' Lakota formation .-- 220' M o r r i s o n formation 65 '

(present dril led thickness) Information f rom dril led wells to

date has been sufficient to indicate that it is possible to subdivide the Dakota formation into three more or less distinct sand bodies that hold their position and thicknesses fa i r ly w e l l throughout the area. T h e fo l lowing is a subdivision of tbe formation and a listing of the number of fields in which the three sands are productive:

Beds of interfingering sands and shales. Productive of o i l or gas in a l l fields thus far found in Neb., and a l l but one in Colo.

D a r k shale break.

Sand. O f t e n very thin or missing.

D a r k shale break.

M o s t l y sand. Productive of o i l and gas thus far in 3 fields in Neb. and 2 in Colo.

T h e few wells that have thus far dri l led the Lakota formation indicate that it is also possible to correlate individual sands of that formation over a considerable area. F r o m the information now at hand, it is usually possible to subdivide the formation into four s e p a r a t e sand bodies; namely, Firs t , Second, T h i r d and Four th Lakota sands. T h e East A r m strong F ie ld of Logan County, Colorado, is the only field to date in which an encouraging showing of o i l has been found in the Lakota sands.

In order to simplify the identification of the various sands of the Dakota and Lakota formations geologists and scouts have designated the individual sands by letters as fo l lows;

Fi rs t Dakota sand D Second Dakota sand G T h i r d Dakota sand - - - J Fi rs t Lakota sand M Second Lakota sand - O T b i r d Lakota sand R Four th Lakota sand T

T h e writer's reason for designating tbe above formations Dakota, Fuson and Lakota are as fo l lows:

Firs t , because the name Dakota formation has long been assigned to the thick sand body found at the base of tbe L o w e r Benton shale in N e braska and parts of Kansas. T h i s formation was first called Dakota by Meeks and Hayden in 1862 when they described the type section of rocks in the vicinity of the town of Dakota, Dakota County, eastern N e braska.

27

Second, as this eastern Nebraska Dakota formation extends westward it gradually separates into distinct bodies of sand and shale. In western Nebraska these distinct bodies of sand and shale have long been called,_ in descending order, Dakota formation, Fiison shale and Lakota formation. So when the first wells dril led this sequence of formations in Cheyenne County it seemed most convenient to extend these formation names westward.

A t tbe present time it is extremely difficult to correlate these formations on westward across the Basin w i th formations bearing tbe same names on the outcrops of the Rocky Mounta in Front . Such correlations show that the three sands of the Dakota formation gradually iense to shale westward we l l above the formation called Dakota on tbe outcrop, unless the M u d d y sand of the Moun ta in Front is a continuation of one of the sands, which in the writer 's opinion is doubtf u l . Futhermore, the entire Dakota-Lakota section on the outcrop seems to correlate w i th only tlie lower formation, or the Lakota formation, of western Nebraska. I n other words, it now seems that the correlation of these formations is much more accurate eastward than westward. It is realized, of course, that as more wells are dri l led and more inforaiation becomes available this preliminary correlation may be revised.

D r i l l i n g reveals that waters in these Cretaceous sands are saline, w i th total parts per mi l l ion ranging f rom 47,000 to 72,000 in the Dakota sands and f rom 37,000 to 110,000 in the Lakota sand.

So much of tbe section as has been described above is known f rom actual d r i l l ing in the county. T h e remainder of the section may be inferred f rom deep wells. T h e closest wells to the area which dril led the Pre-Cretaceous section are the Sinclair Delatour N o . 1, Sec. 33, T . 19 N . , R . 42 W . , G a r den County, Nebraska, located about 50 miles to the northeast; and T h e Ohio O i l Company's recently completed dry hole, State N o . 1, Sec. 16, T . 10 N . , R . 39 W . , Chase County, located approximately 75 miles to the southeast. Electr ic logs were run on both wells, and the formations below the Lakota as picked by scouts and geologists are as fo l lows:

S i n c l a i r D e e p T e s t

M o r r i s o n 249' Permian 738' Pennsylvanian -- 470'

O p i i o D e e p T e s t

M o r r i s o n 252' Permian - 945 ' Pennsylvanian - 728' Regionally, both of these wells were

28

T/ê O^/o O / / Co.

A/S SjT S£ Sec. 2 . /SM 4 B r / .

located high on the east limb of the Basin, indicating that portions of the Paleozoic sections are missing. T h e

wells suggest a thickening of the older formations to the south and west, or out into the Bas in ; so it is possible that a thicker and an additional deep | section may be present under Chey- ' enne County.

Gurley Field

T h e Oh io O i l Company's seismic survey in 1948 indicated an anomalous area in Cheyenne County which was leased in tbe same year. In early 1949 one of the better anomalies, w i th closure in excess of 100 feet, was chosen for a wildcat test. A rig, wi th d r i l l ing capacity in excess of 7500 feet was employed so that if necessary a l l formations down to the granite could be tested. A c t u a l dr i l l ing operations began on this wildcat, M a r y Egging N o . 1, N E , N E , N E , Sec. 11, T . 15 N . , R . 49 W . , on A p r i l 21, 1949, and i 1155 feet of 13 % inch surface casing was set through the Ter t iary , w e l l into the top of the Pierre shale. D r i l l ing then proceeded at the rapid rate of approximately 500 feet a day, and no trouble was encountered unt i l the bit had about reached the Greenhorn limestone, by which time a heavy filter cake had built up on tbe walls of tbe hole making it difficult to wi thdraw the bit f rom tbe hole. T h i s condition i is s t i l l experienced in some of the wells dri l led in the county.

T h e top of the Fi rs t Dakota sand was found at 4401 feet, and the we l l was dri l led to a total depth of 4429 feet. T h e extremely soft formation prohibited obtaining satisfactory results f rom d r i l l stem tests, so after recovering encouraging shows of o i l in the cores 9 % inch casing was set at 4402 feet, and tbe we l l was swabbed-and finally completed on August 9,; 1949, wi th an init ial production of 225 barrels per day, pumping, of 36 .1° A P I gravity green o i l . T h e newly dis-, covered field was called tbe Gur ley F ie ld , after the town of Gur ley , N e braska, located 4^/2 "li les to the northwest ( F i g . 2 ) . A n analysis of the o i l shows it contains 24/100 of one per cent sulfur, the viscosity at 100° F . is 59 seconds, and it pours down to 60° F . T h e oil contains less than 200 cubic feet of solution gas per barrel, and is undersaturated in tbe reservoir.

Fo l lowing the d r i l l ing of this w e l l a development campaign was begun, and to date a total of ten oi l wells and four dry holes have been dri l led. O f the four dry holes one is used as a salt water injection we l l . N i n e of the wells produce f rom the Fi rs t sand of the Dakota and one f rom the T h i r d sand.

F r o m 5 structural standpoint the field is interesting in that many small faults have been cut by the wells. T h e displacement of the faults range f rom a few feet to in excess of 100 feet.

T h e faults are most numerous in the shale sections above the Dakota. It is known that a few of the larger faults cut the producing section, but as to how much deeper they go it is problematical in that only one w e l l has thus far penetrated the section below the Dakota formation.

Electr ic logs of wells in the field are good, chiefly because of the high salinity of tbe formation water. Salt contents of 110,000 parts per mil l ion have been recorded. T h e self-potential curves are good and the relationship between the normal and lateral curves on the resistivity side of the log clearly indicate the fluid content, or oil-water content, particularly in the thicker sand bodies.

It has been tbe practice to core the producing sands in all wells, and to analyze a l l saturated cores. T h e saturated part of the First sand of the Dakota has a weighted average porosity for individual wells ranging f rom

FIGURE NO. 2

17 to 23 per cent, wi th permeabilities ranging in the oil producing sections f rom 100 to 440 millidarcys. T h e Second and T h i r d sands have equally as good or better sand characteristics, but they contain water, except in one wel l which produces f rom a stray sand stringer at tbe top of the T h i r d sand. Permeabilities in excess of 1000 have been recorded in the T h i r d sand.

T h e dr i l l ing of welis in the field has offered few problems outside of the tendency of the filter cake to build up on the walls of the hole. In order to cope with this condition it has been found that if the size of the hit jet nozzles is increased, which increases the velocity in the annulus, the condition is helped. A s far as actually cutting the hole d r i l l ing in tbe field is ideal. Rate of penetration often exceeds 100 feet per hour, time on bottom, or 50 feet per hour overall. O n l y three to four bits are used to the coring point, and one 15 inch bit w i l l

R . 4 9

ream a half dozen surface holes. T h e current production f rom the

field's ten wells is in the neighborhood of 1000 barrels per day. Huntsman Field

In November, 1949, T h e Ohio O i l Company started a wildcat w e l l on a second structural feature called the Huntsman H i g h , named after a station on the C . B . & Q . Rai lroad situated about 1 % miles north. T h i s we l l , A . L . Cruise N o . 1, N W , S W , S E , Sec. 7, T . 14 N . , R . 49 W . , is situated 8 miles southwest of the G u r ley F ie ld and three miles north of the T o w n of Sidney. T h e structure has more than 100 feet of closure. T h e bit in this w e l l reached the top of the Fi rs t Dakota sand at a depth of 4620 feet, checking tbe seismic work remarkably we l l . T h e Fi rs t Dakota sand was found to be some 48 feet thick, and except toward the bottom was shaley and tight. Fi f teen feet of dark shale separated the Fi rs t and

O h i o O h i o

O h i o

Joe ycff/?^

O h i o

O h i o

10

O h i o

T H E OHIO OIL C O M P A N Y ' S

M A P O F

G U R L E Y F I E L D

CHEYENNE CO., NEBRASKA

AUGUST iS50 O 660' I320'

R.W. MC CANNE seso'

SCALE

• FIRST DAKOTA SAND OIL WELLS

.s THIRD DAKOTA SAND OIL WELLS

O h i o O h i o

O h i o

— — // — -O h i o

O h i o O h i o

14

£ Spssrorr

O h i o

I —

O h i o

O h ; 0

O h i o O b

12

L £

O h i o O h i o

T

15 N .

^/rr73 J SeJ/

O h i o

13

OVi IO

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , l 9 5 0 r H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 29

^ T h e C r u i s e N o 1 w « T h e O h i o O i l C o . ' s d i s c o v e r y gas weli in C h e y e n n e C o u n t y , N e b r a s k a .

Z W e d X - W mi l l ion c u b i c f e e t per d a y . F o l l o w i n g its d i s c o v e r y a d d i t i o n a l gas wells >n

The v i c i n i t y i u s ^ f i e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o m m e r c i a l gas f i e l d to serve S i d n e y a n d o t h e r towns

in the W e s t e r n N e b r a s k a - e a s t e r n W y o m i n g a r e a .

\ ' / / / / / / / i •

J/l Spar*! j M a-jr-Jfîr

Olio \

R, 50 W.

t .

Ginlhcr-Msrrerj iS.Dlhtr. l l l l

U/f spirit

e,nt3!tf Wari n-Ijinlht

WARREN

It - •-

ELD

fV/TJ Pjhf

^ I Cruur

4

SIDNEY

L,ptt HI fri/lii

Second Dakota sands. T h e Second, physical land and explorat on play sand (17 feet thick) tested 2,000j over a large part of the east side of

of sweet gas in the top, fo l J the Julesburg Basin. W . t h i n a few lowed by salt water. Forty-five fee,| months most of the companies not ye of dark shale separated the Secondl represented moved m w , t h the result and T h i r d Dakota sands, f o i l o w e | that an estimated eight to ten mi l l ion by 75 feet of extremely we l l developed! acres of land was soon under lease. T h i r d sand. T h e T h i r d sand on dri l l! T h e number of seismic crews work-stem test produced large volumes ofi ing in the area a ^ mcreased^_ sweet gas throughout w i t h a weighted' T o date the Huntsman l<ield ex-average porosity of 2 1 % and weighted tends northwest-southeast along the average permeability of 567 mi l l i -ax is of tbe structure a distance of darcys D r i l l i n g and coring were con- about four miles, and has an average tinned on through 140 feet of shale wid th of X^k "^'les. O f course, the section called the Fuson shale, fob field is s t i l l in its ini t ial stages of lowed 'by 220 feet of Lakota sand development and tbe limits of produc-found divided into four separate sandj tion are not as yet definitely estab-bodies. T h e Lako ta contained water! lished. T o date T h e Obio O i l Corn-Seven inch casing was then run and pany has completed five excellent gas cemented near the bottom of the hole, wells and two oil wells in the T h i r d and tbe T h i r d Dako ta sand perfor-Dakota sand, as we l l as six producing ated. O n subsequent open flow tests i l o i l wells in the Fi rs t Dakota sand, produced sweet gas through the tubing Deep .Rock O i l Company has also at a rate of 12,000 M C F per day|compIeted one oi l we l l in the T h i r d and tests made wi th a critical flo-v^sand ( F i g . 3 ) . Current production prover through the annulus indicatej f rom the field is about 1200 barrels an open flow of 54,000 M C F per da}|per day.

A n analysis of the gas indicated \ As in the Gur ley F ie ld numerous l iquid content in excess of two gallon|faults are present in the shale section per thousand cubic feet of gas. fabove the First Dakota sand in the

T h e successful completion of tbilHuntsman F ie ld . There is as yet not w e l l on the first day of January, 195{|sufficient information to determine again precipitated another major ged|thc importance of this fault ing wi th

'respect to the accumulation of the oi l and gas.

In order to obtain a market for the :|large reserves of gas f rom this field Ithe Ohio recently entered into nego-ftiations wi th the N o r t h Centra l Gas |Company to purchase the gas. N o r t h |Central is presently piping the town |of Sidney and contemplates the dis-|tribution of gas in Gur ley and Dal ton , f i t also plans to build a 45 mile six and feight inch pipe line north f rom Hunts -fman to Bayard in order to tie the IHuntsman gas into its N o r t h Platte pl iver valley distribution system.

^ In preparation for the sale of this l|gas the Ohio is presently engaged in

C' le construction of a plant at Hunts -^ an that w i l l remove the l iquid hy-Hrocarbons f rom the gas and make it |uitable for commercial consumption, 'McLernon Field

i T h c Ohio O i i Company discovered Commercial quantities of o i l in its third wildcat in Cheyenne County in |he successful completion of its John M , M c L e r n o n N o . 1, N E , N E , N E , pec. 9, T . 14 N . , R , 49 W . , on June 9.

R. 49 W,

T H E OHIO OIL C O M P A N Y ' S

M A P O F

H U N T S M A N , MC L E R N O N AND |950 , ( F i g . 3 ) . T h i s wildcat we l l was

W A R R E N F I E L D S CHEYENNE CO., NEBRASKA

AUGUST 1950 R.W.MC CANNE

SCALE

FIflST DAKOTA SAND OIL WELLS

THIRD DAKOTA SAND

THIRD DAKOTA SAND

FIGURE NO.

OIL WELLS

GAS WELLS

3

[ocated less than two miles directly last of the Hun tman Fie ld and some lour miles northeast of the town of | idney. T h e we l l was completed in jhe Fi rs t Dakota sand for 126 barrels | f o i l per day after plugging back from the top of the M o r r i s o n fo ima-|ion. A l l Lakota sands and the Second Ind T h i r d Dakota sands tested salt

r/?e 0 / 7 / 0 0 / / C 0 .

/ ^ . l . . C r a / s e ^ /

m s r / S £ Sec. 7, /4M 49^'

C/?e£/<s/>/Tff Ca.jA/Gir:

^ / s y & / / o / >

water. T h e second w e l l in the field. M i l l e r N o . 1, located 1320 feet due north was a dry hole. T h e fact that this hole escountered the sands considerably lower s.tructurally than the discovery we l l indicates the presence

30 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , I95[HE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

of either an abnormal dip or fault ing. Recently the Company has completed a diagonal offset, Schwasnick N o . 1, to the discovery we l l as a good producer f rom the First sand. M i l l e r N o . 2, a third wel l , is presently dr i l l ing .

T h e characteristics of the three Dakota sands as to interval, thickness, porosity, permeability, etc., are almost identical wi th the sands in the Huntsman and Gur ley Fields.

Dorman Field

Late in June of this year Ginther , W a r r e n and Ginther, et al , spudded their wildcat wel l , Dorman N o . 1, S W , S E , N E , Sec. 23, T , 14 N . , R . 50 W . T h i s we l l is located about midway between the town of Sidney and the Huntsman Fie ld ( F i g . 3 ) . O n J u l y 5 this w e l l reached the top of the Fi rs t Dakota sand at a depth of 4656 feet, and on a d r i l l stem test f rom 4656 to 4669 feet gauged 3850 M C F of sweet gas per day. Another test f rom 4683 to 4696 feet recovered 2700 feet of clean o i l . Casing was then run, and the we l l completed for 362 barrels of o i l per day,

A 20 acre d r i l l ing pattern was then established, and Dorman N o . 2 was completed for 358 barrels of o i l per day f rom the Fi rs t Dakota sand,

Dorman N o , 3 is s t i l l in the process of completion. T o date it tested gas wi th some oi l in the top of the First Dakota sand, salt water in the Second sand, followed by gas in thc T h i r d Sand.

F r o m the dr i l l ing information now at hand this field seems to be on a separate high and probably not related to the Huntsman F ie ld . In that it is in the ini t ial stages of development considerable d r i l l ing w i l l be necessary to outline the productive area.

Easf Armsfrong Field

Bri t ish - American O i l Company, L t d . , and Plains Explorat ion Company are thc two companies that are jointly credited wi th the extension of the Cheyenne County, Nebraska, play southward into Logan County, Colorado, by the discovery of commercial oil and gas production in their first w e l l in the East Armstrong Area , A f t e r the Ohio's discovery in Cheyenne County in 1949 these two companies did extensive detail seismic work in Logan County. A s a result of this work Segelke N o , 1 wildcat was started in the N E , N W , N E , Sec. 26, T , 11 N . , R . 53 W . , M a r c h 6, 1950, and was completed in the T h i r d Dakota sand, according to scouting information, on June 27, for 54 barrels of o i l and 30 barrels of water per day through perforations f rom 5406 to 5416 feet. T h e Firs t Dakota sand tested fa i r ly large vo l umes of sweet gas throughout. T h e

31

V The Dormar, No . 1 oil well in Cheyenne County, Nebraska was the first to produce m com-me cial quantities, other than those welU developed by The Ohio O i ! C o . The prohfic Dorman U a e covers 960 acres, and is owned by Ginther-Warren-Ginther of Houston Texas. Kmney C o a s t a T o T c o of Denver and L. W . Young of Oklahoma City._On September 25th, four commercial producers had been completed and a fifth well was bemg drilled.

Second Dakota sand was poorly developed, or not present.

T h e Segelke N o . 1 has the distinction of producing the first oil f rom the Lakota sands f rom the east side of the Julesburg Basin. D r i l l stem and production tests recovered substantial quantities of heavy (17 gravity) oil f rom the top of this formation. It has been reported that tbe oil has unusual properties that may make it sell for a premium if commercial quantities are developed.

A f t e r the completion of this w e l l Bri t ish-American and Plains moved a mile and one-half northeast to the N E , S W , N E , of Sec. 11, and dri l led a dry hole. T h e companies are now engaged in dr i l l ing a diagonal 40 acre offset to the northeast of tbe discovery we l l . Merino Field

Ea r ly in 1950 T h e Oh io O i l C o m pany farmed out a block of acreage to Fred Goodstein of Casper, W y o ming, that it had held for a number of years. T h i s acreage is located in tbe extreme southwest corner of Logan County, Colorado, adjacent to

32

the small town of M e r i n o . T h e acreage had been retained because of a seismic survey made in 1945.

T h e discovery we l l . Couch N o . 1, was dri l led by Goodstein and was located in the S E , S E , S E , Sec. 19, T . 6 N . , R . 54 W . It was started on June 10,' and found the Fi rs t Dakota sand f rom 4972 to 5003 feet dry. T h e Second Dakota sand was not present. T b e top of the T b i r d Dakota sand was reached at 5051 feet, and was hard and tight down to 5090 feet. F r o m 5090 to 5120 feet two d r i l l stem tests recovered 2000 feet and 2840 feet of o i l , respectively. I n the second test 810 feet of salt water was also recovered, definitely establishing the oil-water contact. It is interesting to note that the beds assigned to the T h i r d Dakota sand in this w e l l are 127 feet thick.

T h e w e l l was carried on to a depth of 5394 feet, penetrating below the Dakota formation, 78 feet of Fuson shale, followed by 138 feet of Lakota formation. T h e we l l was completed in the T h i r d Dakota sand on August 10 for 245 barrels of o i l per day, cutting

12 to 14% water. Since the successful completion of

this w e l l two additional good oi l wells have been dril led by Goodstein and Obio , and a fourth location has been made'. T h e spacing plan for this field thus far is one w e l l per 40 acres.

Lee Field T h e third discovery made m north

eastern Colorado d u r i n g 1950 is credited to Adams D r i l l i n g Company and Huber Corporation. Ea r ly in the vear they dril led their Lee N o . 1, N E , S W , N E , Sec. 2, T . 2 N . , R_. 57 W . , M o r g a n County, and obtained êncouraging shows of oil in tbe First Dakota sand (called M u d d y sand by operators). A f t e r testing for a considerable length of time this w e l l was abandoned and they moved one-fourth mile southeast to tbe S W , S E , N E , of the same section and started Lee N o . 2 on June 26.

T h i s we l l reached the Fi rs t Dakota sand at a reported depth of 5440 feet, and was dri l led to a total depth of 5478 feet. Casing was run and perforated f rom 5440 to 5452 feet. O a an ini t ial test tbe w e l l is reported to have pumped and flowed at the rate of 414 barrels of o i l per day. Lee No . 1-A was then located as a direct 2_0| acre offset to the south. T h i s we l l i ^ s t i l l in the process of being completed through perforations in the Fi rs t sand. It is reported to have flowed considerable o i l on the init ial test and it is thought it should make as good a well as N o . 2. Undoubtedly additional wells w i l l be dri l led in this field. | Walker Field 1

A t the present time the W a l k e | area is essentially a gas discovery. T h | discoverv wel l , Bri t ish - American'^ Green N o . 1, N W , N E , S E , Sec. 20| T . 9 N . , R . 53 W . , Logan County| Coiorado, tested 3600 M C F of sweej gas in the top of the T h i r d D a k o t | f rom a depth of 4978 feet to 4 9 9 | feet. A second test f rom 5009 to 5 0 1 | feet recovered 322 feet of o i l and ga| cut mud, and 1000 feet of salt water| T h e w e l l was dri l led to a total dept| of 5475 feet, nearly through th | Lakota, and casing set at 5348 feel| T h e casing was then perforated ofl posite saturated streaks in the lowei part of the T h i r d Dakota withou| success. T h e w e l l is presently beinl perforated and tested opposite th | Fi rs t sand. T h e Firs t Dakota sani was hard and tight, and the Secon| sand did not seem to be present. | Big Springs Area

A s this paper is being wri t ten it ii reported that substantial volumes o: gas have been recovered in a wildca we l l being dril led by the Ideal D r i l l ing Company. T h i s w e l l is the Bosle; N o . 2, S W , S E , S W , Sec. 19, T . i :


T h e nation's wheels turn on o i l . Each year brings thousands more

wheels whir r ing in the American industrial scene, with temperatures, pressures and speeds of the engines and machines moving increasingly upward. Therewi th has grown a rising demand for tons more of lubricants— super lubricants for super machines and engines.

Today the nation is consuming more than 140,000 barrels of lubricating oi l daily—more than 50,000',-000 barrels a year. Thus , the cal l f rom American industry has been for more lubricating oil of increaringly improved quality to serve more machinery and better machinery, each succeeding year.

T h e great progress that has been made in high speed machinery has been achieved because the refining industry has been able to develop, through research, increasingly better lubricants.

A striking example of the fruits of research in providing improved lubricants for American industry is found in the important industrial city of Lake Charles, L a . There a highly modern plant stands as two great o i l companies' answer to the nation's demand for superior industrial and automotive lubrication oils, and refined waxes as wel l .

V Lighter grades from vacuum distillation towers go to furfural refining unit, for removal of undesirable constituents

New Planf Result of Modern Research

T b e new and modern unit is the C i t - C o n O i l Corporation's $42,000,-000 lubricating oi l plant, the world's most modern plant for the manufacture of lubricants.

Un l ike most existing oil plants, the C i t - C o n installation has not grown up by the process of adding new sections to supplement old ones. Constructed " f r o m the ground up" and completed just a year ago, the plant benefited by the very latest progress in design and technology.

Continental O i l C o m p a n y and Cities Service Company, taking note of the need for a greater volume of improved lubricating oil , joined efforts in forming the C i t - C o n O i l Corporation for the purpose of building and operating the giant lube plant.

Before the lubricating oi l refinery came into existence, engineers of the two o i l companies drew upon the finest oil refinery construction engineering talents available to design a

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . l 9 5 l T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

completely new plant to produce efficiently a superior type of product. L o n g months of research went into the planning and designing and the ultra-modern refinery is the result, fitting like a giant cog itself into the nation's industrial economy.

Products—Refined Lubricating Oils and Paraffin W a x

T b e big C i t - C o n refinery, located near basic refineries of Continental and Cities Service, f rom which it draws select crude stock daily, produces five high grade lubricating oi l base stocks of 95 or higher viscosity index. These may be blended into a complete range of automotive and industrial lubricating oils. T h e plant also produces fully-refined paraffin wax of the quality used in food packaging and many other industries, as w e l l as soft or amphorous waxes. F u l l y refined wax is an item of growing industrial importance for product purposes. L a c k of it has slowed expansion of such industries as those engaged in the making of milk cartons and frozen food containers. C i t - C o n

33

w i l l produce approximately 70,000,-000 pounds of f u l l y refined wax annually.

A lubricating oii tbat bas been thoroughly solvent-refined and sol-vent-dewaxed is as stable a base for the manufacture of motor or industr ia l oil as modern refining technique can produce, regardless of the quality of the starting crude o i l . Bu t because the nature of the starting crude oi l affects the efficiency of refinery operations, C i t -Con ' s feed stock is taken f rom pre-selccted crudes.

M a n y types of crude oi l produced in Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas are being run at the Continental and Cities S e r v i c e refineries at Lake Charles. A survey determined tbat at least 60,000 barrels of the refineries' daily input are particularly suitable for high grade lubricating oil production. These suitable crudes are run through one of the refineries' topping stills. Here, the raw lubricating oil fraction is separated and pumped into Ci t -Con ' s pipelines, as C i t - C o n feed stock. A t capacity operating level this feed stock volume is 18,000 barrels a day. O n l y one-third of the feed stock is refined into lubricating oi l base stocks and paraffin wax.

•V Residuum stock from the vacuum distillation units goes to the Duo-Sol refining unif. Below are Duo-So! furnaces

WM

I

V Night view of part of the plant

Cit -Con ' s Processing System

One of M.E.K. filters providing solvent dewaxing to obtain dewaxed oil and also to produce crystalline waxes

^Bidone by the f u r f u r a l process. T h ' -ipiant is capable of circulating thirty ftbousand barrels of solvent per day. It is the largest single f u r f u r a l refin-

C i t - Con') ing plant in existence. T h e solvent

in diameter. T h e second M E K unit handles the heavy distillate stock and bright stock. T h i s unit has 10 rotary vacuum filters of the same size as those in the other unit. Both are conventional in design of oil chi l l ing, filtering and solvent recovery equipment.

Dewaxed oils flow next to the clay treatment section for improvement of color and stability by the clay contact process. There are two identical units in this section. One handles the three lightest stocks. T h e other processes the two heavier stocks. A f t e r addition of clay to the oil , heating, agitation and removal of clay by the vacuum filters, the o i l is run through a vacuum stripper to remove any traces of light material or odor. Blotter paper presses remove a l i traces of clay.

Crys+alltne W a x Refined

F i n a l refining of crystalline wax to remove odor and taste, and to i m prove the color, is accomplished by acid treatment followed by percolation through bauxite clay. Because of climatic conditions and the large vo l ume of oil handled in tbe C i t - C o n refinery, specially designed features were built into the storage and loading equipment. Southern Louisiana's

34

Feed Stock entering processing system flows first into thetreating tower is 117 feet high and vacuum distillation units, where it iiUSya feet in diameter. Solvent refin-fractionated into tbe proper cuts fo | ing of tbe vacuum tower residuum solvent refining. Th i s is accomplishefistock to produce bright stock is done in two identical towers, specially ddby thc Duo-Sol process in which pro-signed to achieve close fractionationlpane and a blend of plienol and cre-T h e towers, 119, feet tal l and 13 fee|sylic acid are used to remove un-in diameter, are equipped wîth showe|wanted compounds f rom the o i i . T h i s trays instead of the conventional bublsection has an oi l charging capacity ble trays, except the top tray adiof 9,700 barrels a day, although it is two above tbe feed inlet, which ar|similar in design to existing Duo-Sol of the bubble type. T h i s arrangemenfplants, several improvements in the provides intimate contact betweetjsolvent recovery section reduce oper-descending l iquid, divided into thoii;ating cost. Its seven extractors are 90 sands of small streams, and risini^^<^t loi^g. vapor. T h e resulting close fract!oni|-j.^^ U£K Units tion makes unnessary the re-runninf

of wide vacuum distillation cuts tj Dewaxing of all refined stocks is obtain the desired fractions. Each c^done by a solvent process ut i l iz ing a tbe twin units has a charging capacit;!blend of methyl ethyl ketone, benzol of 12,500 barrels daily. Sidestreariiiand toluol. There are two separate f rom tbe distillation towers flow o | M E K units. One dewaxes the three to f u r f u r a l refining. Residuum stodjlightest distillate stocks. It also simul-goes to the Duo-Sol unit. itaneously recrystallizes wax produced

, , _ c I M -J. ^^^^ dewaxing operation, to remove Furfural and Duo-Sol Unit ;oil and soft wax. Thus wax of the

Succeeding steps in Ci t -Con ' s rl?^^'"'^'^ "'1 content and melting point fining system involve the largest u n i f Produced. T h e recrystallization of their kind ever built. These are t l f Replaces the conventional wax f u r f u r a l plant and the Duo-Sol u n i P l ' : ^ * ' " ! P^^êss used for many years. Solvent refining of tbe distillate cu i i / ^ ' ^ P^^^^ has six rotary vacuum to remove undesirable constituents f^^^'^^' ^^^^^ 20 feet long and 10 feet

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1 9 ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R .

V Crystalline w a x , treated to remove the odor through clay in

1950

and taste and improve color, is percolated units above

3 5

h u m i d i t y posed the threa t of w a t e r

c o n t a m i n a t i o n of f i n i s h e d oi ls t h r o u g h

c o n d e n s a t i o n o f m o i s t u r e in the stor

age tanks . T h i s is a v o i d e d by c o n t i n u

ous i n j e c t i o n of a s t r e a m of p a r t i a l l y

d r i e d a i r in to the top of the tanks

f r o m a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e g e n e r a t e d act i

v a t e d a l u m i n a type d r y e r s . E a c h d r y e r

serves severa l tanks .

Products—Storage—Transportation

S t o r a g e tanks are e q u i p p e d w i t h

ag i ta tors to i n s u r e u n i f o r m i t y of c o n

tents. O i l is t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m storage

to vessels t ied u p at the C i t - C o n docks

o n the C a l c a s i e u R i v e r t h r o u g h e ight-

i n c h l ines t w o mi les l o n g . L a r g e v o l -

umes are h a n d l e d e f f ic ient ly w i t h i n

the close spec i f i ca t ion r e q u i r e m e n t s .

E l e c t r i c p o w e r f o r C i t - C o n is sup

p l i e d b y the genera tors i n the C i t i e s

S e r v i c e r e f i n e r y . S t e a m r e q u i r e m e n t s

are m e t b y three s team boi lers w h i c h

each p r o d u c e 125 ,000 p o u n d s a n h o u r

at 6 5 0 p o u n d s p e r square i n c h pres

sure . W a t e r to meet c o o l i n g needs is

p u m p e d f r o m three deep w e l l s o n the

propert ; ' .

F r o m c r u d e o i l p r o d u c i n g fields to

finished p r o d u c t s l o a d e d a b o a r d

s h i p p i n g vessels, C i t - C o n ' s s t a n d a r d s

a n d spec i f icat ions are g u a r d e d b y

h i g h l y t r a i n e d l a b o r a t o r y specialists.

S a m p l e s are t a k e n r e g u l a r l y f r o m

c r u d e o i l supplies , f r o m the i n t e r m e

d ia te s treams be tween process ing

un i t s , f r o m storage tanks a n d f r o m

l o a d e d sh ipments f o r analys i s i n the

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l re f inery 's w e l l - e q u i p p e d

l a b o r a t o r y . I n a d d i t i o n to the h u n

d r e d s o f r o u t i n e checks m a d e r e g u

l a r l y i n the q u a l i t y c o n t r o l p r o g r a m ,

the l a b o r a t o r y ' s t echnic ians s t u d y

processes i n a c o n t i n u i n g e f fort to i m

p r o v e ef f ic iency a n d the q u a l i t y of the

p r o d u c t s .

T h e s e p r o d u c t s i n c l u d e the five

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l base stocks w h i c h m a y

be b l e n d e d i n t o h u n d r e d s of c o m b i n a

tions, a n d f u l l y r e f i n e d w a x . S o m e o f

the re f inery ' s base stocks arc b l e n d e d

to spec i f i ca t ion at the re f inery , a n d

s h i p p e d r e a d y f o r use. M o s t of the

v o l u m e , h o w e v e r , is sh ipped as base

s tock to b l e n d i n g p lant s c e n t r a l l y

l o c a t e d i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n areas. U n

d e r this prac t i ce the m a r k e t d e m a n d s

m a y be m e t p r o m p t l y f r o m f r e s h

s tocks b l e n d e d to o r d e r as the d e m a n d

occurs .

T h e m a j o r p a r t of C i t - C o n ' s v o l

u m e is s h i p p e d i n barges l o a d e d at the

C a l c a s i e u R i v e r docks . T u g s d e l i v e r

these barges to points o n the M i s s i s

s ipp i a n d o ther r iver s , a n d to G u l f

t e r m i n a l s . O c e a n - g o i n g tankers de

l i v e r C i t - C o n l u b r i c a t i n g oi ls to east

e r n s eaboard t e r m i n a l s . T h e s e h u g e

vessels, m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 feet l o n g , l o a d

at the C a l c a s i e u R i v e r docks , s team

36

By

F R A N K A . M E L T O N *

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h e photo-geo log is t w o r k i n g in

m o u n t a i n o u s t errane o f h i g h re l ie f has

the o p p o r t u n i t y a lmost d a i l y to m a k e

use o f n e a r l y a l l .of the k n o w n tech

niques of photo s tudy . F o r e x a m p l e :

S t e r e o - v i s u a l i z a t i o n of the s tr ike of

o u t c r o p p i n g s t ra ta a n d es t ima

t ion o f the angle of d i p .

U s e of thc w e l l - k n o w n g e o m o r p h i c

mode l s ( o r type s i tuat ions ) i n the

the recogn i t i on of n e w s t r u c t u r a l

anomal ies .

E v a l u a t i o n of the s tr ike a n d d i p of

s trata b y de ta i l ed t r a c i n g o f c o n -

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' M s l I P ~ ' ^ » -'M ^^^^ l ines.

E v a l u a t i o n of thc s igni f icance o f

anomal i e s of r o c k hardness a n d

c o l o r i n the l o c a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ w II ^ ^ S - ' *1 anomal ies .

^ j O t h e r m e t h o d s also m a y be used.

—— •r^',^^^^ *. • I T h e stereoscopic s t u d y a lone m i g h t

, - ^ i take the f o r m o f

I N a k e d eye s tudy of the stereoscopic

^^^^^^^^^^^W'fc^^^^KI ii I i sW ' '^^^m.' m o d e l

I U s e of m a g n i f y i n g p r i s m a t i c stereo-

i _ scopes o f v a r i o u s k i n d s n contact filtration plant dewaxed oil is contacted with clay in further refining to improvf U s e of m i r r o r stereoscopes e i ther

color and stability w t h or w i t h o u t m a g n i f i c a t i o n .

w a t e r or v a p o r , its s e l f - sea l ing prop ^be " A a t - l a n d s " h o w e v e r the

erties its p u r i t y a n d l o w cost. of methods of s t u d y m a n y one

T h e m o d e r n C i t - C o n s p e c i a l i z e ^ ' S t r i c t is apt to be s o m e w h a t re-

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l r e f i n e r y is anothef^'^"'^^^^'b/t^^^^^ of the flatter d ips a n d

p r o d u c t of p e t r o l e u m research a n r ' , ' ? " ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ obscure outcrops ,

e n g i n e e r i n g s k i l l . I t has been m a d g ^ ' ^ ^ ^''^ ^" ôme areas e n t i r e l y miss-

possible because m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r f " ^ '

are b e i n g spent a n n u a l l y o n p e t r o l e u i | G E O M O R P H O L O G Y O F T H E

research a n d is f u r t h e r p r o o f that u n | " F L A T - L A N D S " d e r the A m e r i c a n f r e e enterprise sysl ^

t e r n , u n f e t t e r e d i n d u s t r y c a n a n d w i l l . ^ "^^-J^^-^s is m e a n t those r e l a -

meet the e c o n o m i c needs of the peoplff'^^^J" l o w - l y i n g areas w h i c h are , o f

lôurse, o n l y r e l a t i v e l y flat. T h e ones

f i n d e r discuss ion are o f r e g i o n a l s ize

| i n d are u n d e r l a i n by s e d i m e n t a r y

l o c k s . T h e y consist of the f o l l o w i n g

J i a m g e o m o r p h i c types, c e r t a i n m i n o r

f o r m s b e i n g o m i t t e d :

d o w n the r i v e r a n d across the G u l f

to r o u n d tbe t ip of F l o r i d a o n the ir

route to the eastern seaboard . E i t h e r

b l e n d e d oils or base stocks also m a y

be l o a d e d in to r a i l cars at the r e f i n

ery's l o a d i n g racks .

W a x is sh ipped in 1 0 - p o u n d slabs,

a n d i n b u l k f o r m i n s t e a m - c o i l

e q u i p p e d t a n k cars l o a d e d at the re

finery's racks . T h e m a r k e t d e m a n d

f o r h i g h g r a d e p a r a f f i n w a x of tbe

k i n d p r o d u c e d b y C i t - C o n is e x p a n d

i n g r a p i d l y . T h e p r i n c i p a l reason f o r

this is the e x p a n d i n g use of paper

m i l k conta iners a n d o ther coated

paper p r o d u c t s used i n , p a c k a g i n g

f o o d . It has been es t imated t b a t the

m i l k p a c k a g i n g i n d u s t r y w i l l reach a

p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r i n g a n n u a l l y 150,-

0 0 0 tons of w a x . T b e e x p a n d i n g

f r o z e n f o o d i n d u s t r y also c o n t r i b u t e d

to tbe w a x d e m a n d , a n d it is possible

that the r e q u i r e m e n t s of this i n d u s t r y

e v e n t u a l l y m a y exceed those of m i l k

c o n t a i n e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s . M a n y o ther

appl i ca t ions o f w a x arise because of

its super ior resistance to passage of

s a n d at a depth of 3 2 7 2 to 3 4 8 0 feet.

O F O I L A m G A S

(Continued from page 32)

N . , R . 42 W . , D e u e l C o u n t y , N e

b r a s k a ( F i g . 1 ) . It is l oca ted 5 y | - True depositional plains.

m i l e s west of the t o w n of B i g S p r i n g s | The coastal plains, s u c h as the s u r -

a n d some 4 0 mi les east of S i d n e v . 14 face of the B e a u m o n t f o r m a t i o n

the f a l l of 1949 I d e a l D r i l l i n g C o n i j

p a n y d r i l l e d B o s l e y N o . 1, n e a r l y i

m i l e n o r t h , t o a t o t a l d e p t h of 3 8 8 |

feet t h r o u g h the L a k o t a sand, a n i

a b a n d o n e d it as a d r y ho le . T h e N q |

2 w e l l is r e p o r t e d to have r e c o v e r c l -

the gas in the top of the F i r s t - O ^ ^ ^ ^ t J ^ S S . Zl.^^''T^.,lr''^' (Continued on page 74) f Photographs.

in the coastal p l a i n o f T e x a s a n d

L o u i s i a n a . T h e y m a y be h u n

dreds o f mi les l o n g , b u t are not

thus f a r k n o w n to be m o r e t h a n

a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of this in w i d t h .

mterp rc t a t i on

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1 9 5 ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ' N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T C

The lake plains. O n l y the largest

c o u l d be cons idered in this class.

The till plains. T h e y are of c o n

t i n e n t a l d imens ions , a n d the fine

detai ls of the ir g e o m o r p l r o l o g y

are not thus f a r v e r y w e l l u n d e r

stood.

Terrestrial alluvial plains. O n l y the largest , the " p i e d m o n t p l a i n s " or

" a p r o n s " s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d

here.

Sand dune plains. T h e s e s h o u l d per

haps i n c l u d e the loess p la ins ,

w h i c h t h o u g h w e l l k n o w n are

a p p a r e n t l y r a r e in the u n e r o d e d

stage.

II. The true depositional plateaus.

T h e s e u s u a l l y f a l l in one of the

classes o f depos i t i ona l p l a i n s

g i v e n above, especia l ly the a l l u

v i a l p l a i n . T h e i r g e o m o r p h o l o g y

d i f f er s m a i n l y i n degree r a t h e r

t h a n in k i n d f r o m that of the

p la ins . I n fac t m a n y so-ca l led

plateaus are also k n o w n as p la ins

w h e n seen f r o m a d i f f e r e n t v i e w

p o i n t . T h e " h i g h p l a i n s " of

T e x a s , O k l a h o m a , K a n s a s a n d

eastern C o l o r a d o m i g h t be

t h o u g h t of as f a l l i n g i n this class.

III. The low strata-bench lands.

T h e s e are the r e g i o n a l expanses of

o u t c r o p p i n g , d i p p i n g b e d r o c k

s trata , w h i c h h a v e been deep ly

e r o d e d , perhaps severa l t imes .

T h e O s a g e P l a i n s ( P e r m i a n

a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a n p l a i n s of

K a n s a s , c e n t r a l O k l a h o m a , a n d

n o r t h - c e n t r a l T e x a s ) b e l o n g in

this class. T h e l o w s tra ta -bench

l a n d s do n o t i n c l u d e the t r u n

ca ted b e d r o c k r e g i o n a l surfaces

w h i c h are c o v e r e d by a l l u v i u m ,

b y g l a c i a l t i l l , or b y o ther sedi

ments , a n d w h i c h because of this

cover f a l l in the the class of " t r u e

depos i t iona l p l a i n s " m e n t i o n e d

above.

IV. The high strata-bench lands. S o m e of the plateaus of p o p u l a r

usage b e l o n g i n this class. T h e

C o l o r a d o p la teau of U t a h , A r i

z o n a , C o l o r a d o , a n d N e w M e x

ico p r o b a b l y are best t h o u g h t of

as a c o m p l e x h i g h s tra ta -bench

l a n d , t h o u g h it is, of course , v e r y

d iverse in its g e o m o r p h i c expres

s ion a n d of d i f f e r e n t geo log ic his

t o r y at d i f f e r e n t places. S u c h h i g h

surfaces d i f f e r m a i n l y i n degree,

such as i n a m o u n t of re l ie f , r a t h e r

t h a n in kind f r o m the l o w s t r a t a -

b e n c h lands .

S T R U C T U R A L INTERPRETATION

I. True depositional plains.

T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of s tr ike a n d d i p

of f o r m a t i o n s is o r d i n a r i l y not possible

i n these p la ins , even t h o u g h eros ion

m a y have dissected the recent ly -depos

i ted beds to a not iceable degree . T h c

g e o m o r p h o l o g i s t m u s t use d r a i n a g e

a n d o t h e r smal l - sca le features f o r

w h a t they are w o r t h . T h e d r a i n a g e

m a y be l a r g e l y i n h e r i t e d f r o m thc

t ime w h e n the w a t e r was first reced

i n g f r o m tbe p l a i n sur face , a n d it is

l i k e l y to be v e r y sensit ive to the s m a l l -

scale features of this surface . I f the

base o f the p l a i n is s t r u c t u r a l l y stable

a n d i m m o v a b l e the d r a i n a g e m a y i n

c e r t a i n cases h a v e n o r e l a t i o n s h i p at

a l l to b u r i e d s t r u c t u r a l features . I f

tbe sediments of the p l a i n s u r f a c e are

t h i n , it is possible that the b u r i e d topo

g r a p h i c f ea tures of a n ear l i er cyc le o f

eros ion m a y be d i scern ib le in the v a r i

at ions of thickness a n d poros i ty of the

c o v e r i n g depos i t s ; thus b u r i e d s t r u c

t u r a l anomal i e s m a y be b r o u g h t to

l i g h t to the extent that this t o p o g

r a p h y reflects s t r u c t u r e .

I f the base of the p l a i n cover is a

t e c t o n i c a l l y act ive r e g i o n , such as the

sal t basins of the G u l f C o a s t , one c a n

expect the m i c r o - d r a i n a g e (as seen o n

tbe photos ) a n d m o r e r a r e l y thc m a j o r

d r a i n a g e to s h o w some effects o f this

m o v e m e n t . T h e s e effects are qu i t e

v a r i a b l e f r o m one l o c a l i t y to a n o t h e r ,

a n d it w o u l d be v e r y d i f f i c u l t at pres

ent to c lass i fy t h e m o r to i l l u s t r a t e

t h e m i n the pages of a j o u r n a l . A f e w

years exper ience w i t h these m i c r o -

fea tures w i l l enable the photo -geo lo

gist to i n t e r p r e t t h e m w i t h some c o n

fidence.

It. True depositional plateaus. T h e p r o b l e m s of g e o m o r p h i c in ter

p r e t a t i o n of thc t r u e p lateaus , w h i c h

are not n o t i c e a b l y dissected b y s t r e a m

eros ion , are not suf f i c i ent ly d i f f e r e n t

f r o m those of the t rue p la ins to m e r i t

a d d i t i o n a l d i scuss ion here . W h e r e they

have been deeply e r o d e d , h o w e v e r ,

there is the a d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t o r y pos

s ib i l i t y of r e c o g n i z i n g the s tr ike a n d

d i p of the s t ra ta b y stereoscopic s tudy .

III. The low strata-bench lands.

O f those c o n t i n e n t a l surfaces w h i c h

are u n d e r l a i n b y s e d i m e n t a r y rocks

1950 37

West

i y Figure 2—Tiiree linear profiles along parallel lines one mile apart in the Foraker and Pawhuska quadrangles of northeastern Oklahoma, The higher hilis at the left represent the "Flint Hills" a monadnock of resistant cherty limestones rising above the marked accordance of summit levels extending some thirty miles to the eastward. This summit level is known as the Pawhuska peneplain or "rock plain"; if extends with only slight variation in elevation from southern Iowa into northern Texas, though in the east - west direction it seems to be confined to eastern Okiahoma and Kansas and nearby portions of adjoining states. There may be more than one closely parallel peneplain surface. Peneplains of this type are very common in the low strata-bench lands of the United States, and without doubt are common also throughout the world. Courtesy of Mr. W . E. Ham. Thesis for the M.S. degree In geology.

w Figure 3—Three linear profiles along parallel lines one mile apart near Wewoka Oklahoma. The summit-level accordance, the Pawhuska

peneplain, is slightly lower than in Figure 2 but is as well developed. It truncates the Pennsylvanian bed rock throughout a vast area in Mis

souri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and northern Texas. Courtesy of Mr. W . E. Ham, Thesis for the M.S. degree in geology.

c o „ „ a s . e d to . e t a . o . p h i c and . ive a . p l e P - o f t h . t h e . ^ ^ ^ u u t l ^ ^ J

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T U B b K , ivs 38

to be at tbe end of tbe cycle of erosion that produced it) would undoubtedly in most cases be largely covered by a veneer, perhaps thin, of soil, a l luvium, or wind-blown deposits. See Figures 2 and 3. Those streams that were able to persist through the rejuvenation terminating the cycle of peneplanation would find themselves "superimposed" on tbe dipping bedrock beneath. If the veneer were noticeably thick, the persisting streams would be said to be "superimposed f rom an unconformable cover," A t all events such streams would be forced to erode down into and across gently-dipping rock formations of differing hardness and resistance to erosion.

I f during the process of regional upl i f t and rejuvenation, local uplif ts occur, such as might be caused by faulting, some of the superimposed streams might be trapped flowing across the trend of a long and narrow uplif t , and forced to erode downward into the rising upl i f t . Such a stream might be said to be antecedent to the local upl i f t . It should be kept in mind that such a stream could be antecedent at a particular locality and st i l l owe its existence at that place as compared to some other place to the process of superposition. In other words, the stream could be superimposed first and later antecedent to the localized u p l i f t ; but the reverse could not be tiue—the stream could not be first antecedent and later superimposed at the same place without the occurrence of an intervening cycle of peneplanation and/or deposition. Thus it is conceivable that a certain percentage of the depth of a canyon might be due to antecedency and the balance to su-

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E

perposition.

There seems lit t le reason to doubt that most of the major drainage of the high stratta-bench l a n d s likewise passed through a late cycle of superposition, just as in the case of the low strata-bench lands. T h e proof is not, however, so clear nor so widely known for these higher lands. It is perhaps too early to say that a history of re

gional superposition has been the prevail ing history in the mountain ranges of the wor ld , but there is plenty of evidence suggesting strongly that this may be the case in those ranges which are no longer tectonically very active. Johnson proposed this theory for the Appalachian drainage.•'• L o c a l uplif ts

1 Johnson, D . W, , "Stream Sculpture On the Atlantic Slope," 143 pp., Columbia University

Press, New York, 1931.

•V Figure A—A stereoscopic pair of aerial photographs showing the westward-plunging nose of an anticline in Mesoioic and Carboniferous rocks near Vernal, in northeastern Utah. Note that while some of the streams are well adjusted to structure, others exhibit a lack of adjustment,. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service photographs.

® O C T O B E R , 1950 39

Figure 5 above—A s+ereo-pair of vertical

photographs showing Cretaceous rocks with

steep dip. Note that the streams courses,

though remarkably strike-parallel in some

places, in other places have no relationship

to strike. Near Rangely. Colorado, the adr

justment to structure, though noticeable, is

not perfect. U . S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil

Conservation Service photographs.

should perhaps be more common in

thc mountains than in the flatlands

wi th the result tbat a greater propor

tion of mountain drainage should have

a late history of antecedency in addition to its earlier history of superposi

tion.

T h e laws of geomorphology, especially those controlling the adjustment of streams to structure, _ shown so strikingly in the mountains of the wor ld , are beautifully illustrated also in the high strata-bench lands, and are easily recognized in the low strata-bench lands.

T h e problem of the aero-geologist in the "flat-lands" is largely to interpret the effects which local structural anomalies have bad on a superimposed stream. There is, of course, the "first cycle" drainage that has developed through headward elongation of va l leys—the so-called insegueni drainage of the text books—which, though it is popularly supposed to show no sys-

7<.

. \

tematic influence on the direction of headward elongation or alinement, is actually controlled to a remarkable degree in many cases by such influences as the direction of the prevailing 4 winds of some past time, or the direction of the rock fractures or "joints" in the bed rock. Such first-cycle drainage is usually the smaller and more local valleys or ravines, such as one might f ind on the face of a prominent scarp or mesa where the capping hard layer is underlain by soft, easily-eroded shales.

T h e aero-geologist working in tbe low strata-bench lands w i l l f ind that tbe direction of plunge of an anticline, structural nose, or synclinc is occasionally revealed by streams flowing around the strike of a resistant bed as is seen frequently in the mountains.|

, 1 , • J S - F i a u r e 7—Drawing illustrating a supposed stage in the downward erosion of "folded" mountains similar to the Jura mountains, accord's'Figure 6 below—A portion of photo-indeii|.^ p^^j^ formalized physiographic doctrine. (Modified from O . D. von Engein Geomorphology Chapter 15, sheet No i of Upshur County, Texas, sfiow-tfyjacmillan New York, 1942.) It is probably unnecessary to point out that such adjustment as this {with streams parallel to and directly on ing the location of the Kelsey anticline. The the anticlinal axes) is indeed rare in the flatlands of the world and moreover is not universally found in folded mountains of the _Jura_ type.

curving drainage pattern

of southward plunge. The p

anticlinal axis as interpreted from the ^'^J"-^yj^g^f,^^ ^hese "subsequent" S t r e a m s

age, however, would lie more tow_ard t ! ^ - ^ ^ . ^ ^ . . ^ streams or superimposed

Istreams may not be evident at first.

isey a n T i c i i n e . tnes-fhe anticlinal a x B s / <> m u o o u iqic im .11*1,^,.^.^ w, . . — — • - - - _ • . 1 r L- 1 11

.hows the effects Anticlinal axes may be either topographically high or low depending upon the local e evation relationships of the resistant formations to the snows rne , , ^ erosion. In the flatlands the writer's experience indicates that anticlines are more often relatively high than low. I position ot thtr

would lie more toward thi

northeast than the true axis. U . S. Dept. of

Agriculture, P . M . A . photographs.

i

Both take part in this kind of structural adjustment. Streams crossing the outcrop of tbe more resistant beds in the low strata-bench lands w i l l in many cases tend to cross perpendicular to the strike, just as in the mcÛntains,

ithough perhaps not quite so straight, fin spite of the fact that the "outcrop-^ping" strata may be completely soil-icovered and invisible. There are many mother resemblances between the geomorphology of the low strata-bench [lands and that of the mountains.

There are however, important dif-i f e r e n c e s . T h e bedding of the bedrock as frequently entirely invisible over abroad areas, a situation that occurs êss frequently in the mountains. T h e iaxes of anticlines probably have a |;reater tendency to lie upon high [ground in the low strata-bench lands Ithan in the mountains where the rock

^formations are usually thicker and the « i p s steeper. A t least it has been the i lwr i ter ' s experience that anticlines are ^ n o r e often expressed by locally high Ip round than not. T h i s of course is Knot in harmony wi th the time-honored « e x t b o o k illustrations that show the feeomorphic development of the folded « n o u n t a i n ranges of the Ju ra type. M T h i s older view, which was first dev e l o p e d extensively by W i i i i a m M o r -» i s " Davis, and which is st i l l given a « e r t a i n amount of support by the

avis-Johnson school of geomorpholo-I - --^^ .'jgists^ holds that the anticlines (of a

X , i i I ^ . .

\

S , , " ™ " Engein, "GeomorpholoEy,' York, 1942, Chapter I S .

Macmil lan, New

range such as the Jura , w i th strongly differentiated hard and soft formations and wi th alternating folds) would rapidly be eroded to low ground by streams flowing along the axes of the anticlines, the synclines being left as the local high lands. See Figure 7. Such a sequence of events is of course very far f rom the truth in most cases in the l o w strata-bench lands and probably also in the mountains ; though such a reversal of the more common elevation relationships of structural axes and topographic elevation does exist in certain restricted localities, as is w e l l known. T h e sequence of erosional history in these cases probably involves peneplanation, perhaps several times. A l l of the we l l -known ranges and of course a l l of the high strata-bench lands give every indication of being in at least the second and perhaps in a higher numbered cycle of erosion. Space does not permit a detailed analysis of the geomorphic development of anticlinal ranges, but one may say that if rock formations of unusual resistance are present, their elevation relationship to tbe local base level of erosion is a controll ing factor in the highness or lowness of the ground along the axis. It is more common to find somewhat random, or subsequent strike-following drainage on and near an anticlinal axis than it is to find a stream located parallel to the axis and directly on it. Perhaps the Ju ra or folded-Appalachian type of mountain range should be excepted f rom this generalization;

but even in such mountains the correspondence of drainage lines w i th axes is not what a hoary geological tradition says it is.

S P E C I A L FEATURES E N C O U N T E R E D IN T H E

F L A T L A N D S

T h e fo l lowing special features are of smaller size than the regional features under discussion above, and do not belong in the same category wi th them. These should be mentioned, however, because they frequently are mistaken for some bed rock structural anomaly such as steeply-dipping beds, tbe r im syncline of a sait dome, etc. T h e y occur in a l l parts of the wor ld and in practically a l l of tbe large geomorphic features of regional dimensions discussed above. T h e y may be more of a hindrance to structural exploration in the flat lands than in the mountains because generally speaking tbey are developed over larger areas in the flat lands. Sand Dunes,

Sand dunes are of many kinds^, only a few of which are l ikely to be confused wi th bed rock features. T h e y f a l l naturally into two classes—complex and simple, the former being much the more common. Variable factors such as w i n d direction, depth of sand, irregularity of vegetal growth, etc, are responsible for the rarity of the simple dunes. It is only by first studying simple forms, however, that

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R . l95tTHE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R . 1950

^Melton, Frank A . " A tentative classification of sand dunci, its application to dune history in the southern high plains." Jour. Geol., V o l . X L V I I I , N o . 2, 1940. pp. i l3-14S. This paper contains twenty-five aerial photo reproductions illustrating dunes.

41

one can discern the origin and history of the surfaces of complex form. F o l lowing is a basic classification of simple dunes which is at the same time genetic and naturalistic. It is based on tbe assumption that the sand-moving w i n d blows wi th unvarying direction. J . Bare Surfaces on Loose Sand.

I. T h e barcan dune. A n isolated bare-sand h i l l on a non-sandy base. It is a migrating dune of crescent form, tbe wings pointing wi th the wind .

I I . T h e transverse d u n e series. Formed on bare, loose sand of "unl imi ted" surface area and "unl imi ted" depth. IVligrating parallel sand "waves" or ridges, tbe long dimension being across the w i n d direction.

I I I . T h e isolated transverse dune ridge. It is formed (frequently wi th human aid) f rom bare, loose sand of "unl imi ted" surface area but of shallow depth, c.f. Certain parts of the "dust bowl" during 1934 to 1938.

I V . Lee Dunes.

1. Wind-shadow dunes. Formed f rom a continuing (unlimited) sand supply in tbe lee of a bed rock obstacle. T h e best examples in tbe Uni ted States a r e tbe extremely elongate straight dune ridges extending northeastward ( l e e w a r d ) f rom and behind the promontories at the west face of the Moencopi Plateau in northeastern Ar i zona . T h e y have long been known as longitudinal dunes. T h e y do not migrate to any noticeable extent, except as they change their length. Smal l w i n d - shadow dunes may form behind clumps of vegetation.

2. Source-bordering lee dunes. Formed f rom a continuing (unlimited) sand supply, leeward f rom a source of sand of limited area, such as a stream fioodplain, a beach, etc. These dunes may become a

' ( • • ' f f

hundred feet or m o r e u| height, hundreds of feet wide, and miles in length beaches f a c i n g th Ocean in temperate T b e y are usually of to the lee of floodplai continental interior. ,j

. Formed by wind in conflict wtt^ growing vegetation. *

I. Shrub-coppice d u n e clusteT| Formed in, and to leeward f rom bunch or clump vegetation sue as mesquite bush on an unlimite and smooth surface of very shal low sand. These dunes are r o u n | or oval, are seldom more tha | ten feet high or more than on| hundred feet across. T h e y exisl in great numbers in certain ari^ plains. T h e y migrate very slowlyj

I I . (a) B l o w o u t or paraboli^ dunes. Formed by gentle or mod| erately effective winds on do ^ sand wi th a shrub or grass-coj ered surface. These occur j | countless numbers both as activ| dunes and as dunes anchored b | vegetation. M o s t of them are l e | than three hundred feet acro^ and are called "spot blowouts. | T h e larger ones may be cresceni shaped wi th w i n g s pointinj

— ^ . Figure 9 — A vertical ptiotograph showing long relatively straight dune ridges which are

against the wind . They do no| partially obs ' ' • •• - - > . : i L . . . „ . i . „ ki„... m^vT.„ <;„.i, .u^^. , f^^rtiaily oDscured by vegetation and weathering in northwestern New Mexico, buch ridges, migrate noticeably, except as m^ where sufficiently obscure may be confused with the outcrop of dipping strata Photograph grf t ion is incidental to tbeil by Fairchild Aerial Surveys for the Soil Conservation Service of the U . S. Dept. of Agriculture.

growth and decay. ^ ^.^^ of bare sand are a combina-(b) Elongate-blowout and wmi, . ^ , , u r .t, t, d r i f t dunes. Formed by stronl t - n of forms resemblmg the barcan, winds or else by strongly-effe^ the transverse ridge, and sand peaks tive winds, on deep sand wdt| and basins. O n deep sand wi th a shrub shrub or grass-covered s u T f a c | or grass vegetal cover, the complex These are hairpin-shaped ridge| dunes consist largely of blowouts of of grass-covered sand opening t 6 | various sizes, shapes and ages, ward the wind ; occasionally the|

resemble a chevron Where t | photo-geomorpbologist looking hairpin or chevron has been cui ^ ^ r • • i

1 „ „.;„A c ^ ™ , t - t-H iov structural anomalies m the aenai in two ridges by wind scour, t!i| r , -name " w i n d r i f t " is used. Theif photographs, may be confused m cer-migration is probably confined t| tain places by the longitudinal dunes the period of growth. These a | and by certain extreme developments not being formed to any impof| of the windr i f t dune. Where these tant extent today anywhere i | are in process of formation today or the wor ld outside of the A r c t i | where tbey have been only lately so far as yet known; though orj formed and st i i l remain largely un-s h o u i d maintain reservatioij gj-Q^îj^^j^ ^êy w i l l not confuse any com-about portions of As i a and A u j ^^^^^^ geomorphologist. Bu t where tralia which are not yet_ wel | ^^^^^^ extremely elongate forms have known to geologists. Yet m l a | . 7 .

C;, . ^ 1 - D . „^ ^;nl been largely obscured by weathering Pleistocene or early Recent tii% & > & they formed in considerable n u i | ^ - ^ o s i o n , or where they may have bers in the southern H i g h P l a i l advanced over rough country, as m and perhaps also in the Nebrasl portions of Ar izona , N e w M e x i c o sand b i l l region. and southern Utah , remnants of these

C o m p l e x dune forms mav 1 '^"'^^ ^'^^^ <ônhis^d w i th thought of as a combination of t | outcropping, steeply-dipping bedrock, simple forms just mentioned, w i th t l Confusion of this type may be re-exception of a few forms, the discil solved by newer photography made at sion of wdiich space w i l l not permi a larger scale or made f rom a lower In the main, the complex dunes on altitude.

Flood plains."* There are two main classes of flood-

plain streams and of floodplains, those which do only one type of geological work when they are in flood—and

which hence have a relatively simple floodplain—ând those which have two kinds of floods and which consequently do two kinds of geological work. T h e former are called sitigle-crest streams and tbe latter are called double-crest streams. T h e features of floodplains are so we l l known that tbey w i l l not be discussed in detail here.

W h y is it important for the geomorphologist working w i t h aerial photos to know about floodplain features? Almost any geologist w i l l recognize an uneroded floodplain of recent origin, regardless of the type of floodplain. Remnants of floodplains or terraces remaining after considerable erosion bas taken place, or after some other geological process has obscured them, are not so easily recognized and occasionally have been interpreted as local structural anomalies. Fo r example the giant oxbows of ancient origin in the lower Mississippi flood-plain may in places be confused wi th r im ssmclines of the sait domes; they are much the same order of size. L i k e wise, the relatively straight scarps found at the margins of many flood-plains in the mountainous regions have on occasion been interpreted as fault scarps, even though their origin was due merely to the down-valley migration of meander-loops which thus trimmed the valley walls to a straight line.

^ I d t o n , Frank A , " A n empirical ciasslficatioo o[ floodplain streams." The Geographical Review, Vol . X X V I , No. 4, October, 1936, pp. S93-609. Eleven pktcs illustrating floodplains.

%-Fiqure 8—A stereo pair of photos showing a combination of barcan dunes and transverse dune series, near Jericho in Juab County. Utah. U . S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service,

photographs, j

.„ T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E « O C T O B E R , 191 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E @ O C T O B E R , 1950

V Figure 10—Vertical photograph of the North Fork of Red River in southwestern Oklahoma,

The meandering activity of the low-water-channel was more prominent in the past than it is

today.

43

t inction" for the stereoscopicj image and for the appearance off tlie pseudo-stereoscopic image.

photography.

prints w i l l be asymmetrical because of the perspective or obliquity at the margin.

Figure 13 illustrates the sequence of changes in stereoscopic and non-stereoscopic, though binocular, vision of this ideal stereo-pair, as each print of the pair is rotated toward the right retaining binocular stereoscopic vision wi th suitable stereoscopic instruments. T h e fo l lowing table w i l l clarify the diagrams; it represents al l the possible positions in which a stereo-pair may be held for stereo-vision.* _

a. Relative position of the ideal stereo-pair for stereoscopic vision wi th normal relief. T b i s is the correct position for stereoscopic work, but not the only position.

b. T h e stereoscopic image begins to disappear for most observers between 30° and 60° of rotation toward the right or left .

c. W i t h 90' ' rotation the stereoscopic image cannot be seen but a "pseudo-stereoscopic" image is clear and distinct. I n other words a clear picture is visible but there is no stereoscopic relief. T h i s is one of two positions of "extinction" for tbe stereoscopic image. See diagam " g " for tbe otiier position.

See diagram position.

for tbe other

h. T h e stereoscopic image wi th normal relief begins to reappear for| most observers between 30° a n | 60° to the lef t of the starting position. T h i s is 315° ( ± 1 5 ° | of rotation toward the right a n i 45° ( ± 1 5 ° ) of rotation toward! tbe lef t of the starting point.

i . T h e starting position. See dh-

gâm "a . " . r

"Dis tor t ing the perspective ot g stereo-pair, by rotating both photos far toward the lef t and toward thf right, does not noticeably distort tiif stereoscopic model. Nevertheless, foi reasons of uni form and rapid handling of photos as w e l l as easy perception oi the stereoscopic image, the customarj orientation of aerial photos is best.

P A R A L L E L V I S I O N , C R O S S E D

V I S I O N , A N D

REVERSED RELIEF

If two overlapping aerial photo are held in their correct position wif! respect to one another and yiewe( stereoscopically, w i th tbe line of fligh

' Melton, op. cit. p 1759.

46

I. W i t h further rotation to 135° f rom the s t a r t i n g position, ( ± 1 5 ° ) a stereoscopic model begins to appear in reverse relief. T h i s is one of the l imi t ing positions for stereoscopic vision wi th reversed relief. T h e other l i m i t is tbe position 225° ( ± 1 5 ° ) . See diagram " f . "

e. T h e rotation is 180° . T h i s is the optimum position for stereoscopic vision wi th reversed relief. It is the direct opposite, both in orientation and perception, of the correct position for stereoscopic vision wi th normal relief shown in diagram "a" . Reverse relief is as easily seen by an experienced observer as normal relief; it is, in fact, on rare occasions useful to the geologist.

f. W i t h further rotation to 225° f rom tbe s t a r t i n g position, ( ± 1 5 ° ) stereoscopic vision wi th reversed relief begins to disappear. T h i s is one of the l imi t ing positions for stereo-vision wi th reversed relief. T h e other l imit is the position 135° ( ± l 5 ° ) . See diagram " d . "

g. T h e rotation is 2 7 0 ° . T h i s is one of tbe two positions of "ex-

T H E M I N E S

steeoness. H , the photos are cross& , • , 'the one that was on the right bein bold the photographs in the position now on the lef t side, and if tbey arindicated by (c) and (g) in Figure viewed stereoscopically, say with t3 . One would see a clear photograph mirror stereoscope, the relief w i l l ar '" most cases but the re lef would not 3 L distinct as before only it wit^^^ visible. It would not be stereoscopic be in reverse wi th tbe valleys appeml,'^^" but pseudo-stereoscopic viswnJ ing as ridges, (c.f. Figure 13, e)? ^ i"'-<=. to recognize it for what it is There may be times when this t y r f g ^ t introduce errors into the geo-of S r e o v i s i o n is useful for the geilog'^'-l map. morphoiogist, especially during the u l i lUipi>'- ' i ' - '&""-! ' -• " .

terpretation of faulty photographs.

If one takes the crossed photos frot tbe mirror stereoscope and views the! w i at

P A R A L L E L VISION A N D

N O R M A L STEREO RELIEF

T h e fo lk le mirror stereoscope and views the! T h e fol lowing points cannot easily ith crossed eyes, holding the photê illustrated in a journal article be- 1'"

at arms length, the normal relief cause of the loss of detail in half tone once more visible. If one puts t^ r in t i ng . T h e reader with access to . {' photos once more in their correct i ^ n y representative f i l e of aerial photo-ative position wi th respect to ea^raphs however, w i l l be able to find other and st i l l views them wi|uitable illustrations without trouble, crossed vision, the relief w i l l ow more appear to be reversed. Aeri iNafced - eye stereovision (parallel photographs and stereoscopes beliand wi th normal relief) has certain what t h e y are, ( o f varying degreadvantages as we l l as disadvantages, of excellence and of varied desigfn certain types o f large-scale or there w i l l be times when the stude|:oarse-textured terrane of high relief of aerial photos w i l l find these variifbere may be less apparent distortion techniques useful. f f the dip of gently sloping beds t h a n

Tn examining aerial p h o t O g r a p ^"Tsendoscoplc" vision is a term that many have m exauiuiiife r n - ^ ^ - n h n ^ ' - ' ^ "''"""^ ""^se described above. The

f rom different lines ot Hlgllt, or pno^nter does not believe that "pseudoscopic- is a U r ^ - ^ o n i n ^ l p r d i f f indt flvina: C(a''''P ''. "'^•n^. ITe does leei, however, that

graphs made under mracuir u j ^ ^ ^ ^^ j ^^ psn,Jo,ur,oscopir \n

ditions, one must be carefui not :h<= is=ge r,vce, above.

M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , l 9 f H E MINES M A G A Z I N E © O C T O B E R , 1950

when magnifying prismatic lens stereoscopes are used. T h i s is probably due largely to the prism in the lenses, though the spiiencal correction (the magnification) may have something to do wi th it also, as does the distance f rom tbe eye to the pictures under observation. In most areas however, naked-eye vision is not adequate because not enough of the geomorphic detail can be seen to evaluate it prop-erly. Fo r example in most terrane of ordinary relief it w i l l usually be possible to form a more accurate visual estimate of the position of the local base level of stream erosion with magn i fy ing stereoscopes than wi th the naked eye because wi th magnification one can better see the stream channels. T h u s magnification may outweigh the disturbing effects of the prismatic component of the lenses.

O n the other hand the disadvantages of the small folding magnifying and prismatic stereoscopes in wide use i n c l u d e the uncomfortable and cramped position the operator must assume—a disadvantage when it must be maintained for long periods of time. Likewise it is occasionally a dis-

v Figure 16—Êxperimental stereo pair of aerial photos mounted in the correct position for normal stereoscopic relief. The location is the Green River desert of southern Utah. Strongly parallel sand dune ridges show the effects of the prevailing southwesterly wind. The butte may owe its presence in part to volcanic intrusion. U . S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service photography. (Photo below).

(.. •. ..

4 7

advantage to be able to see only a small portion of tbe stereo-image at one t ime; thougb, if the photographic image is sufficiently fine-grained to stand magnification, the use of a magnifying stereoscope may have a compensating advantage.

M i r r o r stereoscopes have an advantage when tbe observer is looking especially at the outcrop of thick formations or when he is interested in other large-featured aspects of the geomorphology tbat are also easily seen. M i r r o r stereoscopes whether si l vered on the front or back sides have the disadvantage of placing the observer at a considerable distance f rom the photos; they thus obscure considerable detail. T h e y eliminate distortions inherent in magnifying prismatic lenses, but do not eliminate the distortions inherent in the f i lm, in the prints and in the human eye. I n addition tbe mirror surfaces are occasionally uneven, thus introducing their own type

of error. . So much bas been writ ten about

stereoscopes that it seems fit t ing for the writer to present the results of his experience wi th their geological use in the form of a tabie.^"

a. T h e geologist w i l l want magnification in his stereoscopes, wi th in tbe l imi t set by the size of grain in the pictures. It is true that in certain geological terrane, the formations and the structures are of such dimensions that they are clearly visible to the naked eye; yet in nearly every case certain important details w i l l _ be visible only wi th magnification.

b. T h e geologist w i l l need lenses of the highest quality. Since he w i l l spend much of bis time searching the photos for geological features near the l imi t of visibility, even the slightest irregularities and imperfections w i l l introduce relatively great distortions. So far as the wri ter has been able to learn, lenses of high quality are not in common use.

c. T b e geologist w i l l want bright i l luminat ion; and, during much of his study, w i l l want to view the photos as close to tbe eye as is possible, consistent w i th clear vision. T h c reasons for these conclusions are thc same as those supporting the foregoing statement ("a") about magnification.

d. T h e geologist w i l l need a stereoscopic-aid which is adjustable, or which has interchangeable lenses to compensate in part for the varying wid th of overlap found in existing aerial photographs and for other irregularities.

'"Melton, op. cit., p. 1761.

48

e. T h e geologist must have stereoscopes tbat can be used for many hours daily without undue physical or ocular strain. Stereoscopic spectacles remove much physical strain, such as that caused by prolonged.bending over a table; but tbey may introduce certain distortions if the lens mount is flexible.

It seems clear that stereoscopes designed for geological use have not yet been developed. Some of the existing magnifying stereoscopes are not of sufficiently high quality and many are not adjustable for varying ocular wid th . T h e available mirror stereoscopes place the observer too far f rom tbe photos and do not permit adequate i l lumination.

C A U S E S O F S T E R E O - I M A G E DISTORTION

In the writer 's opinion tbe fol lowing factors affect and distort the stereoscopic image. T h e y are arranged in a loose "order of importance based on the writer 's own estimate of the degree a horizontal surface would be deranged by tbe distortion. T h a t others w i l l want to change tbe order is uri-derstandable, since the human eye is a varying instrument from_ person to person and f rom time to time in the same person, and also since the stereoscopic image is itself an optical illusion seen wi th varying degree of clearness and intensity by tbe same person under different conditions of i l lumination and fatigue.

1. Focal length of the camera lens. T h e longer focal lengths give a truer and less distorted stereoscopic image than the shorter ones, other qualities being equal. Perhaps w i t h the theoretical ideal lenses this should not be so; but wi th the lenses that have been used thus far this statement can hardly be questioned.

2. T h e use of cameras tbat take the total visual field of view of the lens. Regardless of the type of lens the marginal portions are likely to be inferior. T h e n too when this factor is combined wi th short focus lenses as has been done, the marginal portions of the stereo-image w i l l be greatly distorted. Al so the shape of the usable portion of the photos is circular and of small size—and is not convenient for geological work. Fo r the study of gross drainage or for the production of base maps of hitherto unmapped terrane such photographs may be satisfactory; but for close geological study in the fiat lands of the wor ld they are nearly useless.

T H E M I N

3. Differences in the altitude of thf plane when making successivf overlapping photographs — i.e, differences in scale of overlap ping photographs. T h i s results k a pronounced t i l t of the stere& scopic image, thus introducing slopes that do not exist on ths ground.

4. Lens imperfections. These are bi no means as common as the; were a few years ago, but im perfect lenses are st i l l occasionally used. T h e y may introduci stereo-slopes that are unreal.

5. Unequal shrinkage or expansiot ' of the film and/or paper. T h i

accounts for much distortioi near tbe margin of tbe phot& and more rarely for large distot tions near the center.

6. T i p p i n g or t i l t ing of tbe stereo image caused by failure to viev it directly perpendicular to tb photographs. T h i s introduce stereo-slopes that do not exist.

7. T i l t of the plane and the camei-at thc time of making the phote graph. T h i s is not such a grea source of stereo-distortion a many believe though it is source of error.

There are other causes of distortia of the stereoscopic image that are moi uncertain and variable in their effect! Fo r example the wri ter has long suS pected tbat there may be such a thin as a "c l i f f effect" which is sometime-though not always, noticeable in larg cliffs at the edge of mesas and pk teaus, whereby tbe supporting strat are made to appear to dip toward t l mesa or to dip more steeply than th( really do. It would be instructive 1 have thc opinion of others as f whether they have or have not set such an "effect."

Stereoscopic vision depends to a ce' tain extent on the recognition or pc-ception of detail. Stereo-pairs of aerii photos have occasionally been maf of heavily wooded areas wi th a l l i=-lationships normal except that or photo was made in the forenoon aj the other in the afternoon. TIi caused the tree shadows in the stere-pair to f a l l in two directions, neat perpendicular to each other. I n suf a stereo-pair, it may be impossible resolve the topography into a stere scopic model, even though the percei of overlap may be normal, t i l t ar "crab" may be absent, and evf though tbe scale of the two photos mi be the same. Unless the hi l l - form large and striking, it may be obscutt by the divergent tree shadows."

"Mel ton , F . A . , op, cit., p. 17S7-S8.


ES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 19!

L. L Nettleton*

Prologue

T h i s paper is not intended for geophysicists. A n y geophysicists wbo read it may wonder why the old and presumably we l l known principles of the several geophysical methods need fur ther telling. T h e excuse for the paper is to answer questions which have been put to tbe wri ter by several geologists. It seems that tbe geophysists have been prone to forget that the fundamentals of their science are not simple and not alwa3's understood. T h i s discussion is offered, therefore, primarily to those geologists who have had geophysics more or less thrust upon them. It may help in c lar i fying the fundamentals, in separating fact f rom opinion and in appreciating the uti l i ty as w e l l as the limitations of the exploration tools which the geophysicist bas to offer.

Early Geophysical Exploration

It is now 25 years'since geophysical methods were 'first used to help find o i l . T h e instruments and methods were developed largely by men trained in physics and with little appreciation of geology. T h e first bri l l iantly successful applications of the methods were in the salt dome areas of the G u l f Coast where tbe geological situation was simple and was a "natural" for the refraction seismograph and torsion balance methods. In spite of the aura of mj'stery which surrounded the very early geophysical operations, the relation of salt domes to fast arrivals on refraction seismograph records or to a circular pattern of gravity gradients was easily u n d e r s t o o d . Thus , the geophysicists had no trouble in selling their wares to oi l company geologists and executives, who readily-accepted these relatively simple and definite geophysical indications of salt domes as very useful tools for finding salt dome oil fields.

In a very few years the situations so easily shown by tbe refraction seis-

Gravity Meter EYplotation Co. , Hon.ston, Tesas

mograph and torsion balance began to be exhausted and new and sharper tools were needed. T h e geophysicists came up wi th the reflection seismograph which had its first success in Oklahoma where conditions were very favorable. Here again the principles were simple, the relation of shorter reflection times to structural highs was easily understood, and the geologist accepted the new tool as another very useful addition to his kit.

D u r i n g this development there had been relatively lit t le cooperation between tbe toolmakers and the users. T h e toolmakers were physicists, mathematicians, and electrical engineers who talked of warped potential surfaces, elastic wave trajectories, and of electronic amplifiers, filters, transducers and t iming systems. T h e users were geologists who talked of anticlines and synclines, counter-regional dip, V i o l a and Arbuckle , Heterosteg-ina, and Discorbis, Pliocene and Paleozoic, facies changes and a great host of words strange to the early geophysicists in whom the "geo" was a small part of this new borderline profession. T h e marriage of the two professions was an incompatible one and the offspring, in the person of a really competent geophysicist, in a l l that such a combined name implies, was s t i l l a stranger to both parents.

The Need for Sharper Tools

A s tbe search for o i l has spread into more difficult and more remote areas, the limitations of the tools have become more apparent and the problems of the users have become more difficult. In the efforts to m a k e sharper tools to cut into harder situations the geophysicists have had to strengthen the "geo" part of their background. In the applications, the geologists have had to learn more* and more of the limitations of each of4he very few available geophysical' tools and to use them in the places and in the order in which tbey can best lead to new oil at minimum cost and time.

There has been a great demand for new tools, using new principles. T h i s demand has long been recognized by the toolmakers, but no new principles have been applied. T h e tools of today are st i l l magnetics, gravity and seismograph, a l l of which were used 25 years ago. T b e y are sharper in many wa^'s, they are better understood, but the inherent limitations of the basic physical phenomena on which tbey depend are and w i l l be with us. N o one can safely exclude the possibility that basically new methods w i l l be developed, but 25 years of extensive effort wi th great rewards for success have failed to produce a new tool. T h i s makes


one doubtful that a radically new method w i l l be produced. There remains, however, the very definite possibility that increased understanding of the old methods and their use in combination wi th each other and wi th other pieces of information can lead to the successful solution of difficult exploration problems.

T h e results of geophysical surves's are physical facts. W e may not understand them and they may not fit our ideas but nevertheless, thej' are facts. T h e y are caused by some unknown situation below the earth's surface. T h e y may w e l l be thought of as clues in a "whodunit" mystery story. W i t h one clue there may be many possible "suspects" or subsurface situations which w i l l fit tbe facts. W h e n another clue, e.g. a survey by another method, is turned up, the number of subsurface situations consistent wi th both clues is narrowed. T h e addition of geological information f rom surface geology, subsurface data, electrical logs, etc., may st i l l further restrict the possibilities unt i l tbe subsurface situation is defined clearlj'^ enough to encourage someone to risk the dr i l l ing of a new test we l l . Then , with a l l the art and science of determining the subsurface conditions as a hole is dri l led, a new oi l field may be found.

In the long history which generally precedes a new discovery it usually becomes very difficult to establish the credit and to attribute the final success to any one geological or geophysical method or to any one person or, often, even to any one company.

The Physical Principles of fhe Geophysical Methods

N o w let us return to the fundamental principles of the three common geophysical methods and point out some of their possibilities and l imitations. It seems desirable, even at tbis late date, to review these fundamentals as they apparently are often lost sight of in the great volume of application. Le t us try to distinguish fact f rom inference so that the final, interpretation w i l l be consistent with- ,a l l the facts and therefore have a maximum probability of representing the true underground situation.

T h e three, physical methods used, magnetic, gravitational and seismic, vary in the degree of direct association with sedimentary rocks in tbe order named. They also vary in cost per unit of area covered in the same order. T h i s leads to the natural application of one or both of the first two as reconnaissance methods to give leads by which tbe slower and more expensive seismic method can be directed to more promising areas. T b i s natural

49

order of application may or may not be followed, depending on many complicating circumstances such as land availability, lease or d r i l l ing commitments, competition wi th other operators, and many others.

T h e magnetic and gravitational methods measure "potential" fields. These are effects produced at a distance by variations in degree of magnetization or of density. T h e sharpness w i t h which such fields can define an anomalous body depends upon the distance f rom the body to the surface over which the field is measured. Potential fields become rounded or smoothed wi th increasing distance. Therefore, if a disturbing body is buried at a considerable depth, the observed field is smooth, no matter how sharp the boundaries of the body may be. If two anomalous bodies are close together, and deep, their fields overlap and wi th increasing^ depth, it becomes more and more difficult to recognize tbe effect as that of two bodies rather than one.

T h e wid th of a disturbance of a potential field is determined by the wid th and the depth of the disturbing body. A deeply buried body produces

• a wide anomaly even though the body may be steep-sided. A wide body also produces a wide anomaly. T h u s a broad magnetic or gravity anomaly may be caused by either a broad or deep disturbing body; it could be caused also by a combination of both effects. A sharp anomaly must have a shallow origin.

T b e reflection seismic method is much more directly related to geology. T h e quantity measured is the travel time of a wave reflected f rom a boundary where there is a change in elastic properties of the rocks. T h e relation of this time to the depth of a sedimentary horizon is readily understood. However , as w i l l be pointed out later, this tool also has some very disturbing difficulties.

Magnet ic Surveys Magnet ic maps, after the usual cor

rections, show tbe disturbances in the magnetic field which have their origin in a relatively thin layer of the earth's crust. T h e sedimentary rocks are nearly always non-magnetic and the m a g n e t i c disturbances have their source in the underlying igneous or metamorpbic rocks of the "basement." T h i s is because of the fact that the magnetic minerals, principally magnetite, are hundreds to thousands of times more prevalent in igneous than in sedimentary rocks. T h e bottom of the earth's magnetic layer must occur at a depth such that the increasing temperature reaches the "Cur i e point"

50

at which minerals are no longer magnetic. T h i s depth is probably variable, but considerations of the temperature gradient and analysis of magnetic anomalies indicate that it is of tbe order of 15 miles.

Magnet ic disturbances are of two kinds: (1) those due to differences of magnetization wi th in the magnetic layer which are relatively strong and broad; and (2) those due to topography of the basement surface which are more local and of lower relief. W i t h i n limits, the two types of disturbances can be recognized and separated f rom one another.

W e have stated that magnetic maps are ambiguous as to the depth and to the fo rm of the underground disturbances which produce them and also originate f r o m below the sedimentary section. One may w e l l ask, then, why they have any place in o i l exploration which deals entirely wi th sedimentary rocks.

T h e most definite answer lies in the fact tbat very useful information on the depth to the basement surface, and therefore the thickness of the sedimentary section, is usually determinable f rom a magnetic survey. If magnetic anomalies are sharp, the basement must be shallow; if they are broad and smooth, it probably is deep. Analysis of the anomalies can give figures of fair precision for the depth to the basement surface.

A less certain but often useful in dication is that of local basement "highs," which may be either structural or erosional in origin. If they are structural, the sediments overlying them at their time of formation should be involved, c a u s i n g sedimentary s t r u c t u r e . If they are erosional, smaller effects on the overlying sediments may be caused by differential compaction. Moreover, large anomalies themselves may indicate major basement topography because of the possibility that blocks of rock wi th contrasting magnetization may also be of different composition, w i th differing resistance to erosion. Thus , major magnetic trends may indicate trends of erosional features of the basement surface.

T h e development of the airborne magnetometer since the war has given a new impetus to magnetic prospecting. W e can now make continuous records of magnetic variations over land or water and make much more accurate and detailed maps, over more difficult areas than was feasible when magnetic measurements had to be made f rom point to_ point on the ground. However, wi th a l l its new freedom of the air and its increased

T H E M I N

precision, tbe map is st i l l a magnetic map and is subject to the same limitations that have been mentioned above.

T h e f o r e g o i n g discussion has pointed out many ambiguities and uncertainties in evaluating maps of mag. netic effects. These reflect a very con-siderable dullness of this exploration tool. T h e y also indicate that the geo^ logical user needs to sharpen his own analysis in using it. F o r _ instance, il a long period of base-leveling preceded the deposition of the first sediments, there would be small chance that local erosional features on the basement are present. I f there are unconformities in the sedimentary section below possi-ble producing horizons, then erosional topography on tbe basement would bt without significance. T h e converse ol these situations could make erosional features an important control on oil accumulation in the sediments. If intrusions in tbe basement have occurreii subsequent to sedimentation, a magnetic survey could indicate their location and possible overlying structuK resulting f rom deformation accompanying such intrusions. F ina l ly , ana most important, if sedimentary structure overlies local basement uplift magnetic indications may be quite usfr f u l .

These questions cannot be solvec by any amount of analysis of the magnetic surveys alone but must be re, solved by the geological user of thi exploration tool. T h e y should be con sidered in advance of a survey tf determine whether the tool is suita to the job. If it is not, other anc-probably more expensive tools w i l l In required for reconnaissance.

Grav i ty Surveys As an exploration tool, the gravity

m e t h o d , in most applications, i sharper than the magnetic. T h i s i because gravity maps can indicate i i regularities in the sedimentary part 0 tbe earth's crust as we l l as those if the basement.

Grav i ty surveys show the effects o' the vertical component of the bound aries between rocks having differen densities. {Hor izon ta l layers do no cause gravity anomalies no matte' how great any difference in densit; between them may be.)

Grav i ty maps, after the usual cof rections for elevation and latitude depict the effects of lateral changes if density f rom the grass roots dowP Some such effects may come f rom ill homogeneities very near the surfao such as topography under glacial driff buried stream channels or local area of irregular deposition and thus be o no interest as indications of structure Others may come f rom greater deptl

ES M A G A Z I N E « O C T O B E R , I9S(

and be caused by structural disturbances of sedimentary layers of different density and thus be of very great interest. S t i l l others may come f rom differences in density wi th in the basement rocks below the sedimentary section. V e r y broad disturbances may come f rom very deep wi th in the earth c a u s e d by large-scale "ce l l s ' of magma. There is no very definite reason to expect that there is a bottom to the zone in which density contrasts may exist. Therefore, gravity anomalies are not subject to limitations m magnitude or horizontal extent similar to the limitations on magnetic anomalies because of the limited thickness of the magnetized layer in which they can originate. It is probably for this r e a s o n that regional gravity anomalies are usually of much larger area than regional magnetic anomalies.

A major source of dullness of the gravitational tool lies in the fact that a l l the various possible causes of anomalies may exist simultaneously under a given area. Each contributes to tbe total effect measured and we have no definite physical principle for separating the various components of the picture. T h e source of a gravity disturbance is inherently ambiguous because of the fact that a given field distribution can be accounted for by an infinite variety of mass distributions below the surface. T h i s difficulty at first glance, might be considered so great as to render this tool too du l l to be useful.

There are several ways in which the gravitational tool can be sharpened. It is usually possible to make a definite separation of anomalies by removal of a "regional." T h i s means that the broad, smooth effects which probably have their source at great depth are subtracted to sharpen the expression of those components of the picture which are of such a form and magnitude as to be reasonable expressions of sedimentary structure. A t the other extreme, it may be necessary to carry out a certain amount of smoothing to remove those components which apparently are of near-surface origin and therefore probably not of interest.

T h e choice of a regional and the separation of those components which indicate geologically significant features is highly empirical. W e can calculate higher derivatives or use analytical or n u m e r i c a l processes which are similar in their effects to the subtraction of a regional. Such processes are highly effective but cannot make a sharp discrimination between regional and local disturbances. T h i s is because the inherent ambiguity

of the mass distribution which can cause a given gravity distribution permits no definite theoretical basis for a separation of effects. In practice, however, this theoretical ambiguity can often be greatly reduced by judi cious consideration of other pertinent facts.

G r a v i t y suiweys are inherently better adapted to showing deformations having relatively steep dips because of the fact that they respond only to the vertical component of any density contrasts which may exist. It is for this reason also that the early gravity surveys made wi th torsion balances were so bri l l iant ly successful in finding shallow salt domes. T h e nearly vertical flanks of the domes together wi th the substantial density contrasts between the salt or caprock and the surrounding sediments make very definite and easily recognized gravity anomalies. A s exploration was extended to finding deeper disturbances, flatter dips and less pronounced density contrasts, it becomes increasingly difficult to recognize and segregate the anomalies due to structures of lower relief and greater breadth.

In a completely new area wi th no other information, a gravity survey would probably give only very general information. W e can assume reasonable density contrasts and calculate the magnitude of structural disturbances which would be required to account fo r given anomalies. T h e geologist can then make a guess as to whether such magnitudes are geologically reasonable. I f not, perhaps more of the gravity disturbances should be assigned to the basement by using a different regional or a different type of derivative calculation. Here the toolmaker, the geophysicist, must cooperate wi th the tool user, the exploration geologist, to make the tool usable.

If more information is available, there is less ambiguity in the interpretation. F o r instance, a magnetic survey may materially reduce the uncertainties of a gravity survey by indicating the gravity components which may be of basement origin or by showing the thickness of the sedimentary section wi th in which gravity anomalies of primary interest may arise. A single d r i l l hole may indicate differences in lithology at depth and thus point to the horizons at which density contrasts and therefore gravity effects probably occur. Density measurements f rom cuttings or cores in wells or densities inferred f rom seismic velocity surveys or electric logs could. be very valuable but are seldom available. T h e inclusion of known structures wi th in a gravity survey can often give approximate values to parameters such


as expected gravity relief and probable density contrasts which can be a substantial aid in evaluating the results of a survey in nearby and similar but unexplored areas.

T h e inherent ambiguities can be greatly reduced by careful consideration of a l l pertinent accessory information and by keeping our feet on the ground through test calculations and considerations of geological reasonableness and probability. I n this way, the gravitational method can be made a very effective reconnaissance tool.

I n special cases, a gravity survey can be a very effective tool for detail, such as in determining the edge and thickness of salt dome caprock for sulphur exploration, in determining the location and dip of flanks of salt domes for o i l exploration and in tracing faults wi th considerable precision. These more precise applications are possible because much of the ambiguity is removed through knowledge of a special geological situation and of the general nature, magnitude and mode of occurrence of the density contrasts involved.

Reflection Seismograph Surveys

T h e reflection seismic method is by far the sharpest exploration tool we now have. It is also very much the most expensive per unit of area covered. These two facts are why the current expenditures for seismic exploration are many times greater than those for magnetic and gravity surveys.

Seismic prospecting depends on the propogation of elastic waves through rocks and their refraction and reflection at surfaces of discontinuity of acoustic properties. T h e fundamental physical measurement is that of the travel times of elastic waves f r o m an explosion to a series of seismic detectors.

T h e early seismic surveys used refracted waves. T h e limitations of this method are somewhat similar to those of the gravity method in that it is most effective on relatively steeply dipping discontinuities. It was for this reason that refraction shooting was so effective in the early exploration for shallow salt domes. However, for nearly 20 years, seismic prospecting has been predominantly by the reflection method so we w i l l confine our attention primari ly to this most useful method of looking below the surface.

T h e sharpness of the reflection tool results f rom the fact that it can picture one or several particular underground horizons. U n d e r favorable circumstances this picture is so sharp and clear that boundaries of under-

51

ground strata can be mapped as we l l and as accurately as they can be when exposed to view, at tbe surface. It must be remembered, however, that tbe quantity measured is time and that tbe conversion to an underground map rests upon a knowledge of elastic wave travel speeds which may or may not be constant and dependable.

It is not alwavs-easy to get dependable reflections and. the seismic tool makers have been very ingenious and have sharpened their tools enormously in this respect in the 20 years of reflection seismograph application. H y the use of better amplifiers and biters, expanders or automatic volume control and especially by tbe use of an increasing n u m b e r of recording channels and of multiple detectors, reflections are now obtained m areas which were forrnerly almost hopeless.

T h e continuing advances and improvements by seismic instrument makers have been in marked contrast to the relatively static condition in magnetic and especially in gravity i n strumentation. T h e magnetic method has had only one substantial improvement, i.e. tbe.development of tbe airborne magnetometer. T h e present gravity meters are smaller, lighter and more convenient to use but make no different or better maps than those made 15 years ago when the gravity meter almost completely replaced the torsion balance.

T h e reflection seismograph is inherently better adapted to showing relatively flat rather than steep dips. In o i l producing areas, gentle dips are much more common than are steep dips. Thus , while gravity and magnetic surveys can and do give leads to structurally disturbed areas wi th only moderate (lips, it is a very common practice to rely on reflection seismograph indications to make the f inal test and to pick the actual location before a weil^'i's dri l led.

•. "When it works we l l , the seismic .method comes much nearer to being a tool which the geologist can accept and apply directly. A seismic map

. often may be contoured on a definite horizon, famil iar to the geologist and the seismic data fitted directly into his subsurface information f rom paleontology, electric logs and other familiar tools of exploration.

Bu t situations are not always or even usually so simple. Velocities change and a horizon mapped f rom differences in reflection time may seem to be warped or tilted f rom its true position by such velocity changes. Seismic reflecting horizons are not continuous and a map may have to

52

be built up f rom dips. Faults may interrupt the continuity of reflections by displacement of reflecting horizons or by producing a zone of poor or no reflections. Anomalous and erratic reflections wi th apparent steep dips may appear on the records. Aga in , remembering that the seismic detector _ responds to a l l disturbances, possibly coming simultaneously f rom different directions, and that only time_ is measured, there are many complications which can make the results ambiguous and thereby du l l this exploration tool.

It now becomes necessary for tbe geologist to do more than just accept or reject the indications and to try to make thc most of the tool that is available. B y using other information such as we l l contacts, surface geology, known faults, or the characteristic geologic behavior of the area, he can often put together the various segments of a seismic indication into a geologically reasonable and probable whole, as was so ably illustrated recently by Cof f in .*

Improvements may sti l l be possible in seismic instrumentation, but the tool makers have gone a very long way in producing the records of underground events. Greater f u t u r e progress quite probably w i l l come when tbe users of the tools contribute more to our understanding of the fundamental properties of the rocks which transmit the energy which produces these records and to the relation of sedimentary process and geological history to those properties.

Conclusions

T h e users of geophysical tools arc very conscious of their dullness and failures in many applications. Quite naturally tbey are hoping for new and sharper exploration equipment and it is not for lack of trying that new physical principles have not been ex-tensivflly applied to oil prospecting.

T h e exploration geologist may not be entirely without hope that some new and easily used tool may be found, but that hope does not appear very bright. Mo7-e progress toill be ?na'de zuhcn the geolotjhts who use geophysics give the geophysical tools the time and study necessary to understand their applications and limitations. The burden is on the geophysicist also to learn more of the physical properties and geological habits of the rock media on which his measurements depend.

There are st i l l very fe-\v real geophysicists, whom we might term "geo-geophysicists," and wdio are thor-

« R Clare Coffin, Geological Imagination in the Interpretation ot Geophysical Data, Qiiarlerly of the Colorado School ot Mines, Vo l . 45, N o . 4A, October 1950, especially figures 1-4.

oughly acquainted wi th both sides of their combined profession. I n the absence of such, much progress _ can be made by teamwork between individuals who, between them, possess the-needed training and talents to bridge the gap between the two sciences. By such teamwork we can hope to go far in understanding the relations between geophysically measured effects and tbe present properties and geological history of the rocks which control those effects. B y such understanding, we should sharpen the applications of geophysical measurements and get closer to petroleum itself, to oil in the earth, which is the ultimate objective of the vast and complex oi l exploration industrj ' .

J O H N C . HOLLISTER, '33 Professor of Geophysics

Twenty-five years ago tbe petroleum industry was discovering about 700 mil l ion barrels of new oi l each J'ear. I n the late '40's the annual discovery rate had increased to more than 3 times tbis figure despite the fact that

(Continued from p^ge 48) the obvious oil structures had long

s_ ^ L since been discovered and tested, i h e two human eyes may not be ^"^^^ responsible for this increase?

equally effective in visualizing the op- V V h a M s / g , , . tical image, and may thus give rise ^ " e n u u L . h a j &

to a so-called "one-handedness" in its S y s i c s Defined perception. One can see what _th,s may q^^^ ^^ysics might be defined as that amount to (if he is subject to it at ali) , ^^^v j . u - i • . i i i i u u i i L L U V I / y ^ . ' branch of tbe earth sciences which is bv viewina a pair of photos stereo- " i ' ^ " ' - " , • u „ ^ t u \ w c u i i i g , F • concerned wi th measurements of the scoDicallv. then fastenmg them to- ^ u i i v - c m c u _ • ^ j v t . , l

^ r - ^ ' i ' • . ^ • i Q o J physical properties associated wi th the 2ether and rotating the pair l o U de- ^ , . i • ,

S ^ c L i i c i , u i u & r • k . u ..I . earth as a whole or m part. Its mass, erees about the line of sight so tha ^ > . i • J ^ j c c b J • .,.1, diameter, shape, density, physical stereovision mav also be secured in the ' '-' - • j ' • i u

. . -W ^ „ J 1 „ state, electric and magnetic fields, new position, i h e stereo model may ^ , . j t

^ \ • ^ •' heat conductivity and elasticity are not appear the same m the two post- J'^"'- , , i , . ,, I L J £f , but a few of these properties whose

tiuns regardless of shadow effects or " , £ • i , ^ - 1 1 r j:,^^.,.^- „ measurements for the increase ot

other tangible causes ot distortion. , . , , j n • ^ , .1, !• • - knowledge alone falls into the realm

In extreme _ cases stereo-distortioit ^^^^ geophysics. W h e n some com-can be recognized by the appearand ^ ^ ^ ^ j ^ ^ e n g i n e e r i n g motive of the drainage lines, bo r ^^^^^^^ ^ôm^t^ m^s^s^xxtm^nts, th^ ttrm some of the streams may appear to run ^^^^.^^ geophysics is pertinent. W h e n up-h,ll . But m most stereo-pairs th ^^^^ ^^^-^^ discovery of min-degree of distortion is so slight that ^^^^ resources we call the activity

It IS

vation marks.

T H E P H O T O G R A P H S

unrecognizable without the M.^pi^^^ti^^ geophysics, or'geophysical control furnished by benc|^^^^^^^^.^^^. ^ ^ ^ ^ investiga

tion of a dam or tunnel site or a problem of earthquake - proof struc-

^tures,'the activity is engineering geo-tncreasingly good photographs aifphysics.

being made by aerial photograpber| p^j-e geophysics is usually con-So many factors are involved and s|cerned wi th great areas of the earth, much has been said about tbe caus jof ten wi th the entire globe. Likewise of good and bad photographs tiiat th|its subdivisions are gross: geodesy, wri ter does not want to add more emseismology, meteorology, hydrology, cept as his own experience as a consuifterrestriai magnetism and electricity ing geologist prompts him to do so. | a n d tectonophysics. Individual Inves-

Everyone now understands thJtigations may range broadly f rom the geologists need clear photos, flat-lyinlabstract measurement of remnant paper, and the finest possible e_mulsio|magnetism of drill-hole cores to the grain in order that magnification raafstate of matter in the earth's interior, be used. T h e best photographs fo |Appfied geophysics, on the other hand, geological use, however, depend upoffo l lowing the dictates of commercial the nature of the terrane to be studied|trend_s, concentrates upon the most in coarse-textured terrane of high r ^ r o m i s i n g problems, lief where tbe structural anomalies a r l T h e demands of c iv i l and structual of large size, one can usually emploftingineers on applied geophysics are so shorter focal length photos than in thfrelatively few compared wi th those of flat lands under discussion bere._ A f h e mineral industries that the field stated above, the widely used 8>4 inc | ) f engineering geophysics, although

(Continued on page 74) important, is dwarfed by exploration

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , I950THE MINES M A G A Z I N E

qn VSI ^ "

• Geophysics Wing, Berthoud Hali.

geophysics. As knowledge of its potential benefits spreads and as its considered application produces successful results, so w i l l the use of engineering geophysics increase. Success Sfarfs W i t h Petroleum Industry

It is almost entirely because of early and continued success in the finding of petroleum - bearing structures that geophysical exploration for oi l has reached a reasonable degree of development and is regarded as an essential activity in any oii development program. M i n i n g applications, to the contrary, have reached no such degree of development largely because of the complexity of the geology surrounding ore deposits and partly because of the relatively little development money spent by the mining industry compared wi th its petroleum counterpart.

Besides its division according to application, applied geophysics may be classified according to the method employed, the four major methods being magnetic, gravimetric, electric and seismic; minor methods include thermal and radioactive. Table I re-

J O H N C . HOLLISTER

iates through use and success, methods and applications of applied geophysics. Knowledge of Geology Essential

Since knowledge of the earth is geologj', then the problems wi th which geophvsics is concerned are geologic.

m O C T O B E R , 1950

•V Geophysics Laboratory, 1932.

T h e geophysicist must therefore have both a broad acquaintance wi th geol-ogv to adequately define the problem and a sufficient understanding of the principles of the basic science of physics w i th which to achieve its solution. T h e student of geophj'sics m u s t divide his academic attention between phj'sics and geology and should have an appreciation for both. H e should be equally familiar wi th Laplace's equation and stratographic traps. If he is to become a geophysical engineer, he must also develop an intuitive sense of proportion and relation which can only be had by extensive practical experience obtained in the field and laboratory. H e must work wi th hands and head. Since the Colorado School of M i n e s furnishes the mineral in dustry wi th professional engineers trained specifically for its requirements, the department of geophysical engineering exists to graduate capable geophj'sical engineers and to extend the engineering training of its graduate students. T h a t these aims may largely be fu l f i l l ed is revealed by the description of the courses and faci l i -

53

METHODS

MAGNETIC

GRAVIMETBIC

ELECTRIC

SEISMIC

APPLICATIONS

EXPLORATION

PETROLEUM

E a r l y , c o n t i n u e d

b u t l i m i t e d u s e

f o r r e c o n n a i s s a n c e

L i m i t e d s u c c e s s

i n d e t a i l s u r y e y s .

E a r l y a n d c o n t i t i -

u e d i j s e f o r r e -

c o n n a i s s a n c e .

L i m i t e d s u c c e s s

i n d e t a i l i n g w i t h

t h e p o s s i b l e e x

c e p t i o n o f s a l t

d onie s -

E a r l y b u t s p o r a d i i

u s e . V e r y l i m

i t e d s u c c e s s .

E a r l y , c o n t i n u e d ,

a n d v e r y e x t e n

s i v e u s e . B y f a r

t h e raost s u c c e s s

f u l o f a l t i n e t b o d s

f o r a n y p u r p o s e .

G r e a t e s t ^ o s t p e r

u n i t a r e a . L o w e s t

c o s t p e r d i s

c o v e r y .

MINING

E a r l y a n d c o n t i n

u e d u s e f o r b o t h

r e c o n n a i s s a n c e a n d

d e t a i l w h e r e raag-

n e t i c m i n e r a l s a r e

i n v o l v e d .

L i m i t e d u s e c o m

p a r e d w i t h m a g

n e t i c m e t h o d .

E a r l y a n d c o n t i n

u e d . u s e . t i o r e

s u c c e s s f u l t h a n

o t h e r m e t h o d s .

INVESTIGATION ENGINEEBING

L i t t l e u s e ex

cept i n l o c a

t i o n o f m a g

n e t i c o b j e c t s

O f l i t t l e u s (

" l a r l y a n d c o n

t i n u e d u s e w i t h

m o d e r a t e s u c

c e s s .

S c a r c e l y u s e d .

C o n t i n u e d u s e

w i t h c o m p a r i -

t i v e s u c c e s s .

ties available to tbe prospective geo

physical engineer.

History of Geophysics at Mines Geophysics at IVlines dates back to

January of 1927 when D r . C . A . He i i and stepped before seven graduate students in a small basement room of Guggenheim and began the hrst lecture of the first formal geophysical engineering course to be, taught in the U S M u c h had preceded that January day. A year before President M . F Coolbaugh bad discussed wi th members of the school's board of trustees including M i n e s graduate M a x B a l l , the possibility of introducing into the curricula a new method of exploration called geophysical prospecting. A f t e r conferences wi th D r . F . M . V a n T u y l , in whose geology department the new courses were to go, final approval of the plan was given by tbe board of trustees and D r . Coolbaugh set about procuring a suitable instructor. D r . He i iand , then in tbe U . S. as technical representive of the Askania W e r k e geophysical instrument division, was selected to head the project and came to Golden to discuss details. So extensive became the proposed curricula resulting f rom these discussions that a separate de-

54

Table 1

partment was formed and geophysics became an option like mining and petroleum in which geological engineering students could specialize. D r . He i iand remained head of tbe department unt i l the summer of 1948 when be retired f rom academic l i fe .

SEM GEOPHYSICS GEOLOGY

Sp. Prob. Hag. Prosp.

Sp. Prob. EIcc . Prosp

Sp. Prob. Well Los;.

sld Work

lAdvanccd Subs"rface

iAdvanced StratigrapKy

:Ad>'anced P e t r o l . Geol .

lAdvanced Ote Deposits

Advanced Kng. Geol .

Appl i PobP-•fl.eo

Sp. P .h. Pros

. Proli. ; i s . Pros

ilrf Work

Strat igrapl Geol .

Beef & Ass, Ucpnsits .llg. Geol .

Advanced Striscturii

Map InterpreL. | P e t r o l . Geol .

l i ivescigat i F i e ld V,'ork Elect ive

EIoc. PrO! Mag. Pro; Well Log. Seminar Inveit igal F'-1d '•V"i !

Ore Depc

Degree-Granting Department

Established

Paral le l ing the action taken by many of the o i l companies, the board of trustees of Mines , in 1949, changed geophysics f r o m a service to a degree-granting department, thus placing it on tbe level of ' the geologj', mining, metallurgy and petroleum engineering departments. In 1950, 27 geophysical engineers were graduated and took their places beside about 200_ geological engineers, geophysics option, who had been graduated f rom 1926 to 1949. D u r i n g the same period about 160 students did graduate work in the geophysics department, 23 receiving their master's and 11 their doctor's degrees.

A n original student body of 7 has increased to 66 underclassmen, 59 upperclassmen and 22 graduate students or a total of 147 which indicates a fa i r ly respectable growth in Zb years.

I n 1927 a student could take two department courses; today he is offered 25 including 12 of graduate level. Because " M i n e s " is an engineering school the curricula emphasis is naturally on applied geophysics. This bv no means implies that graduates

. are trained solely in handbook solutions and routine techniques. Each geophysical engineer has at least H course-years of physics, chemistry and mathematics over and above engineering or professional courses. Included ^^j^j^j^ student may build during are two course-years of tbeoreticat j^j^ professional l i fe . A n additional one physics given in the geophysical engi^j,j^^ one-half course-j'ears are avail-neering department. Al though s o m u y ^ - ^ ^j^^ department to a graduate emphasis is placed on geopbys!ca|g^^^gj^^ . ^ j ^ ^ wishes to pursue partic-problems, tbe aim is to lay a f i r m ioun-^,jj,j- aspects of theoretical physics not dation of physical principles upo^,-ey{ously explored by him.

^Professional Courses Of fe red A s an introduction to its profes-

giional courses, tbe department offers -m survey course in geophysical methods ;iwhich is required of a l l prospective ideological as w e l l as geophysical en-

Gp. Methods Paleontoloj.v ! l i s t o r i c . i l Coo! Kield Geo!.

i-jc tura 1 Ce 0 E •Id Geol,

rolocy

Mineralogy

Crystal lography 3

PHYSICS

Physi

Ma the

A f.QIFlJ PKysl

Elect

M3then>aKic

Phyiic.^ i 3

E!ec. S Mag 3

Gen Phys

MATHEMATICS

Ana l . 3

CHEMlSmY

Int C i l c l i l u ;

O f f Calculii

ENGINEERING

Pliys

i,'i;aiiE.. Ana lys is 5

Qi.al. Analysi

HUMANITIES MILIT'Y a PHYS. ED

Spectr aphy

Eng- Design

Thee Kinc

Dyna

Flane ,'ûrveyiiiJ! Deseripc. Gcoi; ; 4!

Language

Tech. lil por

LEGEND

Taught in Dept of [Jeophys ica I Engincoring

Credit r on 0"ant of IVotk

fJumbe Semes Ccedi

f ndic EC lloi

Adv. M i l i t ' y Adv. Phys.

T r a i l l .

Tech. Ex posii

Indust. Organ.

Compositi

Conipn

M i l i t ' y Phys.

Adv. M i l i t ' y M i l i c ' y F i e ld Adv. Phy.s.

T r a i n . I

Adv. M i l i t ' y Adv. Phys.

T r a i n . I

ftlili Phys M i l i t a r y Phys. Tr

M i l i t a r y Phys. Ti-q

M i l i t a r y Phys. Tea

• Table 2

progress when the f a l l field period occurs during which a mining "prospect" is explored and mapped by these methods. Courses in seismic and gravity prospecting are fol lowed |)y a two weeks period in the spring devoted to mapping an oi l "prospect." Approx i mately 30 f u l l days of the senior year are spent in geophj'sical field work.

T h e f i f th undergraduate professional course is w e l l logging which is really a hybrid, being of more direct use to the geological or petroleum pro

duction engineer than to the geophysicist. However, because of the geophysical methods emploj'ed, w e l l logging falls into the department's cu r ricula.

Each of the five professional courses, has its graduate counterpart, which, run largely on a seminar basis, allows-the group to more thoroughly investigate aspects only partially covered in^ undergraduate work. Adequate professional experience may be accepted as a prerequisite in lieu of the corre-

• A Mechanical Seismograph, 1930.

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E

i W i t h but one exception the profess iona l courses are classified by method ^ f a t h e r than by application. Scientific Instruction relating the theoretical 'principles, applications, p ices, in -Itrumentation and interf ttion of l

j a c h of tbe four methods constitutes | he body of four one-semester undergraduate professional courses. These | i r e _ supplemented by field courses in

t ihich individual experience is gained y each man during the prosecution

pi commercially comparable prob-afems wi th up - to - date commercial ;^quipraent. T h e professional courses r f r e scheduled in pairs, so that the two fpe thods most applicable to mining— M a g n e t i c and electrical—are w e l l in

O C T O B E R , 195?^^ ^^^^^ M A G A Z I N E # O C T O B E R , 1950

Seismic Prospecting Laboratory.

55.

sponding undergraduate course. Besides the theoretical and protes-

sional courses, the department ofters two which f i l l a decided need in' the curriculum of any engineering student. T h e first is a semuiar m which each member formally presents before the group papers based on current geophysical or related articles on pertinent investigation or on personal experience. T h e second, called Geophysical Research," is, in the opinion of the staff, one of the best offered m the department. It has no regular time meeting and no instructor in the usual sense of the word . Each enrollee chooses, w i th department approval, a project to his l ik ing and pursues it at his convenience unt i l it is completed. H e is free to consult the staff as much as he wishes, to use _ any apparatus, equipment or supplies available in or to tbe department, i h e grade and credit depend on magnitude and quality of achievement. Students sometimes work in two's and three's on field projects and even on laboratory or instrumentation problems if of sufficient magnitude. Similar research courses are available to graduate students. T h e benefit which can be derived f rom such a course is great not only because of the knowledge and experience gained but also because of tbe day-by-day satisfaction of independent work and tbe gratification of a project satisfactorily completed.

Table I I lists a l l undergraduate courses usually taken by the geophysical engineer and those available to the candidate for an advanced degree in geophysics. V e r y apparent is the emphasis placed on geology which is considered a strong minor.

Growth and Expansion

A s the geophysics curriculum grew so did its material facilities. Beginning in 1926 with an Eotvos torsion balance, a borrowed oscillator and a 10x15 foot laboratory, the physical assets increased through construction, purchase and g i f t to its present apparatus and equipment inventory of approximately $150,000 housed m the 18,000-square feet of the east wing of the geology and geophysics building, Berthoud bal l . T h e expansion was very gradual, the only major break in tbe curve being the move into Berthoud hall upon its completion in 1939. T h e main body of Berthoud is d e v o t e d to geological engineering while the corresponding west wing is reserved for a museum of geology. M u c h of the growth of the inventory of equipment was brought about by the inevitable obsolescence which accompanies the development of any new industry. Instruments in particular are seldom worn out, but they often are replaced by greatly improved apparatus which must be made available to maintain up-to-date instructional standards in as vir i le a field as geophysics. T h e major examples of this expansion through obsolescense have taken place in apparatus used in gravity and seismic prospecting. Pendulum apparatus gave way to the Eotvos torsion balance which in turn was displaced by the gravity meter. T h e Schwaydar mechanical seismograph was replaced by the early multichannel electrical seismograph which has evolved continuously unt i l today.

Laboratories and Equipment

As a background for tbe field equipment which w i l l be discussed briefly later, are the laboratories wi th their complement of gear. M o s t fundamental in its subject matter is the electricity and magnetism, and electronics laboratory in which groups of 15 to 20 students learn by experiment and demonstration basic principles of magnetism, electricity, A . C . circuits and electronics. Oscillators, vacuum tube voltmeters, bridges, decade condensers and resistors, inductors, amplifiers, power supplies, test meters and cathode ray oscilloscopes are relatively plentiful. ' A s in a l l laboratories, there never seems to be quite enough to handle peak loads; as tbe number of instruments increases the peak de-, mand rises. T o supplement this essential test equipment, the laboratory has an harmonic analyser, a distortion meter, a sound level meter, a flux meter, a strobotac, a tube tester as well as mucb miscellaneous apparatus. Supplies of vacuum tubes, condensers, resistors, transformers, chokes and hardware are ample to take care of the needs of the experimenter. Adjoining the electronics laboratory is an annex where some of the equipment is kept and where experiments requiring sub-dued light are made.

In the seismic laboratory students spend considerable time determining the characteristics of the component parts of the reflection seismographs which they later use in the field Through an understanding paratus tbey are better able ate field data. Amplif iers ai for amplitude and phase n

l-tjc various biter settings. Automatic gain control circuits are tested and compared. Galvanometers are tested and adjusted. T u n i n g fork and t iming motor characteristics are checked. Short wave radio equipment makes a comparison of tuning fork frequency wi th tbe standard frequency and time signals of W W V possible. A shaking table for checking the response of tbe geopbone and entire seismic channels fs available in an adjacent screen room or Faraday cage. Dark room facilities are at hand.

T h e electrical prospecting labora-torv which bouses much of the field equipment is fitted with several tanks, including one 19x18x7 feet, designed for model experiments. Motor-generators furnish a variety of frequencies: 25, 60, 400, 500 and 900 c.p.s. Field equipment is tested, calibrated and made ready tor field use. T h e most recent acquisition of this laboratory is a special tank designed to verify the theoretical effects of hole size, invaded

A.

. . < r - \ i

56

Elecinca! Prospecting Laboratory.


zone and bed interf; :he I apparent resistivities re ec- ^ ^ ^ ^ B trie w e l l logging. M a i ib- k ^ ^ ^ ^ B lished departure curves or- S ^ ^ & H B roborated wi th the aid ip- ^ ^ ^ ^ B ment. ^ ^ ^ ^ B

T h e magnetic and ^ ra- ^ ^ ^ ^ S tories are combined sin el- ' atively little work th; ac- %

. complished indoors in t =ld i^M^^m , methods^ T h e magnet nts ^ f e ^ l ^ j l are adjusted and calibrated and the . - " ' - ^ ^ / ^ V ^

; moments of magnets are measured. ; Tors ion balance, wire and gravity > ^ meter spring constants may be de-|, terrained. In addition the apparatus ; necessary for these experiments tn the i laboratory is equipped wi th an earth .inductor for determining the magnetic - • azimuth and dip, and a magnetic variation recorder. Plans are under way to modify one of the department's several gravity meters to record gravi-

-1 metric variations.

O C T O B E R , 195 "'"^^^ ' ^^NES M A G A Z I N E © O C T O B E R . 1950

• Top—Inductance Measurements, Electronics Laboratory.

•V Center — Wave Form Studies, Electronics Laboratory.

• Bottom — A Mott-Smith Type Gravity Meter. Our "$8000 Thermos Bottle."

A large laboratory was originally set aside for rock testing but it now combines rock testing with special experiments and research work conducted by graduate students. Facilities are available for preparing rock samples and d r i l l cores for measuring their electrical, magnetic, elastic, radioactive and other pbj^sical characteristics. M u c h apparatus is on hand for analyzing soil samples for wax content. A large double Helmhol tz coil constitutes a suitable set-up for magnetic and electro-magnetic model experiments where anomolies produced by

57

•V Shaking Table, Seismic Laboratory.

various regular and irregular bodies migbt be recorded under different (apparant) latitudes. Sbale cell potential measurements bave recently been carried on.

A modestly equipped macbine and work shop is available to department students and staff for building and maintaining apparatus and equipment. T h i s supplements the regular campus instrument shop in which the more delicate Instruments are maintained and where new pieces of apparatus

are built. None of tbe equipment belongmg

to the department is reserved for the faculty only. Its use by department majors is encouraged for it is the belief of the staff tbat manual dexterity in the handling of the tools of the profession w i l l make each student a better engineer. T h i s opinion is not l imited in regard to the laboratory and shop equipment alone but is carried over to the rather extensive collection of f ield equipment. Field Equipment

Rather naturally the bulk of the field equipment is designed for seis-

•-.-Sri

mic prospecting. T h e nucleus of two 12 - channel truck - mounted seismographs is supplemented by a rotary shot bole d r i l l , shooting and water truck, al l of commercial quality. The newest field instrument is a M o t t -Smith type gravity meter. Its light weight and freedom from temperature | control systems make it suitable for . use in rough terrain. A L a Coste type meter and meter car complete the modern gravity field equipment. Older instruments include a bulky gravity meter and an Askania torsion balance.

Magnet ic field equipment consists of vertical and horizontal Schmidt magnetic balances. Four of these Askania built magnetometers have beea in the department for some years while ,

• v A Horizontal Magnetome

a i a i u m n i o r not, have lent every assist-^ a n c e to aid the department and tbe M i s c b o o l . T b i s has been done through

^corporations, professional societies, and individuals . Corporate gifts o f equip-I m e n t and field data, including many [hundreds o f seismic reflection rec-iords, have greatly assisted in field and [laboratory instruction. T h e ^ recent Igranting o f graduate fellowships, one I b y the Socony-Vacuum O i l company, lone b y the Standard O i l company o f I T e x a s , has made possible research |work that may b e o f value technically land has been a n inspiration to stafE I r a e m b e r s and graduate students alike.

P N o t only have oil , mining and geo-Sphysical contracting companies been l o f great help but s o have the service pcompanies in furnishing otherwise u n -Bavailable technical publications in Bquantity sufficient for class use. One Jservice company invited an entire c l a s s

^to v i e w its plant and operations dur-l i n g spring vacation, al l expenses paid.

. , . - 3 '4 T h e Society o f Exploration Geo-

. „ ,. _ I MLj. I, physicists through its fostering o f the •V Bottom—^Seismic Recording Truck, nigfe^ •' , r, . • • Brass" Looks Over The Record From an Oii Student Society a M i n e s S i n c e its m -

"Pfospect." ception m the f a l l o f i y 4 / has given _j , , , a feeling o f professional standing and

one is post war . Several f i e l m h o m responsibility t o e a c h student member, coils are available for calibration. A i ^ x b e active membership has increased Hotchkiss Superdip completes t he^^^^ ^^j^-^^^j 26 charter members magnetic field instruments. _ t o 76 in the academic year o f 1949-50.

Electr ical prospecting g e a r includes-pj^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^-^^^ presented the stu-

equipment for resistivitjs potentiaê^t group wi th a complete bound

* A "

Top—Elementary Instruction, Vertical Magnetometer.

58

drop ratio, electromagnetic and sel l^ j^ ion - ^ periodical, "Geophysics" potential surveying, much of w'hicft^hich is now shelved in the depart-was designed and built by the dtfênt library. Fo r tbe past several partment. P^^^^ ''' 1 department seniors have been

Benefit From Industrial Relations Jxcused f rom classes to visit the an-Thronghout the planning of A A P G - S E G meetings where

ricula close touch is maintained witmiey have had a chance to meet their industry so that men receiving fha^tuve colleagues and employers as

I (feophysical engineers degree //Jfit^^êll as to learn first hand of new de-'have had the training that, in the ,^yef"velopments In tbe field. of their future etnployers, will bes' M o s t valuable of a l l industrial re-fit them for their responsibilitieSi'^tions has been the generous gif t of Members of industry, whether M i n & ^ i m e on the part of many busy indi-

T H E M i N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , !95fTHE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E

speak before the student groups on interesting and stimulating technical subjects. T y p i c a l titles have been "Seismic Explorat ion for C o r a l Reefs," " T h e Earths Interior f rom Geophysical Da ta , " "Off-Sbore Seismic Prospecting," " T h e Role of the Magnetometer in Petroleum Explor ation," and "Limitat ions of M i n i n g Geophysics."

It is natural enough tbat these wel l -established men would be the objects of envy to their student audiences. It would, however, be somewhat of a surprise to the students to learn that be-

• The Electromagnetic " ter over a Mining "Prospect."

cause of their unhampered opportunity to learn, they are themselves, in return, objects of envy to these illustrious visitors. Acknowledgements

T h e writer is greatly indebted to the late D r . M . F . Coolbaugh and to M r . D a r t W a n t l a n d for the historical background. Fo r valuable assistance and criticism his s i n c e r e thanks are due D r . G . T . Mer ide th , Messers. H . E . Stommei, R . C . H o l mer and P . A . Rodgers, a l l of the department of geophysical engineering.

•The Shot Hole Drill.

O C T O B E R . 1950 59

beds. T b e deptbs range f rom 3,700 to 4 000 feet. T h e field covers about iboO acres but it is quite a rich small

oil field. A field of major proportions is in

the making in the Roosevelt-Gusher

area. There the Carter O i l Company has dril led two good wells around 9,300 feet in depth where oil oc-

By D O R S E Y H A G E R and M E N D E L L M . BELL

Consulting Geologists Salt Lake C i ty . Utah

It is difficult to evaluate the gas and oi l possibilities of a small area but when an area tbe size of U t a h is considered, the problem is manifoldly difficult, particularly when the general geology is, at the hest, only imperfectly known. In a paper of this size only the essential highlights can be discussed and the most important problems f rom a scientific viewpoint can only be mentioned or pointed out by inference.

U t a h has many involved geological characteristics and numerous interpretations have been applied in the past as partial answers to the more important of these problems. W e are now in the process of revising many of the older concepts, particularly those applying to Utah 's petroleum geology. T h e recent developments of the past two years in the U in t ah Basin of U tah mark the f a i l of many old ideas as to oi l possibilities of that area. It is hoped tbat physical proof of o i l in other areas of U t a h w i l l serve to point out the weakness of earlier ideas. Those interested in the discovery of oil should recognize that geological interpretations change in accordance wi th new evidence. I n the past U tah has been rather disappointing as a gas and oil

state, but w i th the many geological problems now being solved, the state should develop important gas and oil reserves comparable wi th the other producing states wi th in the Rocky Moun ta in oil region.

Fo r the purposes of discussion the state is divided into three provinces; (1) M i d d l e Rocky Mountains Province ( U i n t a h and Wasatch Ranges) ; (2) Colorado Plateau Province ( includes the southeastern part of the state); and (3) Basin and Rangt Province (includes the western part of the state).

T h e sketch map of U t a h ( F i g . 1) outlines these Provinces and shows the location and geographical relationship of some of the more important structural features of the state as w e l l as the producing areas. Middle Rocky Mountains

Gas and oi l possibilities in the M i d dle Rocky Mountains Province are confined to three areas: northeast of the Wasatch Mountains extending to the W y o m i n g line, and eastward along both the north and south flanks of the Uin tah mountains; in tbe general area northeast of This t le , U tah County, and north of Soldier Summit, Wasatch County. T h e Wasatch Mounta ins and the Wasatch Plateau to the south apparently lack suitable structures to trap oi l or gas. T h e presence of crystalline and intrusive rock

T a b l e I — C o l u m n a r S e c t i o n a n d P r o b a b l e S t r a t a M i d d l e P a r t OF U i n t a h B a s i n

Periods

Eocene

Formation

Approximate Thickness

No. Possible G a s & O i l Pays

Periods

Eocene Wasatch 1000-1500 3 to 4

U . Cretaceous Mesaverde M a n cos Sh. Frontier Dakota

2000 4000-5500

150 50- 100

8 to 10 2 to 3 1 to 2 1

L . Cretaceous Clover ly 150 1 to 2

Jurassic Mor r i son Curt is .Entrada Carmel * Nava jo (Nugget)

500 - 800 250 150- 400 150- 300

lOOO

1 to 2 1

1 to 2

1 Triassic Chinle

Shinarump Moenkopie

400 5 0 - 100

500- 800

1 1

Permian

Pennsylvanian

Kaibab-Pbosphoria Weber Morgan-Hermosa

1000 1200-1400

1 2 to 3

Mississippian Black Shale Madison

200 600

Cambrian

60

Ladore Q t z . Arkos ic Sand 3 5 0 - 400 1

denies much of the Wasatch Rang? f rom consideration. T h e most promising segment of the Province is along the south flank of tbe Uintahs, but so far tests there have not proven too successful, except at Ashley Creek which may be classed either on the south flank of the Uintahs or on the periphery of tbe U in t ah Basin.

Colorado Plateau Province

T h i s province is bounded on the east in Colorado by the Uneompahgre, U p l i f t , a large ancient feature whick was uplifted during late Pennsylvanian and early Permian periods. O n thf north it is bounded by Uin t ah Mountains, part of the M i d d l e Rock^ Mountains . T h e area extends intc A r i z o n a and N e w Mex ico . Withiir this province are found large tectonk, features such as the Monument Valley U p l i f t , Ci rc le C l i f f s Upwarp , San, Rafae l Swel l and the Kaibab Upwarp,-T h e Utah-Colorado Salt Basin, witlf its attendant salt-generated structure!" occupies the east-central part. The large synclinal Uin tah Basin in tk Colorado P l a t e a u Province ha proven to be the most important ga' and oi l province of the State. ;.

T h e U in t ah Basin, the most impor" tant of the sub-province areas, contain^ the productive areas of Ashley Valle!-and the Roosevelt-Gusher oil fields^ T h e Basin is bounded on the north h tbe East-West trending U i n t a t Mountains, on the west by the Wa; satch Mountains , and extends east ward into Colorado. It is classified asf "Deep" basin, wi th sediments possibk ranging in thickness f rom 25,000 fee. in the eastern part to 60,000 ht-in tbe western part. T h e central pof tion may contain f rom 30,000 to 35, 000 feet of sediments. A columnit section of the probable strata involvei-in the middle part of the Basin ij shown in Table I, and possible g^-and oil pays are indicated.

T h e Uin tah Basin at present holf^ the spotlight in U t a h due to the fields discovered there. A t the Ashk,, Val ley oil field on the north periphef; of tbe Basin gas was produced frof; the Dakota and Mor r i son beds, sors years before o i l was discovered 1947. T h e main productive pay is J" to 200 feet thick in the upper part 4 the Weber sandstone of Permian afl Pennsylvanian ages. Some oi l is al found in the Phosphoria limestone ail-one w e l l produces f rom the Entraw

31-41


Figure

O C T O B E R , ^ ' ^ ^ ^ M A G A Z I N E @ O C T O B E R , 1950 61

curs in Green R ive r beds of l e r t i a r y aee T b e oi l occurs throughout a section of 250 feet in fractured shales and in thin sand and limestone bed^. Ac id i z ing is helpful . J h ^ ^ f f ^ , U t e T r i b a l N o . 1, made 1,600 barrels daily. U t e T r i b a l N o . 2 made over 500 barrels daily. Bo th are flowing

' ' s e v e n miles southeast of tlie U t e T r i b a l wells the Ca l i fo rn ia O i l C o {Standard of Ca l i fo rn ia subsidiary), encountered the same pay zone around 8 750 to 8,900 feet. T h i s has been completed as a small we l l but it shows that the producing zone is extensive. It is anticipated f rom the seismic data that an area 25 to 30 miles L g a n d 2 / . to 3 miles in extent may ultimately be developed. ^

It is noteworthy that the oil is coming f r o m Ter t i a ry lake beds of fresh and brackish water origin. T h e oil m this field seems to originate m such beds. .

Other folds in tbe U m t a h Basm are being dril led and undoubtedly other field! w i l l be discovered. However the deepest beds in the Basm w i l l be f rom 25,000 to 60,000 feet dependent on tbe position east to west m the Basin. These deeper beds can be penetrated where they rise on the periphery of the Basin at varying depths all -ivithin reach of the d r i l l .

Few areas irt N o r t h America are so rich in surface indications of oi l as the U i n t a h Basin. O i l saturated sandstones, ozocerite occurrences, asphaltic beds and even oi l seepages occur m beds of Ter t ia ry to Cretaceous ages on the periphery of the Basm Numerous gilsonite dikes are found crossmg the Basin in a northwest direction. T h i s Basin is one of the richest potential o i l areas in N o r t h America due to the number of possible pays.

T h e Utah-Colorado Salt Basin, which is the area south of the U in t ah Basin, extends f rom the San Rafae l S w e l l southeastward into Colorado. It is roughly outlined on the map. Numerous anticlinal folds occur m tbat area and have received a moderate amount of attention. T h e Paradox Format ion of Pennsylvaman a g e carries 5,000 to 6,000 feet of evaporites, mainly salt, beneath the anticlines Some of the anticlines are thought to be caused by the upward push of the plastic salt. M a n y of these anticlinal features are cut by graben faults along their axial trends caused by subsurface solution of tbe salt beds.

' Cisco Dome, which occurs on the northeast boundary of the area, produced gas f rom the Dakota and M o r rison beds at depths of 2,200 to 2,500 feet W i t h i n the Salt Basin numerous and'favorable shows of both gas and o i l have been recorded. T h e area holds

promise and w i l l be subjected to continuous exploration especially^ on the flanks of the folds where stratigraphic traps may occur.

T h e M e x i c a n H a t o i l field occurs on the Monumen t Va l l ey U p l i f t , a large north-south trending upl i f t in tbe southeast part of the state Some minor amounts of o i l were obtained in the 1900's by shallow wells located in a minor syncline. T h e Boundary Butte Dome, located to the southeast of the M e x i c a n H a t field, is presently producing oi l f rom the Coconino sandstone at a depth of 1,500 feet and gas f rom the Paradox at a depth of 4,8UU feet T h e possibilities of developing substantial natural gas reserves in tbe general area are favorable.

T h e Farnham Dome one minor structures on the north Hank of the San Rafae l Swel l , produces carbon dioxide gas w i th a minor percentage of helium. A t South Last Chance on the south end of the San Rafael Swel l a gas w e l l yielded a measured flow of 21,000,000 cubic feet daily under 480 pounds pressure, f rom a depth of 2,700 feet. Production comes f rom the Moenkopie Formation. A t a later date two wells dril led wi th rotary tools failed to find that gas, but it is considered that tbe gas was killed by rotary mud as a pressure differential of nearly 1500 p.s.i. existed due to the low reservoir pressure and the heavy mud weights used.

Gas and oi l showings have been found in many of the holes dril led on folds and faults in tbe Salt Basin and around tbe San Rafae l Swell , but outside of Farnham Dome, Cisco Dome, Boundary Butte, and South Last Chance, none have proven of commercial worth. T w o tests are to be made in the immediate future on the eastern flank of the San Rafae l Swel l , one bv an independent o i l company for a 2^0U foot test; the other by the General Petroleum Company, an 8000 toot rotary test.

In some parts of the Colorado P l a teau the hydrostatic pressures are subnormal and modern test holes dril led by rotary methods may possibly bave penetrated pay sands or porous limestones without recognizing the existence of possible productive zones. 1 he past dr i l l ing records of some holes m tbe area just ify retesting wi th cable tools so as to offset the affects of low pressure conditions. Storm has treated the problem incident to low pressures very we l l indeed in his discussion in M I N E S M A G A Z I N E for December, 1949. _

In the southwest portion ot the state the Ca l i fo rn ia Company in its Escalante w e l l in Gar f ie ld County found heavy oi l in the Redwal l ( M a d i son) limestone at a depth of 8,/UU

feet Showings were found around 6 000 feet in tbe Coconino sandstone. T h e w e l l made 500 barrels of 16 gravity black oi l daily for a short period wi th 10% water. W h e n abandoned the we l l made 9 0 % water. However a careful completion there should open a field.

T o the west in Washington County the V i r g i n o i l field, a small shallo^v field wi th wells only 500 to 600 feef deep produced several hundred thou-sand barrels of o i l f rom a thin limestone in the Moenkopie formation. Ac id i z ing some of the weUs may result in increased yield. T h i s small field lies on a monocline east of ths Hurr icane fault .

Several test holes have been drilled in Washington County on the prominent anticline just east of the town of St. George, T h i s structure has _bj no means been condemned by earliei-operations. Basin and Range Province

Near ly a l l of the western part d U t a h is in the geological provmtt known as the Basin and Range wlncl^ includes not only western U t a h bu! the State of Nevada and southeaster Cal i fo rn ia . T h e eastern boundary foi the province is along the western edgf of the Wasatch Range extending soutl^ in a curved line to the southwes' corner of U tah .

T h i s great area of the westerr Uni t ed States is at the present tira being investigated by a number o* major o i l companies. Large tracts o land bave been acquired and a rmm her of test wells w i l l be dri l led. T w wells are being dril led in Nevada i' tbe present time, one by a small W dependent; the other in W h i t e Pin; County by Standard of Cahforn ia an; the Continental O i l C o . So far th test over 7,000 feet deep has prove, disappointing. ... - f

T o estimate the possibihties tor o. and gas in the U t a h portion of t province it is necessary to briefly suit, marize the geological history and poir out some of the attendant major prot-lems of tbe province.

Stratigraphy— The B a s i n an: Range area was a part of the C o r f leran geosyncline and received marif-sediments during the majority of tr Paleozoic era. Mesozoic sedimefl vary wi th in the region between cor tinental and marine deposits. Westef U t a h received marine sediments du" ing Lower Triassic and part of Upp^ Jurassic time. T h e total thickneS-J of the beds range f rom 40,000 to 000 feet.

Structure—The prominent nort south trending mountain ranges, sef rated as they are by flat-floored valle' led to tbe early naming of tbe art " T h e Basin and Range Province. | many instances the ranges are b o u n |

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1?

by north - south faults along their flanks and the present topographic expression is due to this faulting. Prominent folds exist in many of the ranges but the presence of thrusts and massive normal faults disturb tbe continuity of fo ld ing f rom one range to tbe next. Recent investigations as to tbe regional structural pattern seem to suggest the actual pattern is one of pronounced thrust-faulting of 5 to 30 miles in extent. T h e forces that generated tbe thrust faults apparently started in Jurassic time in the western part of the region and the thrusting progressed eastward across the area growing younger in age unt i l in Ter t ia ry time the eastern boundary limits were effected by late Ter t ia ry thrust-faulting. T h e north-south system of faul t ing apparently accompanied or fol lowed as a relaxational phase.

If the dominant structure of the Basin and Range area is one of thrusting, as would seem probable, exploration in the province w i l l have to be guided by continuous geological study. The presence of large and numerous intrusive masses of igneous rock seriously limit much of the area f rom consideration. T h e extrusive igneous flows, which mask much of the area, also complicate the over-all problem. Induration, shattering, re-cementing, and other allied problems developed by faulting, thrusting, igneous heat, and solutions are to be expected.

Gas and Oil Development —• Petroleum in this area occurs on tbe south end of Promontory Ridge at a location on the north shore line of Great Salt Lake. A seepage of heavy oil, rich in icthyol, occurs at the surface. Numerous shallow wells to develop this asphaltic o i l have been drilled without commercial success. The origin of this oil has been hotly debated. Some advocate the lake sediments as the possible source, while others m a i n t a i n an older origin. Deeper holes dri l led to 3,500 are reported to have penetrated petroleum at 1,500 feet and at 2,500 feet in Tertiary lake beds.

From Brigham to as far south as Bountiful just north of Salt Lake City marsh gas has been obtained by shallow wells in Lake Bonneville sediments and has been used locally as fuel. A t Syracuse a number of shallow wells ranging f rom 300 to 700 leet in depth supplied Salt Lake Ci ty J^'th gas for a short period in 1893-94. Some 5,000,000 cubic feet per dav and ôre was supplied.

The wel l of the Promontory O i l Company in W h i t e Val ley , Box Elder ôunty, is over 7,000 feet deep. T h e nole apparently commenced in Pers i a n Rock and did not penetrate into the Pennsylvanian measures. O i l was

^ H E MINES M A G A Z I N E

reported in two horizons in two wells dri l led near Black Rock, M i l l a r d County. A recent test (August, 1950) was made in Sec. 29, T . 25 S., R . 10 W . , nine miles south of Black Rock. A f t e r penetrating 3379 of lake bed materials the hole was abandoned without having reached consolidated rock. These few tests are certainly inconclusive.

T h e complicated folds in the Confusion Range and in other areas w i l l be tested. There seems little reason to expect gas or o i l in those parts of the thick limestone beds which are not intercalated by shale beds. T h i s applies more particularly to the Permian and Pennsjdvanian beds. Deeper, however, in Mississippian, Silurian, and Devonian beds the section looks better.

T h e writers are none too optimistic about the. possibilities of most of the Basin and Range Province. W h e n one eliminates those folds with the Cambrian to Mississippian beds exposed and those wi th intrusives present, only a small portion of the total area remains for consideration. Tests at those spots w i l l soon settle the possibilities of the area.

T h e presence of metalliferous mineral deposits, does not in itself spell finis to a district, although the local areas surrounding such deposits are so affected by the attendant solutions and heats that any organic material present would l ikely be destroyed. O n the flanks away f rom the outermost effects of metallic deposits, oil might be found if stratigraphic traps occur. Some bituminous limestones and shales are known and there are slight chances that oil may be found in such limestones and in fractured shales.

T h e Basin and Range Province cannot be ruled out as an impossibility but is less favorable for finding gas and oi l than other parts of the state. Under present conditions where even the slightly possible areas must be explored, testing for gas and oi l is justified, even though the risks are great. T h e discovery of one good commercial oi l field would pay for many dry holes. However, a dozen tests strategically situated should determine whether or not further testing is justified. Methods of Drilling

The holes dril led for gas and oi l in Utah number over 600 but most of them were shallow holes dril led in the old" V i r g i n oil field, Washington County, and in the Mex ican H a t area, San Juan County, and in Box E lde r County, G r a n d County near Crescent Junction, and at Cisco. M o s t of the holes are less than 1000 feet in depth, but some deep holes have been dri l led, one over 13,000 feet in depth near Thompson, U tah .

Rotary dr i l l ing has largely super-

O C T O B E R . 1950

seded cable dr i l l ing but there are st i l l a few cable tool outfits employed in U t a h on tests of 3,000 feet in depth. In areas of low pressures cable tools should be emploj'ed even up to 6,000 feet in depth or deeper as productive formations can be readily "mudded off" wi th rotary tools where pressure differentials are large between d r i l l ing mud and rock fluids. It might be preferable to d r i l l to the top of possible pays in the proven oi l fields, run casing and cement it, and finish wi th cable tools. Cable tool dr i l l ing is slower than rotary dr i l l ing but wi th low pressures there is far less chance of shutting off pays although cable tool d r i l l ing also requires close supervision as pa3 s may be killed by water if it is not properly cased off. Outlets for Utah O i l and Gas

A t present U t a h produces around 3500 barrels of o i l daily. A p p r o x i mately 800 barrels are produced f rom the Carter U t e - T r i b a l wells and trucked to Salt Lake Ci ty . T b e o i l f rom the Ashley Val ley o i l field connects wi th the pipeline f rom Rangely, Colorado to Salt Lake Ci ty . Salt Lake Ci ty , wi th a refining capacity of 70,000 barrels daily, also processes oil f rom LaBarge, Wyoming , Rangely, Colorado, and several other Colorado oil fields. A 25,000 barrel daily capacity petroleum products line f rom Salt Lake C i t y through Idaho to Pasco, Washington serves the northwest. Increased pipeline capacity w i l l be needed as the Uin tah Basin fields are developed.

Na tu ra l gas is now supplied U tah by the Mounta in F u e l and Supply Company f rom Clay Basin, U t a h , Church Buttes, Wyoming , and other fields in W y o m i n g .

U t a h needs additional natural gas and an important gas reserve wi th in the state would prove most profitable. There are possibilities that several areas especially the South Last Chance Dome migbt prove an important area. Summary

(1) T h e Uin tah Basin of Utah is one of the areas of richest o i l potential remaining in Nor th America.

(2) T b e Colorado Plateau Area has gas and oi l possibilities of importance which w i l l be developed after careful study and the dr i l l ing of numerous holes.

(3) T h e Basin and Range Province is the least likely area for gas and oil but it is being tested, and in time it may prove to carry a few gas and oil fields. It cannot at this time be discarded as not having possibilities.

U t a h should become an important gas and oi l state, and its possibilities are now being explored wi th aggressiveness and wi th intelligent campaigns by numerous strong oil concerns.

63

. Figure 2 - T o w . Lot Field ai Huntington Beach, Caiifornia, about 1935. Many of these wells were deflected far out under the Paci^c Oce

By J . B. M U R D O C H . J R . Chief Engineer

Eastman O i l W e l l Survey Company

P r i o r to the acceptance of wel l surveying as a standard oil field practice it was considered that rotary dril led wells were straight. W e l l surveys proved tbat tbe course of many of the holes was unusually crooked. In general it was found that boles deviated f rom vertical somewhat in proportion to the dr i l l ing equipment used, the weight applied to the bit, and tbe formations penetrated.

T h e most primary form of directional dr i l l ing was done in rotary dril led wells by using a permanent-type wbipstock for sidetracking tools lost in the hole. T h i s wbipstock was in use for many years before any true directional work was done. It consisted of a cylindrical steel casting varying f rom 8 to 12 feet in length,

and of slightly smaller diameter than the hole in which it was run. A concave, inclined groove wi th an angle of about 2" 00' was formed on one side of the casting. T h i s tool was lowered to bottom on the d r i l l pipe and cemented in place in the wel l . I n d r i l l ing by the wbipstock the course of the hole was deflected away f rom tbe original bore.

A f t e r operators realized tbat wells deviated great distances underground by natural means, and that a hole could be sidetracked when necessary, tbey considered tbat it might be we l l to use this discovery to their advantage. W h y not force the we l l to bottom at almost any predetermined point at a given vertical depth? A few early attempts were made to direct wells by setting a n d cementing permanent whipstocks as required tn guide the course of the wel l . A s many as thir

teen of these deflecting tools \ mented into a single wel l , b'cw these wells were completed fu l ly , since it was found tbat tbe whipstocks in the we l l w: visable. D u r i n g subsequent operations the cement was 1 and the whipstocks turned. Soi they slipped down into thc hole w dr i l l ing was in progress, pern sticking the d r i l l pipe.

Removable Deflecting Tool Necessary

F r o m this experience it was that a deflecting tool must be which could be used to del hole, after which it could be f rom the wel l . T h e Eastman able wbipstock was invented ; used in 1931. A s shown in I is a cylindrical steel casting m; a chisel point on bottom. T l point prevents it f rom turnin

64 T H E M i N E S M A G A Z I N E @ O C T O B E R , I

• Left, figure i—Eastman regular removable whipstock

V Center, figure 3—Eastman knuckle joint

f Right, figure 4—Eastman full-gauge whip-stock. Roller reamer used above rock type whipstock bit,

bottom of the we l l . A r ing is provided at the top so that it may be lowered into and wi thdrawn f rom the wel l . A concave, tapered groove is formed on one side f rom the bottom of the r ing to the chisel point. A spiral bit is designed especially for use w i th the removable wbipstock. T h e diameter of the bit is too great to allow it to pass through the r ing at the top of the whipstock, and the spiral fins cause it to d r i l l smoothly down the face. A tapped hole is provided in the back of the whipstock r ing in order that

MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

a shear bolt may be screwed through the r ing and into the shank of the bit.

In use the whipstock is held vertically while the d r i l l pipe is run down through tbe ring. T h e whipstock bit is screwed onto the d r i l l pipe, after which the pipe is raised so that the shear bolt may be screwed through the whipstock ring and into the bit shank. T h u s the d r i l l pipe and deflecting tool turn as a unit as they are lowered into the wel l . T h e d r i l l pipe, w i th the whipstock on the bottom is run into the w e l l in the usual manner. W h e n the bottom of the w e l l is, reached the whipstock is faced in tbe desired direction, and tbe chisel point is forced into the formation. Fur ther application of weight shears the bolt, and the bit and dr i l l pipe are rotated, tn dr i l l ing by the whipstock the bit enlarges one side of the original hole. W h e n it reaches the bottom of the whipstock it starts making small gauge deflected hole. A f t e r ten to twenty-feet of "rat hole" has been made below tbe point of the whipstock, the d r i l l pipe is hoisted unt i l tbe bit engages the r ing on top of the wbipstock. Since the bit is too large to pass through the ring it l if ts the whipstock off the bottom, withdrawing it f rom the hole. A f t e r the whipstock has been removed a " fo l low-up" run is made wîth a small gauge bit similar to that used wi th the whipstock. T h e "rat hole" is reamed to f u l l gauge wi th a pilot reamer. A f t e r the reaming has been completed, normal dr i l l ing procedures are resumed.

First Extensive Use of New Deflecting Tool

T h e first extensive use of the new deflecting tool was made in d r i l l ing seventy-five or eighty deflected wells along the shore line at Hunt ington Beach, Cal i forn ia . T h e surface locations were in the town lot field bordering the Pacific Ocean but the bottoms were deflected to a subsea oil structure a half mile or more off shore. It was the custom of operators to call for a run of the removable whipstock to start the w e l l in the desired direction, then to set the tool as often as the we l l deviated f rom its course. Directional crews rigged up the wbipstock and oriented it into the hole so that it faced in tbe direction requested by the operator. A f t e r the pin was sheared and dr i l l ing commenced they instructed the dril ler as to how to d r i l l by tbe face of tbe whipstock to make the follow-up hole, and finallj'' to ream the slant hole to gauge. A f t e r giving these instructions they left the we l l .

T h i s system did not prove too satisfactory in many cases. A number of whipstocks were stuck in holes by drillers who were not experienced in

65

the technique of removing t h e m . Sometimes the fol low-up bit did not enter the "rat hole," or the reaming operation resulted in sidetracking the slant hole dri l led off the whipstock. Some of the whipstock runs were unsuccessful in turning the bole m the desired direction. O f t e n the course of the we l l was changed too abruptly or tbe dr i f t was increased too quickly, resulting in bad "dog legs." Twis ted off d r i l l pipe occasioned long and costly fishing jobs. T h e running of casing was very difficult in many wells due to tbe wandering course of the wel l . Production problems multiplied as tbe wells were pumped due to excessive rod and tubing wear.

Controlled Drilling Service Of fe red

Fina l ly it became evident that different methods must be used if deviated dr i l l ing was to become successful. T h e Eastman O i l W e l l Survey Company, pioneers in the art of directional dr i l l ing , decided to offer control service to o i l operators. It was suggested that an experienced Eastman engineer be put in charge of tbe deflecting of each slant we l l . H e would plan the course of the we l l f rom surface to bottom, setting deflecting tools whenever necessary. Sufficient single shot pictures would be taken so that tbe course of the w e l l would be known at al l times, and tools would be used before abrupt changes in the course were necessary. F u l l advantage would be taken of the engineer's experience on previous directional jobs. H e would recommend different d r i l l i ng setups (types of bits, reamers and d r i l l collars) to be used, as we l l as the speed of rotation, weight on the d r i l l bit, and pump pressure to use w i th these dr i l l ing combinations. It was found that this control system was a valuable service to the operators. Holes that were mucb better mechanically were dri l led more rapidly by this system.

Based on this experience, directional d r i l l ing engineers began to make recommendations on necessary changes in the whipstock and on new types of deflecting tools. Fluted and ribbed whipstocks were cast to reduce the weight of the tool and to offset its tendency to stick in wells. Techniques for re-nsoving whipstocks when they became stuck were developed quickly.

Use of Knuckle Joint In 1934

T h e knuckle joint was offered to oi l operators in 1934 as a revolutionary new type of deflecting tool. I l lustrated in F i g . 3, it w i l l be seen that it is a mechanical deflecting tool having certain advantages over the removable whipstock. It is essentially a universal ball and socket joint wi th tbe lower d r i l l collar held at a fixed

angle by a spring actuated cam. T h i s d r i l l collar carries a pointed bit at its bottom end, and a reamer at the upper end.

In use, the tool is screwed directly onto the d r i l l pipe, lowered into the hole, and faced in tbe desired direction at bottom. W i t h low mud circulation and constant pressure on bottom, tbe tool is rotated unt i l the deflected hole is started. W h e n the d r i l l collar has dri l led down to the reamer at its upper end, the reamer opens the hole so that the body may enter the deflected hole. Below this point the entire assembly dril ls as a unit. T h e "rat hole" is reamed to f u l l gauge, as is the case when a whipstock is used.

T h i s tool offers certain advantages over the removable whipstock. Since provision is made to circulate through tbe tool, sand bridges in the w e l l may be pumped out if necessary. N o pin is used in the knuckle joint which might shear prematurely. There is l i t tle danger of sticking this tool since it is in constant motion when dri l l ing. T h e knuckle joint has become a standard deflecting tool and is used in many cases for side tracking cement plugs in soft formations, as we l l as in directional operations.

Improvement In Tools and Methods

Further improvement was made in the removable whipstock by the introduction of a f u l l gauge type. T h i s tool was designed to eliminate the necessity of making three round trips of the d r i l l pipe each time a tool was set; one run to d r i l l off the wbipstock; a second to make follow-up hole; and a tbird to ream the "rat hole" to f u l l gauge.

T h e f u l l gauge tool. F i g . 4, uses a bit much larger than that employed with the ordinary whipstock. N e w

V Figure 5—Operation of Eastman full-gauge whipstock—lof;' to right: ( i) On bottom in oriented position. (2} Pilot hole drilled, (3) Picking up the whipsock. (4) Drilling ahead with full gauge bit.

bole made below the whipstock is only slightly smaller in gauge than the d i ameter of the bole in which tbe whipstock is run. Necessarily, the tool has a much thinner section than tbe conventional wbipstock.

T h e advantage in the use of this newer deflecting tool is tbat the f o l low-up and reaming runs are el iminated. A f t e r the f u l l gauge wbipstock has been wi thdrawn f rom the w e l l a f u l l gauge bit is used to proceed wi th further dr i l l ing . T h i s bit effectively reams tbe small amount of ' rat hole" and cuts new hole of the correct diameter.

A f u l l gauge knuckle joint has been developed for speeding up the deflection work when this type of tool is used. T h e reamer below the body of the knuckle joint has been enlarged so that no reaming of the deflected hole is necessary.

Eventual ly both types of deflecting tools were adapted for use in hard dr i l l ing formations. Rock type bits may be used on a l l types of whipstocks and knuckle joints.

A very recent development of the removable whipstock has been the adaption of a diamond type whipstock bit for cutting extremely hard formations. T h i s bit, because of its superior cutting qualities, has justified its greater cost over that of standard oi l we l l bits. F i g . 6 shows a f u l l gauge whipstock fitted wi th a diamond core bit. A s the bit dr i l ls off the bottom of the whipstock, a core is cut which aids in holding the bit in the formation. T h i s is especially important in side tracking cement plugs in very hard formations.

Technique in Deflecting New Wells

Cyl inder d r i l l ing is a technique which resulted f rom the necessity for deflecting new wells between a number of wells dril led previously at Hunt ington Beach, Ca l i fo rn ia . Since 1938 the practice of dr i l l ing directional wells in cylinders has increased steadily. A n imaginary cylinder is described about the proposed we l l course as a center. T h e radius of these cyl inders usually is fifty or one-hundred feet, however, portions of slant wells have been d i r e c t e d successfully through cylinders as small as twentj '-feet in diameter.

T o a certain extent this systg^n assures the dr i l l ing of mechanically correct holes by l imi t ing the tolerance of the d r i f t and direction of tbe course of the wel l . T h e directional engineer is called upon to use the f u l l range of bis ski l l in maintaining tbe course of the w e l l wi th in the limits of tbe cylinder. H e notes the effect of the

66 THE MINES M A G A Z I N E © 0 C T 0 B : : R , 1950

v Figure 6—Full gauge whipstock fitted with a diamond core bit.

different dr i l l ing setups and methods of dr i l l ing that he recommends. A skilled control engineer tries to anticipate and provide for eventualities which might occur in order to keep the we l l inside the cylinder limits.

Probably the greatest advancement in directional d r i l l ing practice was the intelligent planning of tbe we l l course before dr i l l ing was started. T h i s planning consists of the accurate evaluation of a number of factors effecting tbe program.

Three factors effect the proper starting point for the deflection of a we l l . They are—formation characteristics, maximum dr i f t angle selected, and the rate of increase in dr i f t angle. Natura l ly tbe total horizontal deviation required and the depth to tbe oil producing sand must be considered.

T h e sub-surface geologic conditions in the field in which the we l l is to be drilled are very important. D i p and strike of the formation and its phj'sical properties must be considered. Those wells dril led in a direction nearly normal to the strike are easiest to control. Deflecting tools should be set in homogeneous formation and not at depths at which alternating layers of hard and soft material occur.

Main ta in ing a very low or an unnecessarily high d r i f t angle is not recommended. Costs are increased hy attempting to maintain the course of a directional wel l at a low dr i f t . T h i s Well has a tendency to wander unnecessarily, increasing the number of tools set, and lowering the speed of penetration. Extremely high - angle wells present special difficulties in logging, surveying, and running casing. D r i f t angles f rom 15° 00 ' to 45° 00' have been maintained successfully for thousands of feet. It is within this

range that tbe most economical directional d r i l l ing is accomplished. Recommended Deflection Angle

A recommended rate of increase of 2° 30 ' or 3° 00 ' per hundred feet of hole dri l led is used in deflecting the we l l f rom vertical to its maximum dri f t . In some instances rates of in crease of 6° 00 ' or 8° 00' per hundred feet have been used in softer formations. However, such extremes should be avoided. T h e best practice is to in crease the angle at a lower rate and d r i l l a little more directional hole to reach the objective.

A directionally dril led we l l is not a "crooked hole" but is a directed wel l wherein a l l bends are controlled to stay wi th in safe limits. Frequent causes of mechanical trouble in both vertical and directed wells are excessive "dog legs" and unnecessary wandering of the we l l course. A safe angle should be chosen which w i l l suit the requirements for efficient dr i l l ing and production. Recommended practice is to l imit the average increase in dr i f t to 2 ° 30' per hundred feet dril led, and to l imit the maximum "dog leg" caused by deflecting tools to 3* 00 ' in any fifty foot section and 5° 00' in any one-hundred foot section of w e l l bore.

Directional wells are of two general types. I n one, the dr i f t angle is increased at a uniform rate to the desired m a x i m u m deflection angle, which is maintained until the o i l zone is reached. In the second type the angle is increased at a uniform rate and maintained unt i l the desired deflection is obtained, at which point the w e l l is brought back to vertical at a uniform rate of decrease in angle. T h e choice of one of these two types of wells is dictated by the oi l structure being penetrated and possible further re-dr i l l ing operations. A directional we l l

should be planned to take advantage of multiple zone completions, possible further deepening to lower zones, or the perforating of casing at shallower depths.

W e i l Course Planned in Advance

T h e engineer takes into consideration these conditions and formulates a general plan for laying out the we l l course. A tentative starting point for deflecting is chosen and calculations are made to determine the average dr i f t angle of the wel l . Prepared tables and charts assist him in computing the ideal wel l course. Of t en two or three tentative calculations are made using various starting points, rates of increase in dr if t , etc., before a final decision is made.

W h e n the best course has been determined a plan and vertical section of the we l l course is drawn to scale on cross-section paper. A cylinder of appropriate radius is described about this proposed ideal course. T h e radius of this cylinder should be such that it precludes possible "dog legs" and wandering in the course of the we l l but does not so restrict the we l l that directional dr i l l ing costs w i l l be increased. T h i s proposal is used by the directional dr i l l ing engineer as the we l l is dril led. A l l survey data is plotted upon it as dr i l l ing proceeds and it is the basis for the engineer's future planning.

T h e directional engineer considers the many choices of equipment possible. H e uses his judgment as to the effectiveness of whipstocks or knuckle joints according to the formation and size of the hole dri l led. H e may clioose between a number of methods for surveying the wel l . A n open hole single shot may be used on a wire line. A small type single shot can be run out through the end of the d r i l l pipe to give dr i f t and direction readings when the hole is dril led wi th a trigger bit. A small single shot may be dropped or lowered on piano wire down inside the d r i l l pipe to be positioned in a nonmagnetic d r i l l collar near the bit to obtain the desired survey information. The most accurate and rapid sj'stem should be chosen.

Supervisory System Inaugurated

A supervisory system for directional dr i l l ing crews has been inaugurated recently to assist in overcoming difficulties encountered in this specialized work. T h e best and most experienced field engineers are appointed as supervisors over less experienced men who w i l l actually do the work. These supervisors act as e x p e r t trouble shooters on the directional wells d r i l l -

6 7 THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

TIME V E R T I C A L P L A N P ENETRATION P R O J E C T I ON ECfiLE i-'ioo'

CHART SCALE l'=400'

SEPT OCT. NOV DEC. 1949

SB i 18 !a 7 (7 7 17 27

C A T 225* ,3* 6* 9*

lf^^CYLINDER-50'RADIUS

OBJECTiVE AT 6(00 T.V.D. 4442.73' N-32*-W FfiOM SURFACE

33SI' DECLINATiOfJ

soos' 9 ° EAST

SURFACE LOCATION-

DAYS ieoeNd

W,S W»»-5io« S,B,----S'ii™>ic Bi K J- >:huci:L[-JD' W.O.C, - WimtiG DM W.Q O, ' viuuftti on W.O.W.-HUIMl OH DRLG. - - DRiiiiris

SUMMARY TOTAL FOOTAGE DRiLLEO •• TOTAL NUMBER DAYS B6

REPAIRS 533 ftf, W.O.C SOTtn W.O.O, SBhr. W.O.W. S3BB' CORINS 47 hr. ORLG, 952 hi. ELECT LOGGING 4ihi,

AVERAGE FOOTAGE PER DRLG. D*J E37,S7-NUMBER OF KFLECTION TOOLS SET J

Figure 7—Completion report on directionally drilled well. Note cylinder In which drilling was done. Time penetration chart at left shows drilling log of well,


68 THE MINES M A G A Z I N E d O C T O B E R , 1950

By V L A D I M I R H A E N S E L

Universal O i l Products Company

Riverside, Illinois

T h e production of fuels for use in internal combustion engines has been an important problem to the petroleum refiner for the last thirty j'ears. P r io r to that, most of the interest lay in the production of kerosene and lubricants. It was not long, however, before the widespread use of gasoline made it necessary to concentrate on gasoline as the major refinery product.

First A t t empt to Increase Gasoline Yield

T h e first attempt to increase tbe yield of gasoline f rom a crude o i l (which yield heretofore was limited to the straight-run gasoline content of the crude) involved the use of thermal cracking of the heavier oils. Shortly thereafter, owing to a demand for higher octane fuels, tbe refiners turned to a m e t h o d for upgrading, the straight-run gasoline. T h i s was done

by subjecting straight-run naphthas to \ a high-temperature, high-pressure non- x-^.!.'- \ catalytic treatment, which resulted in the production of a higher octane fuel along wi th a moderate to heavy loss to gas which was normally burned as Vladimir Haensel received his B.S. from Northwestern University in 1935 and his M.S. from f i n J 1 r the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1937. He ioined Universal O i ! Products Comoanv. f u e l Soon afterward the need for assisting Professor V. N . Ipatieff. In 1939 he helped to set up the Ipatieff High Pressure Labo: greater production of gasoline and ratory at Northwestern University. H e received his Ph.D. from Northwestern in 1941, and re-higher quality gasoline, f rom the turned to Universal as a research chemist. From February to July, 1945, Dr. Haensel inspected standpoint of octane number resulted German synthetic oil plants as a member of the Technical Oi l Mission for the Petroleum • . t -J J i - . u ' ^ w Administration for War. Since August, 1945, he has been the co-ordlnator of the crackinq in tne wmespreaa use o i tne catalytic r^,^^,^h division of Universal Oi l Products Company, polymerization process, which utilizes

the refinery waste gases containing of tê aviation gasoline production gasoline, but the demand for high propylene and butylene to produce a was dependent upon catalytic cracking grade motor fuel continued to in-high octane gasoline. T h i s is used to to furnish one of the components of crease, so that additional catalytic blend wi th tbe other refinery products, aviation gasoline. A t the same time a cracking c a p a c i t y was installed thus obtaining an over-all product number of new reactions became of throughout the country. T h e over-all with a higher octane number. increasing importance. These include picture of gasoline production in the

the alkylation of isoparaffins w i th ole- Uni t ed States can be seen in tbe f o l -About fifteen years ago the atten- fins which produces an aviation blend- lowing table:

tion of the refiners was focused upon ' "S component directly, and the reac- F rom this table it is apparent that new methods of producing high octane tion of normal butane to isobutane approximately 6 0 % of the gasoline gasolines in greater yields than were which greatly increases the availability production in the U . S . is derived f rom heretofore realized. T h e p r o c e s s isobutane for tbe alkjdation reac- straight-run and f rom thermal crack-

which aroused the greatest interest ^ ' O " - '^S of heavier oils. A s stated before, and which soon reached wide com- . the increase in gasoline production has mercial application was the catalytic Fo l lowing the war, there was less • come primarily f rom the degradation cracking of gas oils. T h i s process ^^^^ the production of aviation of the heavier fractions occuring in

makes it possible to produce gasolines A p p r o x t m a t b G a s o l i n e P r o d u c t i o n i n U n i t e d S t a t e s Ref iner ies^ ' that have considerably higher octane • — 5 . — . ^ , numbers than were previously real- Barrels / D a y % of T o t a l ized by the thermal methods of crack- Straight-run 743,000 30.5 ing and thereby makes it possible for Na tu ra l gasoline 420,000 17.0 the refiner to blend off some of bis The rma l cracked'' 743,000 30.5 low grade straight-run fractions wi th Catalytically cracked^ 544,000 22.0

the catalytically cracked gasoline. 2,450,000 100.0

T h e catalytic cracking operation " Calculated f rom U . S. Bureau of Mines estimates for 1949. was given a considerable impetus dur- Barre l of 42 gallons, ing tbe war years, when a large part Includes polymer and alkylate.

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 69

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crude oil rather than bj ' upgrading the straight-run gasoline. T h e use of the thermal reforming process is quite limited in its scope, pr imari ly because it is not possible to obtain sufficiently high octane numbers without encountering a very substantial loss of the gasoline to gas, only part of which is convertible back to gasoline by the polymerization process.

Hydroforming Process

D u r i n g the past 20 years a considerable amount of work has been done on the conversion of the straight-run gasolines by methods other than thermal reforming in order to obtain high yields of products having a sufficiently high octane number. A great deal of work has been done on methods of conversion which involve the processing of the straight-run fractions over a catalyst. Shortly before the war, one such method had reached commercial scale. T h i s particular process involved the treatment of a naphtha over a raolybdena-alumina catalyst in the presence of hydrogen, the latter being recycled. T h i s process is called hydro-forming, and served as a very large producer of toluene during the war years. A f t e r the war these units were used for the production of motor fue l as w e l l as of aromatic concentrates such as toluene and xylenes,

A particular feature of tbe hydro-forming operation, which is also common to the catalytic cracking operation, is that it involves a periodic regeneration of the catalyst. A s tbe reaction progresses the catalyst becomes fouled by a carbonaceous deposit which reduces the activity of the catalyst. I n order to maintain the activity, the catalyst has to be burned wi th air at regular intervals. Such an operation is rather cumbersome, especially in view of the fact that tbe actual naphtha processing time is only about 3 0 % of the total elapsed time, so that the unit is actually idle for some 7 0 % of the time while the regeneration of tbe catalyst is carried out. T h i s feature along with others has restricted the use of hydroforming to relatively large units which are uneconomical for tbe small refiner. A t the same time, tbe need for the conversion of tbe tremendous quantities of straight-run and natural gasoline stocks has become more pressing in view of the upward trend in the required quality of gasoline and in gasoline consumption.

Fundamentals in Convert ing Straight-run Gasoline to High Octane Product

A t this point it is worthwhile to review briefly the fundamental chemical ideas which govern the conversion of a straight-run gasoline into a high oc

tane product. W h e n one considers thermal cracking it can be looked upon as a process where hydrocarbon molecules undergo indiscriminate cracking along the hydrocarbon chain wi th relatively little selectivity of reaction. A s a result, some molecules are cracked too much while others are cracked not at a l l . Thus , t h e r m a l reforming which, as mentioned above, is merely an application of heat and pressure, can be looked upon as a sort of "sledge hammer" method. Thus , if we are to obtain a high yield of high octane gasoline f rom a low octane straight-run gasoline, we must develop a process wherein the thermal reactions are essentially absent. T h i s means that the process has to be catalytic and it must be operated at relatively mi ld conditions so that essentially no thermal reactions can take place.

Next , it should be realized that such a catalytic process has to be made up of a number of chemical reactions, since gasolines contain different hydrocarbon types or classes, and each class

requires a different chemical reaction so that the members of this class can most efficiently be converted into more valuable components. One of tbe most important features of tbis idealized process is that the rearrangement and the conversion of tbe charge has to be extensive as there is no simple method of separating the products of reaction f rom tbe charging stock.

In addition to all these, there are two other features which are exceedingly important. One involves a selection of the right catalyst to carry out a l l these reactions as efficiently as possible, and at the same time not suffer f rom tbe deposition of a carbonaceous deposit which would require tbe installation of the costly and complicated catalyst regeneration equipment. One merely has to consider the fact that no charging stock is processed over the catalyst during regeneration to realize the efficiency of a non-regenerative operation and its inherent simplicity provides a practical solution for a refiner wbo cannot afford a large

70 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

investment in a plant that remains non-productive for a good share of the time.

Plafforming Process Developed

T h e recently developed P la t fo rm-ing process approaches very closely to the ideal solution for the reforming of straight-run and natural gasolines. T h e catalyst employed in the Plat-forming process c o n t a i n s small amounts of platinum. T b e functions of the catalyst in carrying out the desired reactions under conditions wherein wasteful side reactions are v i r tua l ly eliminated have been realized in tbe laboratory, pilot plant and commercial operation.

A t the present time, a considerable number of additional P la t forming units are being installed throughout the country making it possible to produce high yields of high octane gasoline f rom the straight - run charge stocks.

A petroieum refiner is primarily interested in obtaining a maximum yield-octane relationship f rom the straight-run gasoline. T h e fo l lowing graph shows a comparison of the different commercial operations on that basis. It w i l l be observed that an exceedingly high yield-octane relationship is obtained by Pla t forming. T h e underlying reason for that is the great selectivity of this particular operation f rom tbe standpoint of tbe chemical reactions that are involved.

Reactions Involved in Platforming

T b e reactions which are involved in P la t forming include dehydrogen-ation of naphthenes to aromatics, by-drocracking of the paraffins, desul-furizat ion, isomerization and cycliza-tion. T h e first reaction, debj'drogena-tion of naphthenes, is the removal of hydrogen f rom the cyclic constituents present in the straight-run gasoline to produce tbe corresponding aromatic

hydrocarbojis as shown by the fo l lowing scheme:

the direct conversion of paraffinic compounds into aromatics as follows :

C H .

T h e second reaction involves a rearrangement of the flve-membered ring to a six-membered r ing structure and dehydrogenation.

T h e hydrocracking reaction involves a selective cracking and rearrangement so that a larger molecule is converted into two smaller fragments, both of which have a considerably higher octane number than the original parent hydrocarbon. T h i s reaction can be expressed by the fo l lowing equation;

CH8CH2CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH3

Here again a structural rearrangement occurs.

T h e reaction of desulfurization is that of converting the sul fur compounds present in the straight-run gasoline to hydrogen sulfide which is removed upon stabilization of the liquid product. T h e isomerization reaction involves tbe rearrangement of the constituents of the straight-run gasoline into a more highly branched structure so that the resulting products have a higher octane number. Th i s reaction is illustrated by the fo l lowing equation.

[ C H , C H C I ! - j C H , C H X - H >

C H , C H , C H j C H ;C H , C H , C H , , C H , , C H . . C H C H , C H . C H ,

I I T C H , C » C H C H - . C I ! j

T h e cyclization reaction involves

LH,lTL(M,.tll.l-H,LTIAlli -4 / X a " . ' l i t +111;

A l l of the reactions take place in Pla t forming, the major reactions being tbe dehydrogenation and hydro-cracking. T b e control over the various reactions that occur in P la t forming is exercised by proper catalyst preparation and operating conditions.

Description of the Platforming Processes

A t this point a description of the P la t fo rming processes is of interest. T b e fo l lowing is a schematic flow diagram of a commercial P la t fo rming unit. It involves a pref ractionator which removes the lower boiling constituents f rom the charging stock as w e l l as the heavy bottoms, so that a fraction boiling f rom about 170 to

CH:,

^CHîCHsCH.CHoCH:, -t- CH !!^HCH.CH,.,

400° F is used as a reactor charge. T h i s material is pumped to a reaction pressure of about 700 lbs. per sq. in. , is heated by means of a naphtha heater and, prior to entering the catalyst chambers, is joined wi th a stream of recycled gas consisting primarily of hydrogen.

Since the overall reaction in P la t forming is endothermic, that is, it requires a heat input, the catalj'st is distributed among three chambers w i t h two intermediate rebeaters. T h e effluent is cooled by heat exchange, the recycle gas is separated f rom the l iquid product and the latter is stabilized and the Platformate is removed as bottoms and goes to storage. Since the Pla t forming process does not produce higher boiling materials which are usually formed in other processes, i t does not require a redistillation or rerunning operation.

There are a number of operating

PBf rR*cTiONArDn

TO STOHABE

• Simplified Flow Diagram of U . O . P. Platforming Unit.

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 1950 71

E f f e c t o f T e m p e r a t u r e R u n Charge 1 2 3 4 Ave . Cat. Temp. ° F 813 843 873 903 Y i e l d of C 4 + , L i q . V o l . % of C h g 100.0 98.0 96.8 95.0 91.6 R V P Zl - 5.5 6.0 6.7 8.3 11.4

Octane Numbers : F-1 Clear 60.8 67.5 74 80.5 89 F-1 + 3 cc. T E L 80.2 85 88 92.5 98.5 F -2 Clear 60.7 65 70 75.5 82 F -2 + 3 C C . T E L - 80.0 82 85 88 91.5

% Aromatics in Product 9 19 27 35 45 Hydrogen Production, cu . f t . /bb l — 166 318 420 466

variables in the P la t fo rming operation. These involve temperature, pressure and space velocity. T h e effect of temperature is shown in the above table where the results of processing a 3 5 0 ° F end-point straight-run stock from mixed paraffinic and naphtbenic crudes are shown in table above.

T h e results shown indicate first of a l l that P la t fo rming is a relatively low temperature operation, and it is through the use of these mi ld conditions that the reaction remains a truly catalytic one, w i th no interference f rom undesirable thermal effects.

A study of the effect of pressure

over the range of 500 to 900 psig. has

shown that at the highest pressure the

reaction of hydrocracking is very pro

nounced while the reaction of formation of aromatics is considerably reduced. T h e reverse is true at the lowest pressure. T h i s indicates that it is possible to produce gasolines of varying volati l i ty to suit the needs of the individual refiner.

A n extensive study has been made of the effect of space velocity upon the Pla t forming operation. Space velocity is defined as barrels of reactor charge

per hour per barrel of catalyst and in the usual P la t fo rming operation a space velocity of about 3 is empWed. It was found that at lower space velocities a product w i th a greater volati l i ty is obtained, while at higher space velocities the reverse is true. T h e pro-d u c t i o n of aromatic hydrocarbons changes slightly w i th changes in space velocity because the i-eaction of dehj'-drogenation, w h i c h produces aromatics, is a very rapid one and a large portion of the total potential aromatics is produced at high space velocities.

T h e reaction of desulfurization which occurs in P la t fo rming is of considerable interest f rom the standpoint of both producing saleable gasolines f rom high su l fur straight-run stocks as we l l as increasing the effectiveness of tetraethyl lead when the finished gasolines are leaded. T h e table below shows the sul fur contents of the charging stocks and products and the

Su l fu r Octane N o . Source Charge Product % Reduction F-1 - f 3 cc. T E L

Mich igan 0:045 0.0027 94 96 G u l f Coast 0.019 0.0023 88 93 Midcontinent - 0.040 0.0042 90 95 Cal i fo rn ia (1) 0.102 0.0005 99 95 Cal i fo rn ia (2) 0.14 0.0036 97 97

•w Recycle gas heater with intermediate heater In right background—Platforming unit, Old Dutch Refining Co. , Muskegon, Mich. Photo above,

corresponding leaded research octane

numbers at a variety of severities.

A l o n g with low sulfur contents and high octane numbers of the P la t fo rm-ate, it was found that the product has an excellent storage stability and road performance.

Firsf Commercial

Plafforming Unit

A t this point it is of interest to describe briefly the performance of the first commercial P la t forming unit at the O l d Du tch Refining Company at Muskegon, Mich igan . T h e unit was started on October 28, 1949, and has been in essentially continuous operation since that time, charging on the average 900-1000 barrels per stream day of a 1 8 0 - 3 6 0 ° F naphtha. M o r e recently the throughput on the plant has been increased to about 1900 barrels a day. T b e performance of tbe plant has been highly satisfactory and, except for a few mechanical troubles which usually accompany the first try-out of any new equipment, the operation has proved itself to be exceedingly simple. T h e operation has been conducted at 8 6 0 - 8 9 0 ° F average catalyst

1 I

temperature and 700 psig, pressure.

It is interesting to note that the orig

inal plan was to operate to obtain a

product wi th a leaded research octane

number of 89-90. However, during

the intervening period of construc

tion, which required 139 days, the re

finer was called upon to produce a

considerably higher octane product.

A s a result, the unit has been operat

ing at somewhat different conditions

to produce a leaded octane level of 93

wi th a yield of 94.5 percent by vol

ume. A t one time the unit was oper

ated for a period of several weeks to

produce a Platformate having a leaded

octane number of 95.8 wi th yield of

90 volume percent. T h e total gas pro

duction amounts to about 900,000

cubic feet per day of which more than

one-half is vented f rom the separator

and contains 80-85 percent hydrogen.

T h e remaining gas is vented f rom the

stabilizer overhead.

One of the raost significant and important features of the O l d Dutch P la t fo rming U n i t operation is the performance of the catalyst. T h e first batch of catalyst was removed f rom the unit in M a y of 1950 at the end

Reactors with No. 1 on the left and the recycle gas and intermediate heaters in the background—Platforming unit, Old Dutch Refining Co . , Muskegon, Mich. Photo below.

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E O C T O B E R , 1950

of more than six months of operation. Since it was planned to increase the capacity of the unit to 1900 harrels per day, it was decided to increase the catalyst inventory and use a fresh batch of catalj'st. T h e overall catalyst cost per barrel of throughput over the entire six months run was found to be 8.5 cents, this value being w e l l below the original estimated catalyst cost.

T b e accompanying table gives a typical charge and product analysis f rom the O l d D u t c h operation.

O l d D u t c h R e f i n i n g C o m p a n y P l a t f o r m i n g O p e r a t i o n

Reactor Reactor Charge Product Charge Product

Grav i ty ° A P I - 56.9 57.6 60.0 62.1 I B P °F 203 88 176 86

10% 220 123 192 129 5 0 % 25^ 240 239 215

" 9 0 % 300 319 302 306 E P 333 355 358 364 R V P 0.8 13.6 — lO.O

F-1 O . N . Clear 50 86.1 49 81.3 F-1 - f 3 cc. T E L - 68.5 95.8 67.5 93.2 Su l fu r 0-O1-50 0.0020 — —

R E C E N T D I S C O V E R Y


sand at a depth of 3272 to 3480 feet. It is important in that it is tbe first indication of commercial production in the Julesburg Basin east of Cheyenne County. Buckingham Area

Before this paper was completed another discovery has been made in the Julesburg Basin. Shell O i l Company's Hansen N o . 1, N E , N E , N E , Sec. 33, T . 8 N . , R . 59 W . , W e l d County, Colorado, tested "so called" M u d d y Sand f rom 6715 — 6726'. Tester open two hours recovered 4900 feet of light o i l , no water. T h e w e l l is presently coring ahead.

T h i s w e l l is located adjacent to the town of Buckingham, Colorado, and is approximately 14 miles northeast of the old Greasewood F ie ld . ( F i g . 1) . Three miles south of this w e l l a group of four dry boles have been dril led at intervals during the last nineteen years a l l having encouraging shows of oil and gas. T w o dry holes have also been dril led to the north and northeast.

T h i s w e l l was located after a detailed seismic survey was made of the area by Shell .

W i t h the discovery of commercial quantities of light o i l at Buckingham and gas at B i g Springs the total number of new producing areas in tbe Julesburg Basin now number 10. Conclusions

A s exploration and development proceeds in this new producing province certain factors seem to stand out rather prominently in its favor : 1. T h e oil is light in gravi ty and of

paraffin-base, and the gas is sweet, devoid of sulfur. Such products are needed very much, as the presenUy developed reserves of such production are quite limited, and additions to such reserves are to be desired.

2. U p to the present time production has been found in sands at relatively shallow depths (3300 to 5S00 feef) . A l l formations are extremely soft, and dr i l l ing costs are at a minimum.

3. T h i s new producing area is located f a r Out on the G r e a t Plains in a populous wheat rais ing area, 300 odd miles closer to eastern markets than most of the other reserves of oil in the

Rocky M o u n t a i n A r e a . 4-, T h e recently announced 1,0B0 mile

Platte Pipe line f rom W o r i a n d , W y o ming to W o o d River , Illinois, wi l l be of great advantage to the Julesburg Bas in . T h i s new line w i l l traverse the Bas in f rom west to east crossing the new producing area just north of the G u r l e y F ie ld and wi l l stimulate additional exploration and development, T h i s new line in conjunction with the existing Stanolind line should be able to transport to eastern markets a!l the excess of crude oil not hav ing an outlet in the Basin.


focus lens has produced most of the photographs available today. It is practically at the l imit of usefulness for stereoscopic study of strike and dip in the flat lands. A longer focus would be better in those regions. A n y undertaking wi th the great possibilities of aerial photographic exploration and mapping w i l l not be handicapped by lack of proper photographs for long.

I n addition to evaluating the significance of the larger features, geologists w i l l probably always be searching for signs of bedding and other features up to the l imi t of visibili ty of the photographs. Professional photogram-metrists could no doubt do a mucb better job of estimating dips and strikes than the photo-geologists; but tbe surveying work, tbe time and tbe effort necessary to do it, and the possibility of confusion arising in the recognition of bedding would make the undertaking prohibitively expensive for geological exploration. T h e photo-geologist can work many times as fast. A n y new improvements in quality of photographs and in the variety of photographs available in oil-bearing regions w i l l be to the benefit of exporation companies and photographers, as we l l as to geologists.

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F

D I R E C T I O N A L D R I L L I N G


ing under their supervision. Operators thus benefit f rom tbe varied experience of a number of engineers rather than one man only.

T h e results of advancements made in directional dr i l l ing tools and techniques are illustrated by actual fig

ures f rom completion reports on a number of directional wells drilled in the G u l f of Mex ico . These figures show that in 1948 tbe average rate of penetration was 186 feet per d r i l l ing day while in 1949 and 1950 this average penetration has increased to 310 feet per day. Expert planning and execution is reflected in the 6 7 % i n c r e a s e in penetration rate. T h i s marked increase in dr i l l ing rate has occasioned a great saving to oil operators d r i l l ing these wells.

Further development of tools and techniques employed in directional dr i l l ing is being carried on by service companies continuously. If equipment and new methods being considered and tested prove successful a considerable increase in tbe effectiveness and speed of directional work can be expected.

•Jusf Published-

B y Sylvain J , Pirson

Special Research Associate,

Stanolind O i l and G a s Company

441 pages, 6x9, 225 illustrations, $6.50

T h i s comprehensive technical reference presents the principles governing the behavior of petroleum reservoirs under production. It shows their application in studies made for the purpose of predicting ultimate recovery f r o m oii and gas reservoirs and prescribing the most effective production controls to effect maximum recovery. T h e numerous factors of reservoir structure, drive mechanisms, etc., with which the reservoir engineer deals, Check these topics also the techniques

and equations for their analysis, are f u l l y covered to give a rounded picture of this important tool of oil conservation. It treats t h e behavior o f reservoirs u n d e r p r o d u c t i o n b o t h during t h e i r p r i mary phases and in secondary recovery

potential operations. Order from

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 734 Cooper Bldq. Denver, Colo.

fluid saturation structure taps resistivity curves recovery

mechanisms cor ing time

measurement adhesion tension measurement of

porosity flash

vaporization electrokinetic

potential

74 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E m O C T O B E R , 1950

By A . N. M c D o w e l l , h o and

TRAVIS J . P A R K E R

Department of Geology

A . & M . College of Texas,

Col lege Station Texas

There appear to be no experts in the field of geologic model studies. Successful results are achieved largely by the tr ial and error method wi th the latter predominating. Nevertheless, this type of basic geologic research seems to have potentialities which become more evident as such investigation continues.

T h e reproduction of geologic processes in the form of models has been attempted, w i th varying degrees of success, many tim.es in the past several decades. I n most cases, the accuracy of such reproduction is open to considerable question because the lack of knowledge of scale model requirements often led to unfortunate selections of working materials. W h i l e the resulting models bore a superficial re-semblence to their natural counterparts, they failed to be convincing otherwise because of the tremendous external forces required to produce the desired deformation or because of the artificial restrictions imposed by the construction processes employed.

Notable exceptions to this type include the fluid salt dome models of Nettleton^ (1934, 1943) and Dobr in (1941) , the granular material models of Nettleton and Elk ins (1947) , and the clay models of Cloos (1930) . In the choice of working materials and procedures for a l l of these experiments, the investigators were guided either by accurate qualitative deductions or by direct consideration of tbe proper mathematical relaônships between scale models and natural features, and some highly interesting results were obtained.

T h e mathematical theory for the use of scale models in the study of geologic processes has been very thoroughly developed by Hubbert (1937) in a monumental treatise which can we l l serve as the guide for a l l such investigations. In addition to the theoretical treatment of the subject, H u b bert also gave a series of geologic examples demonstrating tbe application of model theory.

'References are listed at end of paper.

It is the purpose of this paper to outline the procedures to be followed in the actual construction of scale models used in studying geologic processes. O f equal importance is the consideration of the limitations of investigation through the medium of models. T b e descriptions and conclusions to fo l low are based upon tbe results of model work currently being conducted by the Department of Geology, A & M College of Texas, for the Texas Engineering Experiment Station in collaboration wi th the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

(a) V Figure I—Box for construction of asphalt

and mud models, (a) assembled box.

T o demonstrate the practical application of the model ratio theory to the study of one type of geologic feature, the planning and construction of a laboratory model of a salt dome w i l l be described. T b i s particular example is by no means a hypothetical case since it has been tbe subject of considerable investigation during the past 18 months. M a n y of the incidental problems remain unsolved because a successful model worker, apparently, must be proficient in the fo l lowing arts and ski l l s : mathematics, mechanics, hydraulics, physics, carpentrj', plumbing, metal and glass working, concrete mixing and others. F e w individuals have this diversified experience and the model field, therefore, is not overcrowded.

Prel iminary to the construction of the salt dome model, it is necessary to make certain basic assumptions as to the processes involved in tbe formation of an actual dome. First , it is assumed that the development of such

a structure is tbe result of the plastic flow of salt due to the density inversion produced by the heavier sediments overlying the lighter salt bed. Furthermore, the upward growth of salt mass is assumed to proceed contemporaneously wi th the accumulation of sediments. Obviously, if these fundamental premises are in error, then tbe resulting model has no geologic meaning. However, these assumptions appear to be in accord wi th the available geologic evidence.

It is also important to understand tbe significance of the term "scale model" and the proper use of model ratios. One of these model ratios is tbe familiar proportional scale of a map. Such a scale may be expressed as 1: 20,000, which indicates that one unit of length on a particular map represents 20,000 similar units on the ground, but it may be writ ten as

^ or as 5 X 10-^ T h i s latter term

is in the form of tbe scale model ratio of length as developed by Hubbert (1937) . A map, or even a terrain model, however, is not a scale T?ioclel. Here only tbe model ratio of length is involved while in a true scale model a l l other physical properties of the original must be "scaled down" in similar fashion. If it is desired to reproduce the portion of the earth represented by the map in model form, it is necessary to consider the strength of the section of tbe earth's crust, the density of the rocks comprising it, the time required for the operation of the geologic processes to be investigated, and the geologic forces acting upon tbe area. M o d e l materials selected must be " i n scale" for a l i of these properties, and model ratios of density, strength, time, etc. must be considered. Thus it is quite evident that a scale model must be, in the strictest sense, a working model dynamically similar to tbe original.

Hubbert (1937) has shown tbat the model ratios of these various physical properties are so related that, when certain ratios have been selected, others are automatically fixed. F o r example, the scale model ratios of length ( L ) , d e n s i t y ( D ) , and strength (S) must satisfy the equation

S = D L .

75 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

It follows that when two of these ratios have been established by tbe choice of model materials, tbe third is determined mathematically.

T h e determination of the necessary model ratios begins wi th tbe consideration of the characteristics of the natural feature to be reproduced and the physical properties of its materials. T h e finite values assigned to some of these properties are known to be reasonably accurate while others must be considered as order of magnitude f igures only. It is known that rock salt has a density of about 2.2 gm./cc, and, in the domes of the G u l f Coast, tbe salt occurs in more or less cylindrical masses having average, near surface, diameters of about 10,000 feet. T h e height of these masses is not known but probably is of the order of five miles above the base of the original salt la3êr. W h i l e rock salt is normally regarded as a solid, evidence indicates that it is capable of flowing plastically at a much greater rate than the surrounding sediments. I n fact, Gutenberg (1931) gives a salt viscosity figure of 2 X 10-18 poises at 1 8 ° C . and indicates that it is more fluid at higher temperatures. T h e salt is not chemically pure but normally contains about five per cent anhydrite and very minor amounts of other substances.

T h e known sediments immediately adjacent to the domes range in age f rom Recent to Lower Cretaceous and vary, litbologically, f rom unconsolidated sands and clays to hard limestones. T h e i r densities range f rom less than 2.0 at the surface to a value approaching 2.7 at great depth and average about 2.5 gm./cc. T h e sheer

strength of these sediments has not been thoroughly investigated, but a consideration of the available data indicates that an average value for this property is about 10' dynes/cm.^ T h e viscosity of these sediments is usually expressed by a figure of the order of 10^1 poises which is approximately 1000 times greater than the viscosity of salt given above. It may be seen that the density contrast between salt and sediments is only about 0.3 gm/cc.

By using the theory of scale model ratios and these physical properties of the natural materials, it is possible to specify the physical properties of the materials to be used in constructing a model salt dome. Fo l lowing the approach of Hubbert (1937) , if it is desired to build a salt dome model of the proper materials to result in the formation of a dome two inches in average diameter, the model ratio of length may be expressed (using c.g.s. units) as

L 2 X 2.54

10 ,000x30.5 1.67 X 10^

I f the salt is to be represented by some plastic substance, unspecified for the moment, having a density of 1.0, and, if the sediments are to be simulated by another substance wi th a bulk density of 3.0, the model ratio of density contrast is

D 2.0

0.3 6.7

T h e model ratio of shear strength of the sediments is then

S = D L = (6.7) (1.67 X 10-^) 1.1 X 10-*

and the strength of the model overburden is calculated to be S model = (10^) (1.1 X 10--*)

= 1,100 dynes/cm.-Thus the reproduction of a salt dome in this particular model requires materials wi th tbe fo l lowing general specifications :

Fo r the salt: 1. A density of 1.0 2. A solid which w i l l deform

plastically under load. 3. A viscosity lower than that of

the material representing tbe sediments but high enough to permit handling in the laboratory.

Fo r the sediments: 1. A density of 3.0 2. A shear strength of 1,100

dynes/cm.^ 3. A failure characteristic similar

to the fo ld ing and fault ing of natural sediments.

W h i l e the physical properties of model constituents may be so listed, it is rarely, if ever, possible to f ind actual substances meeting a i l specifications. A s a matter of fact, many properties of materials cannot be accurately determined by laboratory measurement because tecliniques and equipment for these determinations have not been perfected. T b e result is that the selection of materials is a compromise i n v o l v i n g avail ibi l-ity, physical properties, and adaptability to use in laboratory methods.

Substances with physical properties approximating those specified for the model equivalent of salt include paraffin, concentrated syrup, and asphalt. Paraffin has the disadvantage of requiring very accurately controlled temperature if the action of the model is to take place in a reasonable length of time. Syrup which has been concentrated to obtain the desired viscosity has a density of the order of 1.5 and has the added disadvantage that its properties vary if water must be used in tbe construction of the model. Asphalt is not an ideal substance for this purposf because its viscosity varies widely w i th temperature changes and because it is extremely unpleasant to handle. However, the effect of the viscosity variations can be minimized in model construction, and actual experience has shown that asphalt is more easily controlled and, therefore, more desirable than either paraflUn or syrup.

In the selection of the overburden for the model it is difficult to find a material having a density as high as 3.0 and a shear strength as low as 1,100 dynes/cm^. T h i s strength is about that of a mud wi th the consist-


•^Figure 2~-Cross section through model of asphalt dome which has penetrated mud overburden. The asphalt has been removed and replaced with paper for photographic clarity.

ency of thin pancake batter. M u d having this strength may be prepared wi th powdered barium sulphate and water, but such a mix w i l l have a density slightly less than tbat specified. T h e strength and the density required could be obtained by mixing barium sulphate wi th a heavy l iquid such as bromoform or an aqueous solution of zinc chloride. T h e use of a l iquid other than water, however, has practical disadvantages. In order to study deformation and possible fault ing of the overburden it is necessary that tbis material increase in strength after the model action has ceased so that the final model may be cut or sawed as required. If Port land cement or plaster of Paris is init ial ly mixed with the mud, this result may be achieved; but water is necessary for the setting of these substances and the use of any other liquid w i l l require a diiferent, and possibly more complicated, hardening process. Such difficulties as the solidification of a model for study and the handling of asphalt come under the broad heading of "development of

suitable laboratory techniques." These techniques usually impose more serious limitations u p o n construction of models than does the selection of materials wi th the correct physical properties. Pract ical experience has indicated that in the salt dome example, the model should be constructed using asphalt and water base mud since it has been found that these materials are capable of producing tbe desired results. T h e physical properties of these substances may be determined by laboratory measurement wi th in reasonable limits of error, and tbe model ratios of density and shear strength may be calculated. T h e model ratio of length is then solved for as the dependent variable.

A f t e r the selection of the working materials, the actual construction of the model may be in accordance wi th the fo l lowing general procedure, although details of the construction process must, necessarily, be varied to suit tbe requirements of the particular phase of investigation.

If It is assumed tbat the model is to be used for the purpose of observing tbe deformation of the overburden produced by the processes of dome growth, a suitable container for the model would be a box in the form of a 12-incb cube as shown in Figure 1 (a) , so constructed that the sides are removable. A 2-Inch laj'er of asphalt in a separate container is placed wi thin the box. T h e mud is prepared by the addition of water to a mixture of approximately 90 per cent powdered barium sulphate and 10 per cent Portland cement.

T b e doming process is initiated conveniently by placing a layer of mud about one inch thick over the asphalt surface and then removing the mud f rom a small area near the center of the model to control the location of the desired dome. Asphalt begins to rise In the area of reduced overburden thickness in the shape of a mound or slight dome. M u d is then added in successive layers as the development of the dome progresses. It should be pointed out tbat an excessive thickness (several inches) of mud instantaneously poured over a rising dome may prevent further dome development and, therefore, the mud must be added in increments as the asphalt rises. T h i s effect of an excessive thickness, how^-ever. may be utilized when it is desired to stop the growth of the dome.

Since the mud contains cement, the operation should be planned so tbat the action can be completed wi th in one hour or less f rom the time of mixing of the mud. A f t e r dome growth has ceased, the model is allowed to stand for several hours to permit partial solidification of the overburden. T h e sides of the box may then be,removed and the model sectioned as shown in Figure 1 (b ) . Figure 2 shows the resulting cross section of a model constructed by this method. In this case the asphalt has been removed and replaced wi th white paper for photographic claritj ' .

A f t e r the model has been constructed and it has been shown that the scale model ratio requirements have been met, it is possible to use the results as a basis for the better understanding of the geologic processes involved in the deformation of the sediments by a rising dome. Similar models may be constructed to permit studies of the conditions necessary to bring about the initiation of salt domes, the thickness and depth of the original salt bed, the formation of the peripheral sink, the development of overhang, the mechanics of fault ing associated with salt domes, etc. U n fortunately, no method has been de-

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . i950 77

vised to produce a singie model in which all of these features could be studied; so it has been necessary to construct a large number of mdivid-ual models.

T h e use of materials stronger than mud requires that the model be of larger size to maintain tbe correct ratios,. but tbe maximum size of a model is usually governed by laboratory space limitations, by the volumes and weights of tbe materials involved, and by the facilities available for handling the materials. If it is desired to take advantage of tbe comparative convenience of working wi th granular overburden materials, it is advisable to know in advance the approximate size of the model required.

Suppose the overburden is to consist of a fine sand wi th a shear strength of about 5,000 dynes/cm^ and a density of 2.0. T h e model ratio of shear strength Ms then 5 x 1 0 " * and the density ratio is 3.3. T h e resulting length ratio then becomes 1.5 x IO"', and a 10 000 foot diameter dome m nature would be represented by an asphalt dome 45 centimeters, or about IS inches, in diameter. Consideration ot the quantities of materials required to construct such a model immediately shows that the project is impractical because experience bas shown that the asphalt necessary to produce such a dome would w e i g h about 1,00U pounds and tbe sand weight would be of tbe order of tons.

Even though it is not practical to construct sand overburden models of salt domes in conformity wi th the theory of scale model ratios, models of this type mav be useful for purposes of qualitative observation of geologic phenomena. Figure 3 illustrates such a model designed to show the effects of the peripheral sink and the upturning of the sediments adjacent to the dome. Because of tbe excessive strength of the overburden, the fractures produced by the growth of this relatively small dome were open fissures rather than normal faults, and this fact alone is sufficient to indicate that the model dimensions are in error.

W h i l e a heavy mud overburden is more practical for use in the construction of salt dome models, granular materials bave been used satisfactorily in models dealing wi th other geologic processes such as the investigations of thrust fault ing by Nettleton (1947).

In the investigation of any structural geologic process through tbe medium of model study, it is necessary to introduce into the model^ some means of indicating deformation of strata. One obvious method is the use of horizontal marker layers similar to the normal bedding planes in an undis

turbed section of sedimentary rocks. Subsequent structural movements are then evident as departures of these markers f rom the original horizontal attitude. For purposes of both visual observation and photographic record, a color contrast between markers and surrounding material is required.

If tbe proposed model is of such a nature that granular materials (fine sands or dry powders) may be used to represent sediments, suitable marker layers may be made f rom powdered sulphur, plaster of Paris, magnetite sand, powdered titanium oxide, and many other substances. T h e geologic section, in such models, may be built up in layers of the granular material separated by a thin dusting of the iuarker in a comparatively simple and convenient manner.

In tbe case of the previously discussed salt dome model with a thin mud employed for the overburden, the marker layer problem is decidedly more difficult. Fo r this type, the marker substance should be insoluble in water, of high enough strength to permit the addition of more mud wi thout deformation of the e x i s t i n g markers, and of low enough strength to maintain the requirement of a weak overburden; yet it must provide a satisfactory color contrast. As yet, this problem remains unsolved. One partial solution, however, consists of the addition of alternating mud layers of the same properties but of different color obtained by tbe mixing of half tbe prepared mud wi th an insoluble carbon-black dye.

T o avoid the mixing of successive layers of weak mud, it was necessary to resort to a mechanical device. T h i s construction process involved tbe use of a metal plate which could be inserted in slots through the side of the

model box. Sufficient mud was added to bring the surface to the level of a particular slot, tbe metal plate was Inserted, more mud of another color poured to the level of the next higher slot, and the plate then carefully wi th drawn. T h e result was a more or less definite contact of layers which could serve as a measure of deformation resulting f rom intrusion of the asphalt dome. T h e entire procedure is tedious and far f rom satisfactory but seems to be the most effective method developed so far. Unfortunately, the withdrawal of the metal plate destroys all indications of existing faults, and the much desired fault patterns may be observed only on tbe final mud surface.

Since oil accumulation on salt dome structures is often controlled by faulting, the importance of detailed studies of these features cannot be overemphasized. It is unfortunate tbat model construction difficulties thus far have limited fault observations to the surface patterns in mud models because there is a remarkable resemblance between mud fractures and the known graben type fault ing above actual domes. Figure 4, a plan view of a model mud surface, illustrates the general type of fault ing observed. A detailed' section, complete wi th precise markers, through such models undoubtedly would result in more complete knowledge of the mechanics of fault ing associated wi th salt domes.

A number of different procedures may be employed to stabilize a model for study in cross section. As mentioned previously, the mixing of plaster of Paris or Port land cement into the overburden of a mud model w i l l result in its solidification. Mode l s using granular materials to represent

78 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E © O C T O B S R , 1950

Figure A—Photograph of fracture pattern produced on the surface of a mud overburden modei by a rising asphalt dome.

the sediments also may be "set" in this manner, but the same effect may be obtained more readily by merely water saturating a small model. Since the strength of such materials as sands and powders Is Increased considerably by the surface tension of water, a model using these substances w i l l , when sliced with a knife, hold a vertical face several Inches high. In larger models with greater quantities of materials Involved, the overburden may be solidified b\' the dry Ice freezing of the wet sand; but it is obvious that the practical difficulties of this method w i l l increase greatly wi th increase In model size since sand Is a poor conductor of heat.

T b e sectioning process presents additional complications in models containing asphalt because of the tendency of tbe latter to flow when the loading conditions are changed. T h i s problem may be siiuplified, however, if freezing the model is feasible because asphalt becomes a bard, brittle solid at temperatures near the freezing point of water. It has also been found that, In a model containing cement, t h e overburden develops sufficient strengtii to support Its own weight and may be sectioned with a minimum of trouble f rom flowing asphalt.

1 n addition to thc many physical limitations to model construction, it appears that certain geologic processes,

by their very nature, are not readily .adapted to study in model form. Fo r instance, in the salt dome example, no investigation of the formation of the caprock has been attempted since the deposition of anhydrite, gypsum, caicite, etc. above a dome probably is a chemical process and, therefore, not suited to model investigation. A complete study of the salt dome problem, however, necessarily would include a consideration of the origin of caprock because the manner of accumulation of this material undoubtedly has a bearing on the tectonics of dome growth.

Other geologic processes not easily reproducible In the laboratory and yet directly related to the formation of salt domes are those of sedimentation and erosion. In tbe mud model, with Its length ratio of 1,67 x I O"'"', it would be necessary to deposit continuously particles wi th a diameter of 7 x 1 0 - ^ cm—or approximately the size of the hydrogen atom — to reproduce, in s c a l e , the deposition of silt-sized grains in nature. Actual ly , the particles used in the mud model were of silt and clay size and their natural counterparts would be represented by boulders almost a foot in diameter.

In spite of the numerous limitations to the use of scale models In the reproduction of geologic features and processes, it s t i l l appears tbat such oper

ations represent a worth-while type of research, even though limited at present to structural analyses. T h e salt dome investigations have certainly resulted in new information not available f rom other sources, and there is every reason to believe that new concepts would result f rom similar detailed studies of other tectonic processes.

References Cioos, Hans, "Kunstliche Gebirge," Natur

uiid Museum, Vol . 59, pp. 225-243, 1929; V o l . 60, pp, 258-269, 1930.

D o b r i n , M i l t o n B. , "Some Quantitative Experiments O n a F lu id Salt Dome M o d e l and T h e i r Geologic Implications," T r a n s . A m e r . Geophys. Union , pp. 528-542, 1941.

Hubbert, M . K i n g , "Theory of Scale Models as A p p l i e d to the Study of Geologic Structures," B u i . Geol . Soc, Amer. , V o l . 48, pp. 1459-1519, 1937.

Gutenberg, Beno. "Handbuch der Geo-physik," V o l . 2, p. 539, 1931.

Nettleton, L , L . , "Flu id Mechanics of Salt Domes," B u i . A m e r , Assoc. Petrol. Geol. , Vo l . 18, pp. 1175-1204, 1934.

Nettleton, L . L . , "Recent Experimental and Geophysical Evidence of M e c h a n ics of Salt-dome Formation," B u i . A m e r . Assoc. Petrol. Geol. , V o l . 27, pp. 51-63, 1943.

Nettleton, L . L . , and Elkins, T . A . , "Geologic Models M a d e F r o m G r a n u l a r Materia ls ," T r a n s . A m e r , Geophys. Union, V o l . 28, No . 3, pp. 451-466, 1947.

P E R S O N A L N O T E S

(Continued irom page 7 )

R. F. Sopris, '26, called at the alumni office last month when he told of interesting travels which he and M r s . Sopris had been enjoying. T h e y left C a l i f o r n i a the spring of 1948 for Mexico where they spent eighteen months; they then went to Europe and had just returned from there in J u l y of this year. T h e y had not yet decided where they would spend the coming winter. W h i l e they are travel ing they are h a v i n g their mail sent to Box 282, Lafayette, Colorado.

Jo/in S. Southwort/i, '38, has a change of address f rom North Fork to Rt, 1, Box 31, Solvang, C a l i f o r n i a . H e is Engineer for Bechtel Corporation, M o r r i s o n - K n u d -sen Co. , Inc.

William F. Spain, '47, is Assistant G e n eral Superintendent for Yankee Mines , Inc., at Sunbeam, Idaho.

E. W. Steffenhayen, '41, Exploitation Engineer, Shell O i l Co., Inc., resides at 3444 Livingston St., N e w Oreleans 18, L a .

George K. Taggart, '03, O i l Producer, has moved his main office f rom Fort W o r t h to Corpus Christ i , Texas , 3rd Floor, Kaffie Bui lding, C h a p a r r a l Street.

James M. Taylor, '50, has enrolled at the University of Kansas for graduate work. M a i l is now being addressed to him, 205 D r i v e C, Sunflower, Kansas .

Tom J. Trumbull, '38, M a n a g e r of W i l l iam Salman Ranch, has a change nf address to Box 15, Guadalupi ta , N e w M e x ico.

Patil M. Tyman, '44, recently accepted a position with Stearns-Roger M a n u f a c turing Company and is now on construction of a plant at Sidney, Nebraska. H i s address there is 927-20th Avenue.

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E m O C T O B E R , 1950 79

' Figure

By D O N A L D A . C R A I G . '48

Metallurgical Engineer

Phillips Petroleum Company

Introduction

T h e history of petroleum refining embraces tbe period f rom tbe time when wood, carbon steel, and low grades of cast iron were the major construction materials to tbe present period in which the modern refinery is a study In metals, ferrous and non-ferrous, w i t h its | intricate system of furnaces, lines, vessels, p u m p s, engines, valves, and controls. Throughout this period the petroleum i n d u s t r y has charged the manufacturers and the fabricators of metal products w i th the responsibil i ty for furnishing better materials. T h e industry bas been greatly limited in many of its processes by the chemical or physical properties of the metals involved. A s a result, there is a constant s e a r c h for those metals which w i l l exhibit better properties, such as greater strength at high temperatures, better low temperature properties, more corrosion resistance, and metals which w i l l offer resistance to a combination of these factors. In addition, those materials which exhibit a greater ability for field fabrication, particularly welding, are required. In studying the materials in a modern refinery, gasoline, or associated chemical plant we observe a multitude of metals performing at a wdde variation in pressures, temperatures, and in a multitude of media. T h e petroleum metallurgist must, therefore, be familiar w i th tbe metals and alloys operating under these conditions, both as they are met individually and col-lectivelj'.

C O R R O S I O N

T h e products of the modern refinery and chemical plant are very often corrosive. In many cases if the feed itself is not corrosive, the products produced are corrosive. If the feed and products are not corrosive, often the materials used in refining or in processing the products are corrosive. T h i s then indicates the need of consideration for the protection of metals against corrosion.

According to a recent published

article, the loss due to corrosion in this country during 1949 was approximately six bi l l ion dollars. T h e monetary loss, staggering as it is, becomes secondary to the loss of l i fe and the injuries produced in accidents which may be directly or indirectly attributed to corrosion. I f the petroleum metallurgist is to aid management in maintaining equipment at as low a cost as possible and is to aid in preventing costly shutdowns wi th the attendant loss of production, be must

• f . t

attack in a 6" C-Steei steam vent line,

be constantly alert to the factors caus

ing corrosion, to the types of corro

sion, and to the materials and methods

which w i l l afford corrosion resistance

or protection. Corrosion takes many

forms, f rom tbe simple rusting of iron

exposed to the atmosphere, to the com

plex corrosion mechanism of stress

corrosion, concentration c e l l , and

others. One of ihe most common

mechanisms of corrosion is direct

chemical attack. T h i s is represented

by oxidation, tarnishing, pitting, or

general thinning. O t h e r types of

chemical attack occur, such as the de

struction of certain pure metals by

acid.

Electrolitic Corrosion

A second type of corrosion involves electric currents and is often called electrolytic corrosion. In order that this type of corrosion can exist, it is necessary that an electric current, an electrolyte, and a difference in potential exist. T b e source may be tbe result of stray currents f rom power lines, welding equipment, and gener-

an type of

result f rom a diiference in solution potential of two dissimilar metals. T h i s type of corrosion is commonly referred to as two-metal, bi-metalbc, or galvanic. T b e mechanism of galvanic type corrosion is the mechanism of galvanic cells themselves, and the same factors affecting electric cells are factors which contribute to bi-metallic corrosion. These factors include anodic and cathodic reactions, polariza-ti on (and depolarization), EMF

.series, solution potentials, current densities, and the theories of electrolysis. A s in electro-chemical cells, if two dissimilar metals are brought into contact in the presence of an electrolyte, there is an exchange of electrons or a flow of current. T h e less noble metal, usually the one higher in the E M F series, becomes anodic w i th the result that its ions go into solution. A t the same time hydrogen is emitted f rom the solution at tbe cathode or tbe more noble metal.

T h e so-called cathodic protection of underground lines and of tank bottoms

in contact w i th wet, oily, or otherwise corrosive soil is fast becoming recognized as an important ally in the fight against electrolytic corrosion. In the interchange of ions between the pipe and the soil tbe iron pipe is corroded. If magnesium be introduced to tbe system, magnesium because of its higher solution potential w i l l cause the cell to be reversed, and the magnesium becomes a sacrificial anode, thus offering protection to tbe carbon steel line. In any galvanic couple or cell if the flow of ions is stopped, the corrosion also stops. If the removal of hydrogen from the cathode can be prevented, the corrosion can be prevented. T h i s involves the study of depolarizers, hydrogen overvoltages, and protective films which may be deposited on the metals.

It becomes apparent that the metal

lurgist must make every effort to

eliminate the use of dissimilar metals

in the same system, particularly in the

presence of an electrolyte. If- this is

not possible, metals should be chosen

with as li t t le difference in solution

ators', or, as is usually the case, it may potential as possible. It should be


noted tbat dissimilarities in the same metal may cause some areas to become anodic to others. Thus we find electrolytic corrosion occurring in metals in which there are heterogenieties of structure, areas of high localized stress, and abnormal differences in the concentration of the electrolyte.

Producing Protective Oxides

One of the most co?nmon methods of reducing oxidation or scaling is through the use of those ?netals which form a protective oxide which resists further oxidation or chemical attack. T h u s the chromium alloys become important in high temperature service since it bas been found that, as the chromium content increases, the resistance of the alloy to oxidation or scaling at high temperatures also increases. T h i s results f rom the formation of an impervious chromium oxide which furnishes a protective film on the surface of the metal and retards further attack. T h i s self-protection is a key to the use of chromium alloys in the presence of corrosive media. In general, if the corrodent w i l l oxidize these alloys, some corrosion resistance is obtained. T h i s explains why the 16% chromium alloys offer resistance to nitric acid, but do not afford protection against hydrochloric acid. T b i s is one method of causing metals to be "passive," T h i s type of passivity is also important in the use of other metals such as the 18 chromium-8 nickel, tbe 25 chromium-20 nickel, and other austenitic stainless steels.

A t high temperatures, metals tend to carburize and to nitride much more rapidly in service than they do at ordinary temperatures. Carburizat ion of furnace tubes operating at high temperatures often becomes a problem. T h i s carburized skin may make f u ture welding difficult and may be the origin of dangerous cracks. T h e formation of coke, which is produced at high temperatures in many furnace operations, may also be troublesome. Coke bas been know^n to form in joints, cracks, or other interstices, and in many cases can cause an abrupt tearing apart of the material as tbe coke expands. Occasions have been noted when austenitic alloys have become very definitely magnetic, and have in fact, exhibited a definite pear-lit ic structure because of this high temperature carburization. Conditions of this magnitude render the metal li t t le better than ordinary carbon steel, since the strength and corrosion resistance are reduced very measurably.

Stress Corrosion

Stress corrosion is a corrosion mechanism which often depends on tbe equilibrium of a tensile stress present

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 1950

^ F i g u r e 2—Mag !50x—Section of type 316 Sample was in contact with

at the surface and corrosion. T h a t is to say, tbe higher the stress the less is the need for corrosion (and conversely) to cause failure. Failure is usually represented by cracking in stressed areas. This type of corrosion is often found in areas exposed to corrosion in w h i c h inherent tensile stresses are produced during fabrication, welding, or operation. Examples are found in some corrosive environments where the welds or the heat affected zone of the parent material adjacent to the welds are cracked. These cracks are often readily apparent, although in some cases It becomes necessary to employ the use of magnetic particle inspection before they become visible.

In many cases, tbe problem of stress corrosion cracking can be overcome by stress relief of the material after welding, or by emplojdng a mterial which is more resistant to the corrosive media, A change In design may be indicated if the tensile stresses are of a high order. It may be desirable to apply a compressive stress to the surface In contact wi th tbe corrodent. T h i s may include shot peening of the surface after fabrication.

T h e exact mechanism of stress corrosion cracking Is not known, but many theories are advanced, one of the most common of which is the belief that localized high stressed areas become anodic to adjacent areas of less concentrated stress, and, if a suitable electrolj'^te is present, an electrolytic cell Is established. T h e stress at a crack may actually open tbe crack al lowing tbe corrodent to constantly contact the freshly exposed metal.

T b e season cracking of brass Is a prime example of the equilibrium of stress and corrosion. Fo r example. It Is easily shown that ammonia attacks brass, usually causing cracks to occur in the metal. If a thin sheet of brass

stainless steel showing Intergranular cracks, a stream high in chlorides.

Is bent so as to cause a definite tensile stress at tbe outer fiber, the presence of ammonia may cause the sheet to snap and fa i l abruptly. T b e attack of mercury on brass produces a similar type of failure (usually transgranu-lar) which is accelerated if the metal is stressed. T h i s point arises in the use of instruments containing mercury which occasionally spills or otherwise contacts brass fittings on valves, pressure gauges, etc.

Intergranular Attack

One of the most common corrosive attacks of stainless steel is the so-called intergranular attack. Because of the fact t h a t chromium is a carbide former. It has a natural affinity for carbon. If the austenitic alloys are heated wi th in the range of 800° F to 1,500° F and are held at temperatures for a sufficient time, carbon w i l l precipitate out of the lattice of the solid solution (austenite). T h i s Is particular ly true at the grain boundaries. T h i s precipitation then furnishes the carbon which w i l l unite with chromium to form chromium carbides, and the grain boundaries or areas immediately adjacent to the grain boundaries are robbed of their chromium content; consequently, the corrosion resistance of these areas is greatly lowered.

In those applications using 18 chromium-8 n i c k e l , 25 chromium-20 nickel, or similar austenitic alloys where corrosion resistance Is paramount, the metallurgist should speci fy a low carbon analysis, or prefer-rably a so-called stabilized alloy such as 347 to which columbium is added, or 321 in which titanium Is added. Columbium and titanium form carbides which are not harmful and thus produce a more resistant stabilized material. Type 316 is also used. In this alloy some stabilization Is gained through the use of molybdenum. Tan ta lum is also recognized as a car-

81

Figure A—50x Mag—Inclusions and phosphorus segra+ed areas along which Hs blisters developed in 2" pipe.

bide stabilizer. Austenitic stainless steels are readily attacked by chlorides, particularly magnesium chloride and produce failures which may be either intergranular or transgranular.

One of the most spectacular forms of corrosion is the graphitic corrosion found in gray cctst irons. T h i s tj'pe of corrosion occurs in very dilute acids •or in some soils. A n example is impellers f rom pumps in which the fer-rite matrix of tbe cast iron has gone into solution, leaving only the graphite. A t first appearance the impeller appeared to be undamaged and st i l l retained its original outlines. H o w ever, on close examination it was found that only the graphite remained and that a knife could be easily pushed through tbe impeller. Probably the simplest solution is the use of nickel cast irons. T h e nickel acts to reduce the galvanic action by forming an alloyed matrix which is more noble w i th regard to the graphitic stringers than is an unalloyed ferrit lc matrix. It is wor th noting tbat white iron is usually considered immune to graphitic attack.

Hydrogen Act ion

Another interesting corrosive attack is the formation of blisters in steel. These blisters, formed as the result of nascent hydrogen generated

^ F i g u r e 3—Cross section of 2" hiCI make up line showing deformation caused by blistering. Note the lamination which prevented further diffusion of nascent hydrogen and caused the formation of molecular H a .

during the corrosion of steel, have been observed as large as 12"x24" . T b e gas from similar blisters bas been analysed and found to contain 99.5 volume per cent b^'drogen. It is not uncommon to encounter pressures of the order of 2,500 psi in these blisters. These blisters owe their origin to the diffusion of nascent hydrogen through the steel until it reaches areas where diffusion ceases. These areas may be laminations, inclusions, segregations (especially phospides), or other discontinuities in the metal. T h i s nascent hydrogen then remains at the point of heterogenlty, and, as additional Ions of hydrogen come in contact with each other, molecular hydrogen Is formed.

T h i s molecular hydrogen does not diffuse, and, as a result, blisters are formed. A t this time there are no criteria by which the seriousness of blisters can be calculated. Physical test and measurements of hydrogen In steel are not consistent and are often surprising in their results. Nevertheless, even the concentration of stress which may arise f rom tbe formation of a blister is sufficient reason to arouse concern.

Some alloj's embrittle as a result of exposure to hydrogen generated by corrosive mechanisms (usually H 2 S ) . Thus , it is not uncommon to find sucker rods, bourdon tubes, springs, and hardened alloj's suffering f rom service erabrittlement. It is seen that there is a need for control of the cleanliness of steel, control of the corrodent agent, and control of the diffusion if hydrogen is liberated. T h i s may necessitate tbe use of more resistant alloys of the use of protective coatings.

In addition to those mechanisms listed above and many others, the metallurgist must be aware of corrosion-erosion in which the erosion constantly removes the corrosion product and allows fresh metal to be contacted by the corrodent. T h i s is particularly noticeable on ells, return bends, and other fittings which cause the flow to change direction. T h e dezincifica-tion of brasses is common and is often found in heat exchanger tubes and similar equipment fabricated f rom brass alloys. In this type of corrosion It Is believed that the entire alloy is taken into solution and tbat the copper is precipitated out of solution, often as a spongy mass. T h e addition of arsenic, antimony, or tin and the use of lower zinc brasses tend to resist tbis method of deterioration. T h e metallurgist must be ever alert to corrosion, to its cause, and to its prevention, or to the economic substitution of

materials which w i l l reduce the corrosion rate If it can not be eliminated.

W E L D I N G

W i t h o u t the modern alloys many of today's refining procedures would be greatly limited or would not be possible at a l l . T b e limits would become even more evident were it not for the rapid developments in welding procedures and equipment. T h e metallurgist must be familiar wi th welding procedures in addition to the metallurgy involved in welding the many metals and alloys which are encountered In the petroleum industry. He must consider the effect of luelding on the corrosion resistance of the material, he must consider the physical properties of the zveld deposit in relation to the physical properties of the parent material, and very often he must specify that zuelding procedure zuhich will lend itself most easily to field fabrication.

Weld ing Rod Selection

In general. It is considered good welding practice to use a welding rod which Is of the same or very nearly the same composition as the parent material. T h i s tends to result in a relatively homogeneous structure so far as physical properties and corrosion resistance are concerned. It should be remembered, however, that tbe weld deposit is essentially a cast structure, and it may have different phj^sIcal properties and corrosion resistance than wrought material of the same nominal composition.

W h e n welding those straight chromium alloys wi th less than 12% chromium, commonly referred to as raar-tensitic ( 4 — 1 2 % chromium 0.15 carbon max.) It Is necessary to recognize the fact tbat the addition of 1% or more of chromium renders the alloys air hardenable and further, that as the chromium content Increases (up

82 THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

to 1 2 — 1 4 % ) , the air hardenability also increases. W e have, therefore, a group of alloys which find wide use in refineries, especially as furnace tubes, which become hard as a result of welding. Since this hardness is associated wi th a loss in ductility, it often becomes necessary to temper the 1% to 7% chromium alloj's by beating to 1,350° F ; this results in a hardness of about 200 Br ine l l . If further softening is required, an anneal may be necessary. T h e addition of 9 % chromium causes the alloy to be rather sluggish in Its transformation f rom austenite to pearlite. It Is necessary that the alloy cool below 150° F after welding and before tempering so that a complete transformation is obtained.

T h e 18-8, 25-20, 25-12, and similar chromium-nickel alloys are austenitic type steels and because of this austenitic structure they do not transform at normal temperatures. T h e heat accompanying welding does not produce a phase transformation with consequent increase in hardness. In many cases it is not necessary to have complete corrosion resistance in the austenitic material. A prime example of this Is the use of an austenitic material primarily for Its high temperature properties, not for Its corrosion resistance. Fo r instance, furnace tubes may be, and often are, made of austenitic material, mainly for the resistance to high temperature and, secondly, for their corrosion resistance. In such cases the carbide precipitation produced by welding may not be objectionable.

High Corrosion Resistance

In cases where high corrosion resistance is demanded of the material, it becomes necessary to specify a solution heat treatment. T h i s consists of heating the material to about 1900° F to effect solution of the carbides, followed by a rapid cooling, to prevent reprecipitatlon of the carbides through the sensitive range of 1500° to 800° F . T h i s heat treatment is often not practical, especially in field fabrication. It often becomes common practice to specify a stabilized alloy for use when heat treatment Is impractical after welding and where high corrosion resistance Is mandatory. It should be mentioned here that the result of much test work indicates that carbide precipitation apparently has little effect on the tensile properties of materials.

Brittleness f rom Weld ing

Those stainless alloys with a composition range of 1 4 % , — 2 7 % chromium and with carbon usually .15%, or less are often referred to as ferritic.

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E @ O C T O B E R 1950

These alloys often become brittle as a result of welding. T h i s brittleness is caused by grain growth and should not be confused with air hardening produced by the transformation f rom one phase to another as is the case wi th martensitic type chromium alloys. Al loys in this category may also suffer f rom slow cooling f rom a temperature of about 1200° F . W i t h this in mind the metallurgist must recommend a welding procedure which w i l l result in the smallest loss of ductil i ty possible. T h i s may include the use of annealing procedures to reduce 1200° F brittleness adjacent to the welds, or may indicate the use of low currents and small rods to keep the temperature as low as possible and still obtain a good weld. G r a i n growth in these alloys can not be removed by heat treatment.

There is a growing tendency toward the use of austenitic weld rods for welding the straight chromium alloys. T h e advantages of this procedure become readily apparent since post heat or other heat treatment Is not generally required. Good weld zone ductil i ty and other desirable physical properties are produced. T h e fact that no heat treatment is required when welding straight chromium alloj^s w i th austenitic rods indicates the use of this practice in many field applications. However, the disadvantages of this system must also be recognized. Consider the differences in such properties as the coefficient of electrical resistance and the coefficient of liner expansion, remembering that the chromium-nickel type alloys bave greater electrical resistivity, greater coefficient of expansion, and a smaller thermal conductivity than straight chromium stainless steels. T h i s difference in thermal properties is particularly important if the material is subjected to cyclic conditions. Another difference is to be found in the fact that

the austenitic alloys melt at a lower temperature than the straight chromium alloys.^ If this is not recognized during welding, a poor tie-in may result if complete fusion of the chromium Is not obtained. It is obvious that this procedure can not be used in any corrosive environment in which the austenitic alloys are not ordinarily corrosion resistant. In the welding of stabilized austenitic alloys we find it becomes necessary to weld the titanium stabilized analysis wi th a columbium rod since the titanium is not transferred by the arc.

I he physical properties of cast iron ai-e largely dependent on graphitlza-tion-—the amount of graphite present, the size of the graphite stringers, and the composition of the matrix. It becomes necessary to establish a caref u l equilibrium between alloy additions which w i l l produce graphite ( fo r example, silicon and nickel) , and the cooling rate, if a good cast iron is to be produced. These factors are to be considered during the welding of cast iron. A n y welding of cast iron should be designed to insure that the weld deposit has a structure as similar to the parent metal as possible. It is common practice to use a high nickel rod in an effort to cause the graphite to seed out into a multitude of fine stringers rather than a few large hooks which definitely cause a discontinuity in the metal. T h i s nickel rod, accompanied by low heat and slow cooling rates, represents a welding procedure which is often used.

In addition to structural steel, stainless steels of the straight chromium or chrome-nickel type and cast Iron we are confronted wi th the welding of the Hastelloys, the Monels , the brasses, aluminum, magnesium, clad materials, and many others. A l u m i num and magnesium alloj's are finding a much wider use In the petroleum refining industry because of their cor-

V Figure 5—Failure of a 5" O D 3Cr Tube caused by excessive heat. Note heavy external scale and indications of creep at the edge of the fracture.

83

"V Figure 6 — M a g I50x—Intergranular cracks of a stress corrosion type in carbon steel.

rosion resistance ant! t h e i r hght weight. One means of welding these and other ailoj's, especially in thin gauges, is wi th the inert gas arc. T h i s process depends on a protective gas blanket of argon or helium to avoid •oxidation during welding.

A s we have mentioned, today's modern petroleum plants and their associated chemical plants make use of many alloys and metals. M o s t of these alloys must be welded either in the shop or in the field before they can be used in tbe refinery. T h e y may be welded to similar or to dissimilar metais. They may be welded in thick heavy sections or in extremely thin light gauges. In anj ' event the industry demands and must receive quality welds which in the majority of cases must be "pressure tight."

Test and Inspection

T h e metallurgist must constantly be testing new materials and seeking for metals or alloj's wdiich w i l l be more economical and more resistant to temperatures, pressures, corrosion, and field fabrication and erection. T h e job of specifying the materials is only one phase. There r/iust follow an inspection program which will reveal how zvell the metal or alloy is-sland-ing up in. service and if changes in process conditions are hastening failure or retirement of tlie metal.

M u c h test work on the selection of new materials can be done in the laboratory, but caution must be used to obtain identical conditions. It is difficult to reproduce in the laboratory such circumstances as changes in atmospheric conditions, necessary shut-•down, and subsequent start-ups, or the possibility of upsets or changes in analysis of the corrosive environment, as they are met in actual operation. T h i s indicates the need for detailed inspection reports and complete records.

U

Despite al l attempts to eliminate failures in service, failures occasionally are encountered. These are perhaps the most valuable tests a metallurgist has and often indicate to him the need for an entirely diiferent type of alloy or fabrication.

The Use of Metals at High Temperature

A t ordinary temperatures steels deform elastically. I f the applied stress is below the yield point, stress is proportional to strain, and if the stress be removed, there is no permanent strain or set remaining in the material . T h a t is, the metal regains its original shape or dimensions. A t temperatures above 700° F for steel flows under stress and metals at high temperature often exhibit both plastic and elastic deformation. This rate of flow at elevated temperature is proportional to the applied stress and is termed "creep." High temperature design must often consider the dynamic forces rather than the static forces. Metals for use at high temperatures must be designed not on the results of sbort time tensile tests at room temperature but rather the design must be based on long time "creep" and stress rupture data.

It was formerly common practice to reduce the stress to such a ridiculously low value that "creep" was not a factor. T h i s resulted in excessive over-design, use of large shapes, and waste of expensive materials. In present desigji consideration, "creep" is recognized, not avoided. It is limited to tolerable values and an estimated service l ife is established. T h e design must, however, be adequate so that stress rupture does not occur. There are two common methods for expressing "creep" values; one is that stress required to produce 1 % elongation in 10,000 hours or 0.0001 % / h r . ; the other is the stress required to produce 1% in 100,000 hours or 0.00001%

T H E M I N E S

/h r . T h e second system is often used for moving or mating parts where tolerances must be maintained.

In general tbe tensile strength of steels decreases wi th increasing temperatures. A n exception is tbe so-called blue brittleness. In the range of 400-600° F some carbon steels actually increase in strength. T h i s is probably the result of aging or the precipitation of one or more substances (often chemical compounds) f rom the solid solution. T b e tendency for steel to exhibit this blue brittleness may be substantially reduced by thorough deoxidation.

Alloy additions such as molybdenum, chromium, tungsten, titaniutii, colu III bin III, and vanadiu m increase

creep" strength, while aluminum tends to reduce the "creep" strength. Therefore, caution should be exercised

in specifying aluminum killed steels for high temperature service.

Chromium Is a valuable addition for metals at high temperature. In addition to Increasing "creep" strength and resistance to hydrogen sulfide corrosion, it adds oxidation resistance and resistance to graphitization which may occur in some steels at temperatures as low as 900° F . The addition of molybdenum in chromium steels tends to reduce temper brittleness and give added strength at elevated temperatures. T b i s added strength is found especially when molybdenum is added to the low chromium steels in analysis up to 2 % % chromium.

In addition to the fact that alumi-nmn may reduce "creep" strength there is the possibility of alumina forming rapidly during steel refining operations. T h i s may result In inclusions and produce heterogeneity of the material. Th i s lowers the high temperature strength and reduces the corrosion resistance. Aluminum may be used as a coating to add increased resistance to oxidation. T h i s aluminum coated steel is known as calor-ized steel.

Nickel in small quantities is not ordinarily a valuable addition for steels which are to be used in the presence of sulphur bearing media at elevated temperatures since it does not add to high temperature strength and because it is attacked by hot sulphur bearing gases. / / becomes a valuable addition when it is added to chromium steels In sufficient quantities to render them austenitic. This results in a tough, non-magnetic, corrosion resistant, non-hardenable steel (except by cold working) with superior strength. 1 he carbon is kept low In these aus

tenitic alloys (e.q. 18 chromIum-8 nickel) to prevent carbide precipita-

M A G A 2 I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

tion, which has been discussed above. In some austenitic stainless analysis, carbon is often specified as 0.08% maximum and in special cases may be kept as l o w as . 0 3 % . T h e strength of steels at elevated temperature is also a function of the microstructure. T h e change^ f rom a transgranular failure to an Intergranular failure occurs as the temperature rises and often represents the change f rom a ductile type of failure to a brittle type failure. F o r this reason a larger grain size for steels operating at high temperatures may be beneficial. The ynetallurgisf must consider such items as spherodi-zatian, grain size, carbide precipiia-t i o n , graphitization, carburization, and jnany other factors in his selection of metals for high temperature service. One advantage of operating materials at high temperatures is the fact that service conditions w i l l very often effect stress relief and a separate stress relleval after welding may not be needed.

Those chromium alloys with less than 12% chromium (carbon less than .15%) are subject to air liarden-ing and temper brittleness. Those chromium alloys wi th more than 12% chromium but wi th less than .15% carbon are considered non air hardening but undergo rapid grain growth at elevated temperatures. Those alloys containing 15-27% chromium often exhibit a brittleness after they have been exposed to temperatures of 850° F — 1 3 0 0 ° F . T h i s is believed to be caused by the precipitation of the sigma phase, which is apparently an Iron-chromium compound. Duc t i l i ty may be regained if the alloy is heated to about 1600° F , and the precipitated phase is redissolved in the solid solution. The addition of titanium and columbium is beneficial in reducing the air hardenability of low chromium all oys.

In summary then, metals for high temperature service should possess the fo l lowing properties: corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, resistance to carburization, adequate creep and rupture strength, structural stability (should not grow or age) good workability, and good weldabillty in addition to being economical.

Low Temperatures

Those processes such as refrigeration, gas liquefaction, dewaxing, and tbe laboratory equipment used to determine freezing points i n the control of analysis, require special physical properties for the metals involved. There are many other conditions

W'hich require metals to have good low temperature properties; consider the cleaning of furnace tubes during severe cold weather. In service these

tubes are subjected to high operating temperatures, but during the cleaning operations they may be subjected to impact stress at tbe low atmospheric temperature. A fine grain is needed for the greater impact resistance, but this same fine grain size, particularly if it results from the addition of aluminum, may reduce the "creep" strength. Perhaps tbe greatest single requirement for metals subjected to low temperature is that they possess good impact resistance. T h i s implies that the metal has the ability to withstand or resist a suddenly applied load without fa i l ing in an abrupt, non-ductile manner. This impact resistance is established by measuring the foot pounds necessary to break a standard notched bar (Charpy or Izod bars are the most common). T h e impact properties of a given metal are not always a definite design value, and it is necessary to test a given shipment or lot of steel for its Individual impact properties if any doubt exists as to the low temperature properties of the material. Fo r low temperature service 10-15 ft . lbs. impact strength is usually specified. T h e austenitic chromium-nickel alloys and many of the copper alloys represent the optimum in toughness and impact resistance at low temperatures. In many cases where operating temperatures are of tbe order of — 1 5 0 ° F to — 2 0 0 ° F a f u l l y ki l led 3]^% nickel steel with .10 carbon maximum is often used. A fine grained aluminum kil led S A E 1020 steel is often used at less severe temperatures.

For critical service an alloy which gains its low temperature properties from heat treatment is usually not considered as good as a steel which possesses its impact resistance because of its normal structure. T h i s is especially true in the field if small deviations in the heat treating procedure may alter the impact properties meas

urably. Tb i s explains one reason for the wide use of austenitic alloj's for low temperature service. Safety

A n y group which recommends the use of materials for use in industry must always ask themselves, "Is It Safe?" T h e metallurgist has a grave responsibility to industry, to management, and to the workers In the plant to insure that the materials he recommends and the suggestions he makes are safe. H e must exert every effort toward this end If the fine record for safety which the petroleum industry has made is to be maintained and i m proved. H e must work closely wi th the safety department of the company or the plant in inspection, test, and maintenance work. In addition to these duties, he may be asked to aid the safety department in other such programs. In many plants a program has been set up to periodically examine tools to determine if they are work hardening to the degree that they are becoming dangerously brittle. T h i s Is especially true of tbe striking faces of chisels, hammers, and hammer box wrenches which may have become so work hardened that chips or burrs fly off when they are struck. M a c h i n ing and heat treatment may be required to Insure a safe tool.

Occasionally as a result of fires in the plants, localized areas on large vessels or lines may become overheated. I f these areas are then rapidly or severely quenched by fire fighting methods, areas of differential hardness and thermal stress may be set up. T h e metallurgist must determine i f these conditions are excessive or dangerous to continued operation. Conclusion

T h e metallurgist works wi th the process group to aid in furnishing materials which w i l l withstand operat-


^ Figure 7—Blisters on the inside wall of Lap Weld pipe. No blisters were visible from the outside. Natura! size.

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E # O C T O B E R , 1950 85

By

W . A . W A L D S C H M I D T , Geologist ,

A r g o O i l Corpora t ion

Midland, Texas

T h i s paper is not in any sense a scientific paper but only a few notes on an extremely important and prolific o i l and gas producing province known as the Permian Basin of W e s t Texas and southeastern N e w Mex ico .

Some of the major subdivisions of this area, f rom west to east, are: the Delaware Basin, the Centra l Basm Pla t fo rm, the M i d l a n d Basin, and tbe Eastern P la t fo rm. O f these tbe Central Basin P l a t fo rm and the Eastern P la t fo rm are the most prolific o i l and gas producers.

T h e geological formations producing oil and gas are numerous throughout the geologic column. Cambrian production ,1 ^ small, but extensive fields bave been developed m formations wi th in the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian and Permian. Some production is also obtained in the Triassic and Cretaceous.

T h e complexity of the geology in this area taxes the imagination of geologists, geophysicists and others connected wi th exploration for petroleum. M a j o r and minor unconformities, fault ing, reefs, fades changes, and other geological features all complicate tbe geologic picture. B y combining a l l available data f rom subsurface studies, geophysical surveys, and other sources it ma#ê possible to predict the type of structure and the probable geologic section to be dril led in a w i l d cat area. Bu t even so, these predictions may f a l l far short of being accurate. T h i s is not a problem in tbe Permian Basin only, but it is emphasized by the vast size of tbe area and by tbe numerous producing formations which are present.

Keeping abreast of exploration and development requires tbe work of many individuals. F r o m the _ standpoint of geological work only it is interesting to note tbat the W e s t Texas

86

Geological Society now has approximately 400 members, most of whom reside in M i d l a n d , Texas.

Production in Wes t Texas and southeastern N e w Mex ico f rom the time of the first discovery m 1921 thmugh 1927, was about 82,000,000 barrels, but f rom 1928 to tbe first of September, 1950, tbe total barrels of oil produced in this area had risen -to 3,500,000,000. Estimates of future production naturally vary greatly and reach as high as 6,000,000,000 barrels.

Tremendous development of Pennsjdvanian production has been underway during the past two years_ along the eastern P la t fo rm, and in this area the reef production of Scurry County has been in the public eye. In a recent article by J . H . Bartley and Berte R . H a i g h ( W o r l d O i l , Sept. 1950) the statement is made that " A s of Ju ly 19, 1950, there were 754 dr i l l ing wells in the Permian Basin area. D u r i n g the period June 21—July 19 there were 349 producing completions, of which 43.5 percent were completed in the Pennsylvanian. Ninety-five percent of the completed Pennsylvanian p r o -ducers were located in the Scurry reef trend play."

T h e rate of field and pool discoveries wi th in this vast area is shown in the fo l lowing curves. Data for these curves were obtained chiefly f rom Development Papers in the Bulletins of tbe American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

T h e upper curve of Figure 1 shows tbe rate of discovery of Permian fields and pools f rom 1924 to 1949.

f Figure I

T h e lower curve shows tbe rate of discoveries of pre-Permian fields for the same period. Fields and pools represented by these curves total 506. A few of these have now been abandoned.

Permian discoveries were greatly in excess of pre-Permian discoveries up to 1945, in which year the Permian discoveries exceeded tbe pre-Permian by only one. I n 1946 discoveries dropped off considerably. In 1947 and 1948 the number of discoveries increased rapidly wi th pre-Permian and Permian being about equal, but in 1949 the pre-Permian discoveries exceeded by far those of the Permian.

Because of tbe tremendous development which has been going on in tbis area and which is continuing at an accelerated rate, it is difficult for one writer to give figures which w i l l coincide wi th "those of other writers on numbers of discoveries. Furthermore, in publications listing discoveries, there is variance of opinion as to what constitutes a discovery of a field or pool and what should be considered a discovery or an extension of a field or pool. Fo r example, as development progresses around two wells crediteil as discoveries in a given year, it may be proved tbat these two wells are actually in a single field; so, as tim.e passes, the actual number of producing fields is decreased. In Figures 1 and 2, the curves are, therefore, probably more accurate up to 1947 than they are in 1948 and 1949.

Figure 2 is a break-down of the pre-Permian field and pool discoveries into


v Figure 2


By T H E O . A . LINK Consulting Geologist,

Ca lgary and Toronto, Canada

Introduction

Since the Leduc discovery in 1947 much new geological data is coming to light in the Province of Alberta and the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin area. A s a result, interpretations of the over-all picture w i l l of necessity lag. Unfor tunately or fortunately, (dependent upon the view-point) this situation w i l l continue for some time to come, because indications are that there w i l l be no let-up for many years. In other wôrds, Western Canada is in the ini t ial stages of what should prove to be exploration for and-a development of o i l and gas reserves comparable to that of W e s t Texas, which

^September !9th. I9S0.

began during tbe "early twenties" and

is st i l l going on.

A s proof of the rapidly changing geological interpretations the papers presented at the regional meeting of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists at Banff, Alberta, held September 5tb to Sth, 1950, should convince anyone t h a t the detailed stratigraphic and structural data being obtained at an accelerated pace and that they are bearing f rui t . W h a t may prove to be a new oil-field discovery at B i g Val ley , Alber ta (see map F i g ure 1) , some fifteen miles south of the Stettler field, took place during this meeting in an area pointed out by several speakers (in contributions , prepared previously) to be "along the fair-way." T h i s indicates that some of

the random guess-work is being eliminated because of the new data available and the corresponding interpretations. T w o other discoveries were also made several days before this meeting.

Considerable has recently b e e n writ ten about the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin area and descriptions of the geological conditions giving rise to the recently discovered o i l and gas pools bave already appeared in print. T h i s article w i l l not deal wi th developments prior to the Leduc,. Alber ta discovery, and w i l l be confined only to what has taken place-since then, and a brief description of a typical coral reef accumulation of oi l and gas, which type is tbe most commonly encountered.

TABLE 1—RECENT OIL DISCOVERIES IN ALBERTA, CANADA

N A M E OF FIELD (See Map for Locations)

Leduc and south extensions Woodbend Armena Redwatet -.

Pincher Creek

Gilbert Pool Barrhead —.

Joseph Lake.. Whitemud Bon Accord Golden Spike

Stettler and vicinity Campbell Smnion8__ —

(Redwater extension) Normandvrlie

Excelsior

Spring Cou!ee

Whitelaw. Acheson._ —

F N n t

Big VaNey.

GEOLOGIC AGE OF PRODUCING HORIZON

Upper Devonian (D-2 and D-3) Upper Devonian (D-2 and D-3) Upper Devonian (D-1) Upper Devonian (D-3)

Mississippian (Madison)

Lower Cretaceous —-Mississippian (Madison)_._

Upper Cretaceous Viking Ss_.__ Lower Cretaceous Upper Devonian (D-2) Upper Devonian (D-3)

Upper Devonian (D-2 and D-3) Lower Cretaceous Upper Devonian (D-3)

Upper Devonian (D-3 ?)__...—

Upper Devonian (D-2)

Mississippian (Madison).

Triassic and Pennsylvanian (?).. Upper Devonian (D-3)

Upper Devonian (D-2 and D-3).

Upper Devonian (D-2)

TYPE OF OIL AND GAS TRAP

Reef or Bioherm _ Reef or Biotierm Porous lime at unconformity... Reef or Bioherm

Foothills structure (biostrome?)

Lenticular sands Porous time against unconformity

Lenticular Sands Lenticular Sands.... Biostrome (structural). Reef or Bioherm

Reef or Bioherm Lenticular Sands Reef or Bioherm

Reef or Bioherm

Biostrome (structural)

Limestone at unconformity and structural trap

Sand (structural?) Reef or Bioherm

Reef or Bioherm.

Reef or Bioherm.

TOTAL.

PROVEN, POSSIBLE OR PROBABLE RESERVES

150-200 million barrels._... 50-75 million barrels. (Not being developed) 600-800 million barrels..

(includes Simmons) Gas distillate (Gas 1 to 3 trillion cu. ft.)

5-10 million barrels 1- 10 million barrels

(only one well to date) 10-15 million barrels. 5-10 million barrels (Included with Excelsior).. 50-150 million barrels

(Reduced from previous estimates)

50-150 million barrels 2- 5 million barrels.^ Included in Redwater..

10-25 miiiion barrels. (Only one well drilled to date)

20-30 million barrels._. (includes Bon Accord)

Reserves?

barrels.-barrets.... well drilled

5-SQ million 5-50 million

(Only one to date)

5-50 million (Only one to date)

5-50 miiiion (Only one to date)

973-1,680 million barrels

barrels well drilled

barrels. well drilled

DATE OF DISCOVERY

February 1947' January 1948 July 1948 September 1948

September 1948

October 1948 February 1949

March 1949 April 1949 April 1949 April 1949

June 1949 July 1949 September 1949

September 1949:

December 1949-

January 1950-

September 1950 September 1950-

September 19501

September 1950:


2 Woodtitnd

3 ArmMo (not producina)

4 Rxlwdtcr

5 GIIMrt Pwt 6 Barrtitod

e *hll»inud

9 Ban Accord

10 G0Kf»n Spi" 11 StstlUi end yicisity

12 Camp ball

IS Simmon. [R.d-oMr wl.n.ton)

14 NotmondiiUi

15 EiGatslof

16 Spring CouU*

IT wtiitslo*

18 Aelixon

19 ninl

20 Bifl Voll»y

21 pinch»r Cr«»)i

O I L A N D G A S

F I E L D S O F

MKJVIHM Of

CAHADA

SCALE

LINK a NAUSS LTD, Sept.-1950

100 MILES • Figure

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E I

• Figure 2

Table 1 is a summary of tbe significant discoveries beginning wi th the Leduc strike February 13tb, 1947, and what bas taken place up to and including September l5 th , 1950. T h e graph Figure 2 is a summarized chronological history of o i l production and discoveries immediately prior to, and since L e d u c , indicating tbe pronounced effect which recent activity has bad on tbe Canadian oil production record and the industry.

General Geologica l Conditions

O i l and gas are being produced in commercial quantities in Western Canada, and Alberta in particular, f rom rocks of the fo l lowing ages:— Upper Cretaceous, Lower Cretaceous, jurassic, Triassic, Pennsylvanian ( ?) , Mississippian and Upper Devonian. There are also Cambrian, Ordovicsan, Silurian and Ter t ia ry sediments present but to date no commercial production bas been found in rocks of these ages, yet there are definite possibilities in the Cambrian, Ordovician and the Silurian. T h e Ter t i a ry beds hold very little promise. Due to the vast expanse of the Western Canada Sedimentary basin area (the Province of Alber ta alone is, wi th in 10,000 square miles, as large as Texas ) , one standard geological column cannot be drawn up as representative. "P inch -out" of beds against unconformities, rapid changes in thicknesses and facies give rise to different columns for the different areas. N o attempt w i l l be made to submit generalized descriptions of the geological column, but a column for tbe "hot area" around E d monton is submitted herewith as F i g

ure 3 A regional cross-section through tbis same area is submitted as Figure 4 which shows tbe relationship between the Pre-Cambrian Shield to the east and north-east, tbe T a r Sands, the Leduc and Redwater pools, tbe A l berta Syncline, tbe Foothills , and the Rocky Mountains . A more detailed version of this section is now in preparation for publication in the Bul le t in of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Examples of Producing O i l Fields

Since the majority of post-Leduc discoveries are in bioherm or reef limestone and/or dolomite stratigraphic

traps, a brief description of the characteristics of these would be in order. These accumulations are, in most instances, not due to structural deformations and owe their existence primari ly to the manner of growth and configuration of the accumulation of the secreted hard parts or remains of sessile types of organisms and plants such as corals, bryozoans, algae, crinoids, etc. which accumulate in mounds or ridges above the then-existing sea bottom. Since the height, length and breadth of these mounds, as we l l as their composition is dependent on so many variable factors, no two are identical. Furthermore they o f t e n grow in groups or clusters, take definite alignments, and in other_ instances they grow as isolated individuals, or in groups w i th no apparent orientations. T h e i r individual composition also varies because of the many different types of sessile organisms which give rise to them, but in general these accumulations are composed of limestones or dolomites w i th varying degrees of permeability and porosity which factors are also not consistent f rom one reef to another, nor wi th in the same reef. In Figure 5 several cores f rom wells drilled into the o i l -bearing portions of reef or bioherm traps are illustrated and these show tbe irregular type and degree of pore-space which varies f rom wel l to w e l l wi th in the same field. It can best be described as fo l lows:

"Coral-reef or bioherm limestones or dolomites can best be described as a homogenous heterogeneity of porosity whicli confounds the mathematical approach ot the petroleum engineer to calculate then-gas and oil reserves, and which likewise baffle the geologist as to size and prob-

TY.PE I n c . L E D U C A R E A . A L B E R T A

O UJ o < I-UJ cc o

a: UJ a. a. 3

EDMONTON

BELLY RIVER

LEA PARK 475'*

COLORADO '300'

67S'* LOWER CRETACEOUS

UNCONFOKMITr

!40'-ieo

o N o UJ

<

UPPER DEVONIAN -560'

ilOO'i

M

GLflCUL DfilPr a RECENT

SHALE, SANDY SHALE, ETC.

P R E D O V I N ^ N T L r Gf<EV TO DARK SLUE SHALE IVfTH SOME S A N D S T O N E NEAR B A S E .

VmiNS S A - ^ O f « / N S E L L A , V - K ^ G , P«OV0Sr a m fiAS HomzoN)

nn fiflS a WATER fVERM'LION a LLDYDMtNSrER mL HORIZON)

T O .Rf^N* hLe « . A « T Z a 6LA.CO«<r.O S A N O S . C P A . . . E T C .

' rPOROUS a CRrSTALLrHE DOLOMITE » LS.

0- I -OIL, flflS, a WaTER l _ „ , o H L r ^ H A c r o H E D a bhecciateo. ANHTDHire, H E P S H A L E / POBOUS DOtOIUITE, iSUNDANT CORALS

D-2 DISCOVERV OIL HOHIZOR I no BHWZoaNS with AHHtomTi * — GREEN TO GRE)- S H A L E fpoflOOS TOSSfLlfeROUS OOLOMiTE

D - 3 MA(« PnOOUms OIL HORIZON [ % - , " , , ' : ^ r ^ ^ ^ ^ l n ^ -— SHALC B R E A K S (?)

PREOOMINANrLr LIMESTONE

OORK G H E l ' S H A L e '

T Figure 3

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 89

LiNK a NAUSS LTD

able configuration, for the simple reason

that no two bioherm reservoirs are iden

tical because of their inherent complex

manner of accumulation and growth.

In addition to the irregular and unpre

dictable pore space within a bioherm it is

• Figure 4

commonly criss-crossed by minor adjust

ment fauits and fractures which develop

soon after the bioherm becomes large

enough to begin settling and adjusting it

self to its surroundings, and later to its

overburden. Because of these factors the

B.

D .

accurate estimate of the ultimate recoverable reserves of a coral-reef (bmherm) reservoir can not be calculated early m the history of such an oi! pool, and rarely as accurately as those for sand-reservoir pools. Not until a production history has been obtained can fa ir ly accurate reserve estimates be made.

T h e porosity in true bioherms such as the D-3 zone at Leduc is regarded as p r i mary in origin, T h e pores came into existence at the time of deposition and growth of the bioherm, and are not regarded as solution cavities. T h e pores are not in all instances regarded as the hollow interior of coralHtes et cetera, but represent what remains of the or ig ina l open spaces between the indiv idual iime-secreting organisms of the bioherm. I n i -

CONTOUfi INTERVAL . 10'

-^Figure 5 — ( A ) Core from D - 3 zone, Imperial's Redwater No. 3 , illustrating very porous bioherm (reef) limestorie in which porosity is due to hollow interior of hard parts of organisms and voids due to Ihetr helter-skelter accumulation. (Diameter of core mches.J ( H } &[>î Same as A , with fractures which increase effective porosity and vertica permeability. (Uiarn--eter of cores 3 3 / 4 inches.) (D) & (E) Polished cross section of Leduc dolomite bioherm [reef) cores taken from 0 - 3 lone, Imperial's Leduc No. 4 3 . Primary porosity due to hollow interior ot organisms and sugary or crystalline dolomite matrix. Depositional banding and mmute fractures, increasing effective porosity and permeability. (Diameter of cores 3 % inches.) | lliustrations through courtesy D. B, Layer, Imperial Oi l Ltd.)


1- M I L E

Contour Mop

Top of D - 3 Zone

L E D U C , A L T A ,

•V Figure 6

® O C T O B E R , 1950

Woodbend Exlansion Leduc Poo l yprticol Scale in thousands of feet .4

CROSS SECTION A - A '

Figure 7

Hofiiontol Scale in miles

4000

- 5000

L E G E N D

B-E = BEARPAW fl EDMONTON

BR = B E L L T R I V E H

C = CABDIOM S. S.

G = GRIT B E D

H = H O M E S. S.

PL = P A L E O Z O I C L S .

BS = BAUFF SHALES

C E N T R A L T U R N E R V A L L E Y

S T R U C T U R E HOR. fl V E R T . S C A L E IN M I L E S

0 I WILE I i

T H E O fl. L INK, 194T

Figure 8

Figure 6 is a "morpho"-CQntour map of the D-3 producing horizon of the Leduc field and Its irregular extensions, which is an index of the curious shapes assumed by some reef or bioherms. As already stated, there are no two identically alike, yet in general they bave much in common.

Figure 7 is a cross-section through the Leduc field whose position is indicated in Figure 6. Some reef fields are of a more regular shape, such as the Redwater pool which to date, reveals a crescent-shaped accumulation of o i l on the up-dip side of a bioherm whose areal extent bas not been determined. Foofhills Structures

Previous to tbe Leduc discovery only two oil and gas fields of moderate size reserves had been discovered in Western Canada, namely Turne r Val ley , an overtbrusted anticline on the eastern edge of the" Foothil ls Belt, and Norman W e l l s far to the north in


tial or pr imary porosity of a bioherm can best be described by comparing it with a strawstack which has been compressed by an overburden. T h e indiv idual hollow pieces of straw have their porosity, and the helter-skelter stacking of the straw gives rise to even greater pore spaces. T h e same thing takes place in a bioherm which dies and is buried by later sediments. A sizeable percentage o£ the or iginal empty space between the variously shaped organisms is retained, and thus gives rise to the odd-shaped pores found in such a bioherm as the D-3 zone at L e duc, Alberta . A s stated, some of these can definitely be interpreted as the hoHow in-sides of corallites et cetera, but most of them are the reduced empty spaces between the broken-down corals, algae, sponges and bryozoans, and this type of porosity is the most effective, because of continuity. Since there are changes of conditions dur ing the growth of a bioherm, porosity variations are to be expected, and zones or layers of variable porosity or density are inevitable."

(Theo. A . L ink "Theory of Transgres -sive and Regressive Reef (Bioherm) D e velopment and O r i g i n of O i i " , B u l l . A m . Assoc. Petrol. Geol . , Vo! . 34 (1950).)

H •

pigure 9—Aeria l view of typical wild-cat well in Edmonton area, Alberta. Ar

in rich farming, area, before seeding. [Photo by Theo. A . Link}


No. I

91

By CURTIS L. H O R N . '48 Metallurgist

Reed Roller Bit Company Houston, Texas

T h e cost of completing an oil or gas wel l is dependent largely on the dr i l l ing rate of the rock bit on the bottom of the hole. T h e selection of the proper bit, together wi th proper dr i l l ing weight and rpm, are very important factors in obtaining maximum dr i l l ing efficiency. T h e longer a bit stays in the hole making satisfactory footage the less number of trips there are to make. G o i n g in and out of tbe hole to change bits causes wear on the dr i l l collars, tool joints, pipe and r ig equipment. T h e failure of the bit w i l l often necessitate an expensive fishing job and lost time. It is, therefore, important tbat the rock bit of today be built on the best possible design, out of the best possible material, and thoroughly inspected to stand up under present d r i l l ing conditions and procedure.

Roclt Bit Development T h e cross cutter type rock bit has

experienced a gradual development and evolution through a number of models and thousands of design layouts to the highly efficient rotary rock bit manufactured today. T h e bit is composed of the body, which holds two inclined ro l l ing side cutters that cut the gage and outer edge of the hole, and two cross cutters, which cut the center and bottom of the hole. O n any one bit no two cutters have the same number of teeth in order to prevent tracking in the hole.

T b e first production model of the cross cutter type rock bit was made by the Reed Rol ler B i t Company in 1917. T h e 1917 model had six cross cutters and two side cutters. T h e carburized cutters wi th f r ic t ion bearings were set in pockets in a cast alloy head. T h e cutters and bearings were held in place by a threaded bearing pin, which was locked in place by an A l l e n screw.

T h e next model was made in 1919 with the same number of cross cutters and side cutters which were two-thirds enclosed in a 0.30% carbon cast steel head. T h e carburized alloy steel cutters and fr ic t ion bearings were held in place by a system of inter-locking pins. T h e inter - locking pins gave

92

V Figure i — !9I9 Model

greater safety with less chance for the cutters to come loose in the hole. Th i s bit is shown in Figure 1.

In 1926 the pockets for the cutters were enlarged so that one-half of the cutters were exposed, thus helping to prevent ball ing of the cutters In sticky formation. T h e cross cutters were mounted on an eccentric bushing which raised the bearing pin further f rom the bottom of the hole. T h i s , in turn, increased tbe distance between the ears of the bit head and the bottom of the hole. T h i s was very important because enough wear on these ears could, and did, cause the loss of cutters In the hole. Slush holes were

•V Figure 2—1926 Model

dril led in the head to direct the mud towards the teeth and keep them clean, see Figure 2.

In 1929 the bridge that supports the side cutters was made integral wi th tbe side cutter bearing pins, thus making the cutters more rigid. T h i s eliminated the cast pockets in which the cutters were placed. T h e elimination of the pockets also minimized the danger of cutters locking due to mud

or formation lodging between the cutter and tbe pocket. T h e cutters were made of forged and carburized S A E 3115, and the number of cross cutters decreased f rom six to two. T w o advantages of tbe longer cross rollers were the stabilizing effect of the longer bearing and the dragging action of the cutters on tbe bottom of the hole which improved dr i l l ing speed. Figure 2 shows this bit.

Figure 3 — 1929 Mode!

In the 1931 model slush lubricated roller bearings were incorporated in tbe side cutters and cross rollers, and thc cnmph'lc outlet :;ssemb!\ was

•V Figure 4—1931 Model


bolted into the head with heat treated alloy steel bolts. A cast alloy replaceable slush plate was bolted into the cast alloy steel head. A special grade of crushed tungsten carbide was put on the reaming edge of tbe side cutter teeth to prevent excessive loss of gage in tbe hole. Figure 4 shows this model.

T h e Sport model in J933 was a completely redesigned tool. The cut-

^ Figure 5 — Sport Model 1933

ter assembly was welded into the head. T h i s was revolutionary and replaced the bolted-in construction which was In common use at that time. T b i s construction permitted the weight of an 11 inch bit to be reduced f rom 400 pounds to 93 pounds. U p to this time new cutter assemblies were frequently bolted in used heads and re-run. Due to the welding this was not feasible, but the integral head was mucb safer

reaming edge of the side cutters, were hard faced with tungsten carbide.

In 1939 the " S E " model was streamlined with a forged four piece head instead of the cast steel head. T h e cross roller bearing pins were integral wi th a quadrant of the head (cross lug) , and the side cutter bearing bushing and bridge pin were welded into the (side lug) quadrant. T h e advantages of the four piece head were its safety and Its increased efficiency due to the greater clearance around the cutters. T h e lugs were forged and stronger, and the majority of the welding was far removed f rom the cutters. T h e bolted-in mud plate was replaced by a replaceable cast alloy mud nozzle that was changed by removing a spring lock r ing in the bit head. T h e nozzle provided for more efficient direction of the mud towards tbe cutter faces. Th i s streamlined model " S E " is shown in figure 7.

-^Figure 8 — Slush Action in "LB" Model 1949

tests showed that with tbe improved beat treatment, the dr i l l ing efficiency w as better without the hard facing on the teeth. Tbe cross cutter type bit is manufactured in standard sizes ranging f rom 3}i" to 26" In diameter. However, the most common sizes are 7}i" through 9". Before the steel is forged each heat is checked in the laboratory for correct chemical analysis, hardenability, microstructure, resistance to impact ( Izod) and tensile strength.

It is a known and proven fact that in most cases forged parts are stronger than parts machined f rom bar stock. Where parts are subjected to high stresses and impact, the grain flow is very important. H o t work ing of the metal in forging causes the flow lines to conform to the flow of metal, and when stresses are induced the tendency of the metal to shear longitudinally wi th the lines of flow are reduced. A f t e r the parts are forged they are annealed to give a uni form grain structure. T h e uniform grain structure and hardness makes machining easier as wel l as uniform heat treating possible.

T b e machined parts are carburized to give the parts a hard, wear-resistant case and a soft, ductile core, i n the carburlzing cycle the case structure is changed due to the absorption of carbon Into the steel. T h e depth of penetration is very accurately controlled by the length of time parts are exposed to the carburlzing atmosphere in the furnace, as we l l as tbe chemical composition and moisture of the gas. T h e carburlzing atmosphere is a special gas made f rom natural gas in a commercial endothermic gas generating unit. T h e gas generating unit burns natural gas with an Insufficient amount of oxygen to produce a gas wi th the fol lowing approximate composition :

Carbon monoxide 2 0 % Carbon dioxide 0'% Methane 0 .3%-0 .6%

93

•V- Figure 6 — " D K " Model 1936

to use as tbe cutters were less l ikely to be lost in the hole. Figure 5 shows the sport model. In 1934 ball thrust bearings were added In the cutters to replace the thrust washer used heretofore.

The " D K " model in 1936 had the cross roller bearing pin integral wi th the lug, and the lugs were welded to tbe cast head. T h i s was done to prevent drawing the hardness of the bearing races during the welding operation. T b e tj'pe of steel used for cutters, lugs and bridges was changed from S A E 3115 to S A E 4815. M o d e l " D K " is shown by Figure 6. In 1938 the tips of the teeth of both side cutters and cross cutters, as we l l as the

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R ,

• Figure 7 — "SE" Model 1939

T h e " L B " (L iqu id Blast) model of 1949-1950, shown in figure 8, is made f rom forged A I S l 4812 (nickel molybdenum alloy) steel. T h e change was made f rom S A E 4815 to A I S I 4 8 1 2 - H because of lower core hardness in the heat treated part and greater uniformity of the A I S I 4812-H . T h e uniformity of the A I S I 4812-H steel was due to the narrower chemical limits of tbe A I S I steels together with the " H " specification, which limits the hardenability of the steel between two fixed curves known as Jomlny hardenability curves. In this model the slush tube was replaced by a fixed slush tube and dome, which provides a more efficient distribution of tbe mud where It is needed most in cleaning the cutter teeth. T h e action and distribution of the mud on the cross cutters is shown In Figure 8. Other holes not shown in the photograph direct the mud to the side cutters to give the same cleaning action. T h e beat treatment of the cutters was improved to give a better resistance to abrasion. H a r d facing was removed f rom the teeth of the hard formation cutters because laboratory and field

1950

Oxygen - 0 % Hydrogen - - 4 0 % Nitrogen Balance

T h e cutters are completely carburized, whereas only parts of the lugs are carburized. Sections which are not to be carburized are copper plated, T b e copper plating prevents the carbon molecules f rom penetrating into the steel. These protected sections have the same physical properties and hardness as tbe core of a carburized part. Due to the fact that the cutters and other parts have sections wi th different carbon concentrations, it is necessary to reheat and oi l quench to get the best pbj^sical properties and hardness in both the core and the case. Quenching the steel into agitated oil f rom tbe high temperatures necessary for carburlzing and hardening induces stresses in the parts, and these stresses are relieved by drawing at a much lower temperature. T h e low draw temperature reduces the hardness of tbe case several points (Rockwe l l C scale) and makes for a uni form hardness.

A f t e r beat treating each part^ is checked for proper hardness. T h e bearing races are ground and inspected iQQ% for dimensions and grinding cracks.

T h e ball and roller bearings are made of heat treated alloy electric furnace bearing quality tool steel. T h e bearings are checked for dimeiisions by an automatic bearing checking machine which separates bearings that are plus or minus 0.00025 inches in diameter f rom tbe designed dimensions.

Fish Tail Bif

T h e Fish T a i l bit is used to d r i l l clay, sbale, loosely cemented and unconsolidated formations. T h e present bit has no moving parts and consists of forged alloy steel blades ( A I S I 4140) welded to a cast steel head. T h e blades have hard, wear-resistant inserts fused in the face and the reaming edge. T h e entire face and reaming edge of the blades are covered with a coarse-grain tube metal. T h e inserts are made of a fused tungsten carbide-cobalt alloy, and the tube _ metal is tungsten carbide grains. There are twô tungsten carbide-cobalt a l l o y slush nozzles which direct the mud towards tbe face of the blade to keep it clean. Under favorable conditions it is no problem at al l to d r i l l 2000 feet or more wi th one bit. However, this has not always been true. T h e earlier models were forged alloy steel wi th the blade integral with the body. Good hard facing had not been developed and blades were hardened and drawn by tbe blacksmith. I n some

94

Figure 9 — Fish Tali

cases the faces of the blades were carburized wi th an oxj'-acetylene fiame and tbe surface quenched with water. T h i s procedure gave somewhat better results, but it was not unt i l cobalt-chromium-tungsten allo3's came into use that good results were produced by bard facing. T h e cast tungsten carbide and tungsten carbide-cobalt alloy used today give tbe best performance of any known bard facing wear-resistant material. Figure 9 shows the standard Fish T a i l bit made today which ranges in size f rom 5}i" to 24" in diameter and is available wi th two, three or four blades. T h e tungsten carbide and tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys used in hard facing the rock bit and Fish T a i l are made in the Reed Rol ler B i t Company plant in Houston. T h e alloj's are melted in a carbon arc furnace and centrif-ugally cast into carbon molds. I n s e r t s are cleaned and prepared for use while the tungsten carbide is crushed to the desired screen size and put in steel tubes.

Experimental Drilling Machine

M u c h experimenting is done wi th our laboratory d r i l l i n g machine which Is shown in Figure 10. T h e rotating power is supplied by a gasoline engine which transmits the power through a drive shaft to a ring and pinion gear, which in turn drives the hollow s p l i n e d dr i l l ing shaft. T h e static load is applied by two hydraulic c y l i n d e r s . W a t e r is c i r c u l a t e d through the d r i l l stem to cool the bit and to carry the cuttings to tbe

surface. W i t h tbis arrangement we are able to reproduce specific dr i l l ing conditions In the laboratory.

W i t h the dr i l l ing machine we are able to test various types of standard and experimental bits in different formations. Production bits are periodically run on the d r i l l ing machine to make an overall check on the standard production model. A f t e r the bits are run to destruction, or the dr i l l ing rate drops below a prescribed point, the bits are dissected and the parts are studied in tbe laboratory for excessive wear, possible failure, proper heat treatment, hard facing procedure and assembly.

A study was made by M r . W . B . Noble, V . P . in charge of Engineering of Reed Rol ler B i t Co. , of the effect of rotary speed and dr i l l ing weight on tbe maximum dr i l l ing efficiency. T h e attached graphs (Figures 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) show the effect, result and importance of research in developing a rock bit to meet tbe present dr i l l ing conditions.

Experimental Bits M u c h work has been done and Is

being done on experimental bits for experimental dr i l l ing procedures. T.\vo samples of this are the Jet bit and the Percussion bit. ' Phe jet principle is to Increase the mud pump pressure and decrease the mud nozzle exit area to cause the mud stream to have a high velocity at the nozzle exit. O n the rig, two duplex pumps are compounded to produce 600 ga l /min at 1750 psi. T h e velocity of the d r i l l ing mud through

•V Figure !0—Laboratory Drilling Machine


25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 0 10 20 30 4 0 50 60 70

ROTARY R.P.M. LOAD OH BIT IN THOUSAND POUNDS

^ Figure It — Effect of Rotary R.P.M. Variations on Rate of Pene- v Figure 12 — T h e Effective Change in Rate of Penetration Due tration arrived at by Drilling Two Feet in Granite at Constant Loads. to an Increase in the Amount of Formation Drilled of From 2 Feet

to 5 Feet at Constant Rotary R.P.M. and Varying Loads.

^ Figure 13 —Effec t of Rotary R.P.M Variations and Load Vari- ^ Figure 14-Êffect of Rotary R.P.M. Variations and Load Variations on Rate of Penetration for Life of Rock Bit. ations on Drilling Efficiency of Rock Bits as Expressed in Time to

Drill iOO Feet of Hole.

THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950 95

Figure 15— Produ

the nozzles in the bit varies f rom 300 to 500 ft/sec. T h e high velocity mud not only cleans the cutters but also impinges on tbe bottom of the bole. In clay and softer formations the chips cut by tbe bit are rapidly broken into smaller pieces and carried to the surface wi th the mud. T h e development of the nozzles has been one of hydraulics and metallurgy. Special bits and special nozzles were made and field tested. Percussion dr i l l ing is somewhat like a pneumatic hammer

ction Line in the Plant.

operation in tbe hole, using mud pressure to operate the hammer instead of air. T h i s type of dr i l l ing, needless to say, requires a bit of rugged design as we l l as material of high strength. V a r i ous designs of this type have been made and tested in the field.

W o r k is continuously being done on experimental heat treating to improve the wear resistance, abrasive resistance and toughness of the case, and at the same time to keep a tough, ductile core that w i l l withstand impact

and severe stress. In beat treating, as in everything else, you don't get some thing for nothing. Hardness is increased at tbe expense of ductility and vice versa.

W e a r resistant problems are always present wi th dr i l l ing equipment. T h e action of tbe abrasive mud passing through tbe bit and around the cutters requires a material that w i l l wi th stand wet abrasions as w e l l as Impact and errosion during the dr i l l ing on the bottom of the hole. H a r d facing materials are continuously being tested to find a better material or combination of materials to withstand the abrasion. T h e tungsten carbide-cobalt alloy and tungsten carbide grain thus far has proven the best although tbey were developed 30 years ago. T h e roller and fr ic t ion bearing materials are constantly tested and investigated to find better materials that w i l l wi thstand the severe treatment of heavy weight and mud lubrication.

T h e development of a stronger and better bit has enabled the oi l producing industry to d r i l l deeper wells and to increase the dr i l l ing weight and rotary speed. T h e rock bit is unique in the fact that an increase in the cost of materials or manufacturing technique is only secondary to a better quality bit. A n increase of a few percent In d r i l l ing efficiency means much to a dri l ler .

Acknowledgement Is given to M r . D . L . D e F H o m m e Reed Roller B i t Company, for the history and design of early rock bit models.

M E T A L L U R G Y IN P E T R O L E U M R E F I N I N G

(Continued from page 85) ing conditions, be works with the design section to avoid excessive stress concentration and to obtain the best materials at the lowest possible cost, be works with tbe purchasing department to insure that the company receives quality material, he "works wi th tbe maintenance section and construction departments to aid them in the proper field fabrication, erection, and construction of equipment, and he works wi th the safety department to insure the safe operation of metals and materials.

T h e metallurgical profession is proud to play such a vi ta l and Interesting role in the important industry of petroleum refining and its associated industries. It is proud of the responsibilities which it must meet and of tbe challenge to furnish the industry the materials to do the job.

N O T E S F R O M P E R M I A N B A S I N (Continued from page 86)

Pennsylvanian and Mississippian discoveries and pre-Mississippian discoveries. Here the curve for the Pennsyl-

96

vanian and Mississippian fields is converging on tbe pre-Mississippian curve and in a l l probability the two w i l l cross In 1950 because of Increasing Pennsylvanian discoveries.

T h e years of future o i l and gas productivity for Wes t Texas and southeastern N e w Mex ico may be estimated by some to be many and by others to be f ew; however, many oi l companies and other businesses undoubtedly calculate a relatively long l ife for the area. T h i s is reflected partially by the great amount of office space made available by new construction in M i d land and other communities. In M i d land alone, wi th in tbe past five years, six new office buildings ranging f rom three to nine stories have been constructed and in addition several one and two story buildings have been built . A t present another twelve story building is under construction. M o s t of tbis office space Is occupied by oi l companies and related organizations. Some companies have built their own buildings and many bave rented space on ten year leases. M i d l a n d now probably has more office space than any other town of similar size in the

T H E M l h

Uni ted States, and also in this respect ranks fifth In Texas, yet its population is only 21,614.

T h i s area has been producing oi l and gas for nearly twenty one years. Even though some of the smaller fields have been abandoned, and producing fields are being depleted gradually, the rate of new discoveries is high; therefore. It seems obvious tbat we can look forward to many more years of activity wi th in the oil province of West Texas and southeastern N e w Mexico .

R E C E N T O I L A N D G A S D E V E L O P M E N T S

(Continued from page 91) the sub-arctic, a coral reef reservoir of Upper Devonian age. Jumping Pound, another Foothil ls structure containing a wet gas, but no o i l , was discovered a few years prior to Leduc. Since the Leduc discovery the G u l f O i l Company discovered, by means of seismic refraction work, another deep lying gas-distillate field near Pincher Creek in the Foothills just north of the International boundary. L i k e Tu rne r Val ley and Jumping


M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

By L O U I S D E S J A R D I N S

Consul+ing Photogeologist, Houston, Texas

T h e search for oil s t i l l continues at a rapid pace In the Texas G u l f Coast and w i l l continue so in this important area for many years to come. Surface geology heretofore has not been as important as geophysical exploration, but w i th improvements in photogeology it w i l l tend to Increase its relative importance. T h e present article w i l l describe the pbotogeologic interpretations and results in four selected areas in diiferent Coastal belts, starting wi th the Pleistocene belt nearest the G u l f and ending with one within the Claiborne division of the Eocene, These may be taken as typical and representative, space not permitting making a selection f rom the outcrop of every named formation. It is we l l known that older formations exposed farther inland have harder rocks, greater topographic develop

ment and clearer photographic interpretational expression. T h e detailed photo analj'sis of the younger belts Illustrated in this article is something rather new. T h e several belts also change In photographic expression as they are traced to tbe southwest, due to the incidence of caliche and other results of drier climate. Photogeology is successful in attaining comparable detailed results in this direction, but the present article is too limited to include these further examples. Pleistocene Coastal Belt

T h e first example. Figures 1 and 2, Is situated in the Pleistocene Coastal belt, which Is the principal salt dome province of Texas and whose oi l prospecting is Intimately associated wi th these domes. Aside f rom the tidal marshes, deltas and river bottoms, this surface consists of an outer belt of very flat land underlain by the Beaumont clay and an inner belt nearly as flat underlain by the more sandy or gravelly Lissie formation. T h e

Pleistocene surface, in certain parts of Texas, shows Interesting remnants of former drainage patterns associated wi th the Glac ia l period and described and Interpreted on aerial photographs by Barton^.

A number of the salt domes, specially the shallow type, also have some form of surface expression visible on photographs, usually as a broad circle of distinctive soil coloration, or a slight topographic rise, or deflected drainage. T b e famous Splndletop bas a topographic relief of 10 f t . and Damon M o u n d has a record height of 83 f t . F o r good Illustrations the reader Is referred to Lahee's " F i e l d Geologj ' , " 4tb edition, page 550, (Barbers H i l l salt dome. Chambers County, Texas )^ and E a r d 1 e y ' s

1 Barton, Donald C , Deltaic Coastal PUiin of Southeasterrj Texas. Bul l . Geol, Soc. A m . , vol. 41, pp. 359-382, 1930.

'Lahee, F . H „ Field Geology, 4tl! edition, M c -G t n K - H i l l , 1941.

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 97

" A e r i a l Photographs, T h e i r Use and Interpretation," page 158, (Avery Island, Louisiana).^ A s an example of prospecting for such structures by photo study the reader is referred to D e Blieux's we l l illustrated recent article on photogeology in tbe G u l f Coast of Louisiana."'

T h e recent pbotogeologic work of the present wri ter has shifted the interest in tbe Coastal salt dome area to photo mapping of fault patterns, while continuing to give the usual attention to tbe larger geomorphic features of the kinds mentioned above. It is found that faults in characteristic patterns have widespread occurrence on the surface wi th in the Beaumont and Lissie belts, not only associated wi th domes, deep seated as w e l l as shallow, but occurring in the areas between the domes as we l l . T h e pattern includes long faults or fault zones having a length measured in miles, together with a network of shorter faults usually in groups of parallel members. T h e longer or master faults can usually be correlated wi th subsurface faults when these bave been mapped, while tbe minor fauits usually f a i l to match individual ly w i th those in the sub-surface.

Figure 1 shows a photograph of an area approximately at the contact (according to published maps) between the Beaumont and Lissie outcrops, though the photo here fails to show a satisfactory boundary. T h e general texture of the surface is similar to that of the typical Beaumont, containing a number of characteristic pimple mounds and oval depressions. T h e area is located a few miles north of Houston, Har r i s County. There are no domes lying wi th in the area of the photo. Some of the fault ing here mapped, upon extending the study, has been found to be related to the Humble dome seven miles to the northeast, and possibly to the Dyers-dale structure a shorter distance to the southeast.

Figure 2 shows the fault pattern as revealed by the careful analysis of the photo shown in Figure 1. T h e faults do not have continuous expression upon thc photo, but are largely reconstructed by joining together a number of scattered evidences along the lines indicated. T h e discovery of these requires careful stereoscopic study of the original photos.

T h e longest individual fault traversing the entire length of tbe photo f rom northeast to southwest was

^ Eardlcj', A . , | . Aerial Pliolograpiis, Tliclr Use and Inteprelation. l iarpcr & Bros., 1942.

* Do Biieiis, Cliaries, Photogeology in Gulf Coast Exploration, Bul l , of the A . A . P . O . Voi . j3, no. 7, pp. I25I-I2S9, July, 1949.

98

found in studying adjoining photos to have considerable further extent in both directions. Since its direction is toward tbe Humble structure to the northeast, it is believed to be a master radial fault wi th reference to that structure. T h e three or four faults of Figure 2 which are parallel or nearly so to this long fault are considered to be relatively superficial offsplits of tbis fault. T h a t is, their planes terminate in that of tbe main fault at comparatively shallow depths.

T h e second most prominent group of faults of Figure 2 include those having a northwest-southeast trend. These are not confined to a single zone, but they suggest a number of such zones parallel to one another, and considerably disrupted in crossing the northeast-southwest zone. I n the southeast part of tbe area some of the faults show strong curving toward the east, and upon studying the next photo in tbis direction tbey show a concentric periferal relationship wi th the Dyersdale structure.

Other faults are of interest in Figure 2. Several that range in, direction f rom northwest to nearly southwest appear to be radial f rom a point a li t t le off the photo in the vicinity of the urban development of parallel streets shown. These are a l l consistently up-thrown on the sides toward the crossing of the other fault zones. Beyond these, other north-south faults are concentric toward a center toward the west, and are downthrown to this side.

T h e above remarks do not exhaust the possibilities of interpretation of the fracture pattern of Figure 2. F o r all sub-surface analysis the determination of which are the up and down sides has great importance, so that the angles of the fault planes, characteristically 4 5 ° toward the down side in the G u l f Coast, can be taken into account. Such studies are more f ru i t f u l in connection wi th larger areas than that of the present illustration.

T h e interpretational criteria for the faults mostly relate to features of soil color and vegetation that suggest either a greater concentration of ground water along a certain line, or a longer retention of water after rains in the soil on one side of a line compared wi th the other and which w i l l indicate tbe down side. These features are lacking over most of the extent of such a line, but the fact that they occur preponderately in alignments, w i th the determination of down sides consistent, often many miles long as noted, makes the interpretation of a fracture pattern inescapable. These features suggest that the fault move

ments have been relatively recent, and that the movement, each time it occurs, is of extremely small magnitude.

T h e migration of salt f rom its deep source strata to domal plugs is considered tbe ultimate cause of the observed fault pattern, both on the domes and between them. T h e migration was induced by increasing weight of continued sedimentation when the region was under water, and the fault movements have by no means stopped immediately on cessation of tbe sedimentation by the emergence of tbe land.

Pliocene Beit

T h e second example (Figs. 3 and 4) is selected f rom the southern part of San Jacinto County where the surface as indicated bj ' the Texas G e o l ogic M a p is covered by the Pliocene W i l l i s formation, wi tb the streams perhaps penetrating the underlying Miocene Lagarto formation. T h e photo study here does not satisfactorily show a contact between the two; any such unconformity that might occur is so gradual that structural contours ( F i g . 4) prepared upon beds traceable wi th in the single photo would be scarcely affected by it.

T h e topography here has a local relief of 100 f t . or less w i th slopes rather gentle. N o bedding has sharp expression that would be v i s i b l e clearly on a single photograph as reproduced here. O n the original photos, however, under the stereoscope, sufficient evidences of the actual bedding are found to permit a complete reconstruction of the outcrop pattern wi th good reliability. T h i s pattern is shown on Figure 4 by the series of fine dashed lines numbered f rom 1 to 9. M o s t of the fragments of bedding that were seen lie upon these lines, but intermediate bedding has also aided in interpreting the pattern.

T h e conversion of the outcrop pattern to structural contours to a definite measured interval, in this case 10 ft . , ( F i g . 4 ) is a routine job of photogrammetric work. A n earlier method of the writer, sometimes s t i l l used, was published in tbe O i l and Gas Journal for M a y 11, 1939.^' M o r e recently developed alternative methods are described in "Techniques in Photogeology" (currently in the B u i . of the A . A . P . G . ) , and "Structural Contouring for the Photogeologist" (currently in Photogrammetric Engineering). It w i l l be noticed that tbe lowest contour has been arbitrari ly given a n u m e r i c a l value

" Desjardins, Loais. and ITower, S. G , , Geolopic mapping from the air. Oil and Gas lour,, v. 37, no. 52, M a y II, 1939, p. 44-46, S9.

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

Figure 3

of zero elevation and the highest contour represents a structural rise of 180 ft . A n y of the nine beds drawn may be considered a key bed for these contours. T h i s photo was prepared as an isolated example wi thout working the surrounding photos, and also without field work, elevation control, or information f rom outside sources. Usual ly in this type of work for larger areas a tie-in is made wi th sea level datum, and published or recognized stratigraphic boundaries are located on the photos and utilized in the areal mapping. T h i s and the other examples in the present article emphasize the essential completeness and self-sufficiency of the pbotogeologic results in terms of adequate and useful knowledge of stratigraphy and structure.

In commenting upon the structure of Figure 4 it Is noticed that no faults were Interpreted wi th in this photo. A n impression is gained tbat the W i l l i s formation itself may be comparatively free f rom fault ing and may blanket faults which exist in formations beneath. It is to be noted that there Is unusual correspondence between structural attitude and present drainage, the streams fo l lowing the synclines. T h i s condition Is rare in the outcrop belts farther inland. T h e W i l l i s beds are known to be non-marine, and were laid down on a low land surface of very gentle relief. It would seem that in this Coastal belt the Pliocene beds never received a very thick later cover, and the modern streams were able to repossess the old valleys.

T b e general structural dip, however, is steeper than the present topo-

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E

graphic slope, and the contours even on this j 'oung formation, are considered to bave great value in prospecting. I n the area of Figure 4, for instance, there are two striking structural features of interest. T h e sharp synclinal axis in the southwest part l ining up wi th that in the northeast part is taken to mark a prominent deeper fault line. T h e anticlinal domelike terrace occupying the southeast half of the area is considered too large to be a feature produced only by topographic influence but to be a positive structure having received some upl i f t since the present surface beds were deposited, though not neces

sarily since the present topographic surface was essentially formed.

Eocene: Yegua Formation Belt T h e next outcrop belt here illus

trated (Figs. 5 and 6) is that of the Yegua (Eocene) formation. T h i s example is located in the extreme southern part of Lee County. T h e topography has a very similar aspect to that of the preceding area. Th i s Is also true of the intervening belts not here illustrated (Jackson, Catahoula and Lagarto formations) e x c e p t where these contain sandstone members whose topography is stronger.

Faults occur in a large part of these areas. I n the area of Figure 5 the faults are a l l of small displacement, (see F i g , 6 ) , and occur in three systems according to parallelism. T w o of these, wi th faults approximately in the direction of the dip, appear to be the more prominent locally, while the third system, in the direction of the strike, is less represented here but becomes more Important in the surrounding region.

T h e structural contours of Figure 6 differ f rom those of Figure 4 in respect to the method of their preparation, being based upon less precise photogrammetric control and thereby classed as reconnaissance. T h e interval in this case is 20 feet. T h i s interval was established, however, by precise measurement of the photographic third dimension. These contours are also based upon a m o r e quickly sketched reconnaissance or preliminary version of the outcrop pattern (not Included in the figure). T h e faults themselves are of similar reconnaissance character subject to more

•V Figure 4

® O C T O B E R , 1950 99^

V Figure 5

careful study. It is of practical interest that a pbotogeologic reconnaissance method, aimed to cover a large region quickly, can be made to include as its principal objective a structural expression in terms of contours. These reconnaissance contours have been proven to be entirely reliable for purposes of discovering, localizing and expressing approximately the magnitude of practically a l l structural features of significance in the work of petroleum exploration. F o r instance, in Figure 6, attention is called to the east-west line of anticlinal flexure expressed in the contours. T h e next step in photogeology for o i l prospecting in this case should be to rework the vicinity of this flexure upon the basis of revision of the outcrop pattern and application of a more precise photogrammetric technique for the contours, which could be drawn to a 10 foot interval.

Figure 6 has been taken f rom a reconnaissance map prepared hy photogeology of a much larger area. ( T h e anticlinal flexure mentioned above extends several miles farther east.) T h i s project required no field work or elevation control. A s in the case of Figure 4, tbe structural contours of Figure 6 refer to no individual key bed nor give sea level elevations. These contours, like those made by more precise techniques, are essentially free f rom a l l effects of photo ti l t .

Eocene: Spar fa— C o o k Mountain Beit

T h e fourth example, (Figs. 7 and 8) is taken in an area in southern

Leon County which the State Geologic M a p indicates to be on the boundary between the outcroup of Sparta and C o o k Moun ta in formations. These together w i th the overlying Yegua, lie in the Claiborne division of the Eocene. T h e contact is judged to be at or very close to the horizon indicated on Figure 8 as bed no. 5. T h e underlying Sparta formation is described as sandy and tbis accords witb the better bedded topographic expression of outcrops in the northwest half of the photo in contrast to the

more poorly expressed outcrops in the southeast half which are considered to belong to tbe overlying less sandy Cook Moun ta in . I n a l l parts of the photo, however, the bedding expression is more graphic than was the case on any of the preceding examples which illustrated younger formations.

T h e remainder of the Ter t ia ry formations underlying those here figured occupy outcrop belts farther north and west w i th even stronger topography and more perfect photographic expression of bedding. These terrains covering thousands of square miles in East Texas besides their respective belts paralleling the coast are especially we l l adapted for entirely accurate rapid mapping by photogeology.

T h e structure of Figure 8, in this case the result of detailed rather than reconnaissance interpretation and photogrammetric routine, possesses features in common wi th those of Figure 6, especially the occurrence of parallel faults of small displacement having a tendency, though not as strongly, to extend wi th the dip. T h e faults in tbe central and northern parts of the figure, however, seem to be quite in dependent of the dip which here departs f rom the regional attitude seen best in the southeastern part.

In Figure 6 there is practically no correspondence between structure and present drainage. O n Figure 8 there are one or two local instances of slight correspondence, while in most places there is definitely no such correspondence. There are one or two good correspondences between present streams •W Figure 6


•r Figure 7

and faults, though for tbe most part the topographic features related to the faults are of a much smaller order of magnitude. There are good instances of clearly expressed offsetting of the bedding to serve as conclusive evidence for the faults as far as Figure 8 is concerned. Tb i s was not so true of Figure 6, but the proof of tbis pattern of faults on Figure 8 in the same general region, gives some added weight to the reliability of the similar interpretations made on Figure 6.

The anticlinal flexures indicated in Figure 8 have definite prospecting interest. T h i s figure was prepared as an isolated example for tbe present article, with no advance knowledge of the structures to be expected. ( T h e same is true of F i g . 4 ) . A n y interested company would extend the detailed pbotogeologic mapping to include the adjoining photos to the north and west, in order to outline this group of structures.

Further Applications of Photogeology

T h e present article has not included another pbotogeologic operation usually accompanying commercial jobs in areas of the types illustrated in all but the first two figures. Fbis is the preparation of stratigra

phic columns whose bedding intervals are measured photogrammetrically and which correspond to the formations shown as outcrop patterns on the photos or maps which they accompany. Such stratigraphic columns indicate the lithology to whatever extent this can be judged f rom the

photographic expression, or this may be furnished f rom supplementary sources. T h e emphasis need not be on lithology, however, but upon forma-tional characteristics more appropriate to the photogeologlcal method, that is, tbe relative hardness and softness of rock members, their pecularities of topographic expression, associated vegetation, etc. T h e method permits columns to be made at short distances apart and has usefulness beyond any other survey means for revealing changes of thickness in forraational units when traced laterally.

Heretofore photogeology has been regarded in many minds as a method to be applied in areas of bold topographic expression, especially where the rocks are hard and tbe dips steep, such as in the Rocky Mountains region, or else in foreign countries where not much other geologic work has yet been done or where most of the country Is inaccessible. Photo study is usually expected to give lit t le more than a general reconnaissance picture of the geologj'. These concepts are subject to considerable revision when the modern work of pbotogeol-oglsts wi th considerable experience and command of photometric techniques comes to be known. Even In such long-worked wel l -known areas as the Texas Coastal ' P la in where surface formations are mostly unconsolidated, photogeology can now be expected to make a major future contribution. Surface exposures are usually not continuous enough, and for-matlonal members not distinctive enough, to permit close field mapping suitable for detailed structural contouring. Photogeology can attain this detail and yet be completed rapidly and at very low cost. Even where it Is considered desirable to incur the much greater expense of some type of geophjJBlcal work before dr i l l ing upon a structural prospect, the knowledge of the structure at the surface is st i l l a vi ta l part of an accepted policy to gain as complete a picture of the geology as is economically possible.

THE MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R 1950

^ Architect's sketch of new Continental Oii Company research laboratory, Ponca City, Oklahoma.

ronTtninTRL oi l t m n m

p o n c n CITV, O K i f l H o m n

President L . F . M c C o U u m of Continental O i l Company, recently announced tile awarding of a contract for tbe construction of a $2,250,000 research laboratory building in Ponca Ci ty , Oklahoma that w i l l provide the company witb one of the most advanced development and research programs in tbe American oi l industry.

H e stated that Continental's new laboratory building, construction of which is scheduled to be underway at tbe present time, complements and coordinates our existing laboratories and serves as a central research point for our development and research department. Also the new research laboratory w i l l augment Continental's modern laboratory facilities, which on completion of the new structure w i l l include adequate facilities for thorough study of the many problems associated wi th tbe finding, producing and refining of petroleum. O u r adding of the new research unit simply means that Continental can continue to move progressively ahead in the industry's continuing search for more crude oi l and in tbe manufacture of better products.

T h e new building, a three-story structure comprising mainly six indi-

L. F. M c C O L L U M

vidual laboratory units and to be connected to Continental's newest office building in Ponca Ci ty , w i l l contain almost 40,000 square feet of floor space, giving the company a total of more than 85,000 square feet of laboratory space. T h e company's total laboratory quarters w i l l be equivalent to a six-story building, one-half block long and 100 feet wide.

T h e building is to be of reinforced concrete construction, wi th exterior of attractive stone and masonry, and the

architectural style w i l l blend wi th the adjacent existing architectural pattern. T b e new structure w i l l be f u l l y fire-protected, w i l l bave j'ear-'round air-conditioning and w i l l be equipped witb functional all-steel furniture.

M a x i m u m uti l i ty w i l l be provided in tbe new research laboratory bui lding by installation of removable partitions, al lowing convenient flexibility of space for the several laboratory units.

Contract for the new unit has been awarded to Wigton-Abbot t Corp. , engineers and contractors, Plainfield, N . J . , who have designed and built some of the most modern laboratories in the nation.

T h e building is expected to be completed in the f a l l of 1951,

T h e company's central research laboratories w i l l occupy approximately half of tbe laboratory space in the new building. T h e central research laboratories w i l l consist of an organic chemical laboratoiy, comprised of a petroleum chemical division and a lubricating o i l division; an analytical laboratory, consisting of both chemical and phj'sical methods units; a physics research laboratory, including s u c h equipment as electron microscope, X

102 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R . 1950

IT B. H . Lincoln, patent advisor, has been with Continental since 1926, He is a graduate of the Universities of Colorado and Arkansas witli a degree In chemical engineering.

E. R. Baker, manager, central research laboratories, received his B.S. degree in chemistry at Yale and LL.D. from SuHolk Law School. He joined Continental in 1948.

•V J . A , Murphy, supervising reservoir engineer, graduated from the University of Cal i fornia and was employed in California and Texas prior to joining Continental in 1948.

•V S. J . Bragg, librarian, who graduated from Rhode Island State College, was formerly librarian for Mack Manufacturing Company, Plainfield, N . J . , and joined Continental in J949.

•V Harold G . Osborn, vice president in charge of manufacturing, joined Continental 29 years ago. He received his elementary education at Kalamazoo, Mich., and later attended Kalamazoo College prior to entering the Air Service In World War 1.

ray defraction unit and mass spectrometer ; and a colloid laboratory, for carrying on fundamental work on greases and allied materials.

Approximately the remaining half of the new laboratory building w i l l be occupied by the laboratory section of tbe production r e s e a r c h division, which has as its functions research work in physics, chemistry, mathematics and engineering which bave to do witb the recovery of petroleum f rom the ground and laboratory technical services for tbe production department. Technical services w i l l include core analysis, reservoir fluid analysis, chemical and metallurgical analysis, corrosion control studies and consulting service in any of the sciences.

T h e other section of production research — reservoir engineering — w i l l have quarters in the adjacent existing office building and w i l l use the faci l ities of the electronics and instrument shops in the laboratory wing in their research work. Reservoir engineering bas as Its functions the calculation of company reserves, reservoir engineering studies of the various reservoirs In which the company operates, and research work in improving the techniques by which reserves are determined.

Continental's development and research department is under the general supervision of H . G . Osborn, vice president.

Department manager is L . L . Davis, a pioneer In the development of synthetic additives for use in lubricating oils and In research and development of lubricating greases. Besides being a fel low of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, a fellow, charter member and l ife member of tbe American Institute of Chemists and a member of the American Chemical Society, he Is also a member of tbe American Society of Rheology, and represents Continental O i l Company


•sr L. L. Davis, manager, development and research department, received his M.S. degree in chemical engineering at University of Washington and joined Continenta! in 1927.

V H . E. Luntz, supervisor, process laboratory, graduated from Georgia School of Technology and Michigan University in chemical engineering. He came with Continental in 1936,

W . T. Ford, supervising products-use research engineer, attended Oklahoma University and held aircraft engineering positionsL before joining Continental in 1941.

•V J . J . Reynolds, supervising production engineer, a graduate of University of Texas, was employed in Texas before joining C o n tinental in 1948.

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E 9 O C T O B E R , 1950 103

By V . G . G A B R I E L , D .Sc , '33* Abstract

Geological considerations for the determination of depths f rom the surface of points located in the regional formations or structures are given and the analogy of depth determinations wi th the evaluation of residual gravities is investigated. F ina l l j ' , inferences for proper evaluation of residual gravities are made.

T h e methods of evaluating regional corrections in gravimetric exploration have been ably treated by numerous investigators.^ These investigators, however, are stressing, perhaps unduly, the mathematical aspects of the problem and overlooking its geological implications.

T o better understand the influence of regional structures in exploration wi th gravimeter, it is advisable, at least during the first steps of exploration, to consider certain geological factors of a regional structure under consideration. Geologically, a regional structure can be visualized as an evenly dipping formation (or an intrusive body under special conditions) of very large extent, whose physical and other properties differ perceptibly f rom those of the overly ing strata. A local density anomaly, that is, the anomaly located wi th in the strata, may be properly evaluated if the density of the regional formation or structure dii?ers perceptibly f r o m that of the formations overlying this regional structure.

A ,

/ / / / V / / / / Y / / / / A / / / / / / /

•V Figure I—Cross section perpendicular to dip of regional structure

L e t us assume that we have no local density anomaly and that the overlying formations are horizontal, that is of zero dip. Al so assume that a regional structure is an evenly dipping sedimentary bed of a very large extent, whose density is laterally uniform, but differs perceptibly f rom those of the overlying formations. Fo r practical purposes, such a structure may be assumed as tending to infinity in the X and y directions. ( F i g . 1) .

T o find tbe depth of the point B located on the top of tbe regional structure f rom the surface, assumed to be a level surface, it Is necessary and sufficient to find tbe depths f rom tbe surface of the points A and C , also located

* Dep't. of Geology, School of Mines & Metalinigy, Univ. of Missouri, Rolla, Mo.

' See W Raymond Griffin, "Residual Gravity in Theory and Practice," Geophysics, Vi.l. XIV, No. 1, pp. 39-56, Jan, 1949.

104

Figure 11

on the top of the regional structure, in such a way that the points A , B , C , and their surface reflection points A i , B i , C i , bear the fo l lowing geometrical relationship:

A i B i . = r = B i C i = 1-2 = 2-3 _ where: 6 is the angle of dip of tbe regional formation;

L i n e A B C and its surface reflection line A i B i C i are straight lines passing through the central point B and its surface reflection point B i , respectlvelj'. r, is a variable distance ranging f rom zero to Infinity.

T h e n it can be stated that for each pair of surface reflection points A i C i located on the straight line passing through the surface reflection point B t and at equal distances f rom this central reflection point, the fo l lowing mathematical expression is v a l i d :

where: D r , depth of point B f rom the surface. D a , depth of point A f rom the surface. D c , depth of point C f rom the surface.

T h e pair of points A , C , and their surface reflection A l , C i , do not necessarily have to be located on the line which is perpendicular to the dip of a regional structure; any pair of points located at equal distances f rom a central point and on a straight line passing through this central point should satisfy equation ( 1 ) . Graphical ly , ( F i g . 2 ) , it can be represented by a surface reflection circle of variable radius r, ranging f rom zero to Infinity, if such a structure can exist, and by a multitude of radii, a l l passing through the central point B i , .

I f we have a break or change in dip of a regional structure, let us say, under the point C and its surface reflection point C i , ( F i g . 3 ) , equation (1) cannot be applied for the proper evaluation of the depths of central points. However, by taking the smaller radii " r " , a multitude of pairs of surface points can be found whose distances f rom the central point B i are smaller than that of the point D and its surface reflection D i , located at the beginning of the structural change. In the latter case, equation (1) is valid too. In case the structural break cannot be detected

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

A B i D G ,

' 9 ^ ' ^ 7 ^ ' / r V / / / / / / /

•V Figure 11 i- "Cross section perpendicular to dip of regional structure

at the surface, the error In the application of equation (1) can be minimized substantiallj ' by taking a large number of surface pair-points and by varying tbe radii.

In evaluating gravity corrections due to an evenly dipping regional formation or structure whose density differs perceptibly f rom the density of overlying formations, the above given geological considerations are of importance. Assuming that the density of a regional structure is greater than the densities of the overlying formations, and that these formations are horizontal in extent and have no lateral variations in thickness and density, ( F i g . 4 ) , then the force of attraction at tbe surface point C i , located up-dip f rom the central point B i , w i l l be greater than the force of attraction at this central point, and mucb greater than that at tbe surface point A i , located down-dip. If tbe density of regional structure would be less than that of the overlying formations, the forces of attraction at the points A i and C i would be in reversed order than as stated above.

It is clearly seen, ( F i g . 4 ) , that by moving the formation point B , wi th its regional structure attached to it, parallel to itself up-dip to the point bi and down-dip to the point b2 (where B j B = C i b i = A i b 2 ) , that the actual force of attraction at tbe surface point C i is equal to that at the surface point B i plus the force of attraction of an infinite slab A B C a i b i C i of thickness t equal r sin Q and of differential density equal ( p 2 ~ p i ) , and where B is the

A l

angle of dip. Similar ly, the force of attraction at the surface point C i is equal to tbat at the surface reflection point B minus the force of attraction of an infinite slab aab2C2ABC of thickness t equal r sin 9, and of differential density equal (p2 — pi).

Mathematically, It can be expressed as

(2) a) F a i = F b i — J J J 3 d m i r A i = F B i —

tJ rJ U \ 8dm r ^ i

S S L b) F c i = F B i - f 1 \ \ S d m , r c i = = F B i

V2

Sdm r c i

where: F a i = Force of attraction at surface point A i F is i = Force of attraction at surface point B i F(;i = Force of attraction at surface point C i n i l = mass of the slab a2b2C2ABC = m

= mass of the slab A B C a i b i C i " m V i = Volume of the slab a a b s c A B C = V V2 = Volume of the slab A B C a i b i C i = V

OT

OT

— Sdmi rAi = Attract ion of slab ai:b2C2ABC

8dm2 r c i = Attract ion of slab A B C a i b i c i

V2 ta i = running radius f rom A i to dmi tqi = running radius f rom C i to dm2

S = gravitational constant.

I f we set an independent coordinate system (xj 'z) at the surface points At, and C i , it is self-evident that: x i = X 2 ; y i = y-i', Z a i z c i - | - i ' tg^; therefore we can set the equations

(3) r A i = [x2 + y ^ + ( Z o i + r t g ^ ) ^ ] ^

r c i = (x^ + y^ + Z c i ) ^

However, f rom a well-known formula^ for a semi-Infinite horizontal plane, the vertical component of the force of attraction at any surface point B i is;

(4) G2 = 28p x l n ~ + 7 r t 3"!

;t + d)^2 + dîi

where: G a = Ver t ica l component of the force of attraction.

S = Gravi ta t ional constant. p = Density, x — Hor izon ta l distance,

r i , r2 — Radi i f rom the surface points to the vertical fault corners,

t — Thickness of the formation, d = Depth to the top of the formation.

F o r a surface point B j located directly nver the edge of a vertical fault we have:

X = 0; 1 = ^2 in radians

Figure IV—Cross section perpendicular to dip of regional structure

^ L. L. Nettleton, "Geophysical Prospecting for Oil," McGraw Book Co., p. 112, 1940,


Substituting tbese values into equation (4) we bave:

(5) G2 = 28p O + Trt — 1 4

2So7r — Sp-Trt

Fo r an infinite horizontal plane (formation) tbe vertical component of tbe force of attraction at tbe same surface point B i w i l l be doubled; therefore, f rom equation ( 5 ) -

(6) G2 ( for an infinite horizontal formation) = 27rSpt

where: t = Thickness of the formation. p = Density or differential density.

Equation (6) can be uti l ized for the evaluation of thc vertical component of the force of attraction at a surface point of an infinite inclined formation (plane) of thickness t, dipping at an angle equal 0 degrees.

Assume we have a surface reflection point B i , ( F i g . 5 ) , and an infinite slab A B C a b c of thickness t and density of f)2- According to equation (6 ) , the vertical component of the force of attraction of this slab is 2Sp27rt. B y rotating the slab about the point B through an angle equal $ degrees (angle of d ip) , the slab w i l l occupy a new position

A i B C i A j b c i . T h e force of attraction, due to this inclined slab, at the surface point B i w i l l be directed along the line B i P , which is perpendicular to the surface A i B C i , and of the magnitude equal 28p2irt. T b e vertical component of the force of attraction acting along the line B i P is 2x8(/»2 — pi) t cos 5 = 27rS (p2 — pi) t cos ^ if the dilJeren-tial densitj' is under consideration. B y the same reasoning, it may be shown that the vertical component of tbe force of attraction of the inclined slab A B C a i b i C i at the surface reflection point C i ( F i g . I V ) is equal 4-2S7r {p2 — pi) t cos 6, whereas tbe vertical component of the force of attraction of the inclined slab a2b2C2ABC ( F i g . I V ) at the surface reflection point A i is equal—2TrS (p2 — pi) t cos ^.

Equation (2) can be expressed in terms of vertical

components as:

8 S U M F A C £

Cos eZ^J>7rt'^'^^

T — - -

h- \ ^ \ (X^j>ff^>rv \ \ \ 1 t / K ! S V l 1 i

Ol \ ^ . b - K 1 1 1 1 Ic,

v Figure V—Cross section

(7) a) V . C . of F a i = V . C . of F b i — V . C . of

-2 8dm ta i

b) V . C . of F o i = V . C . of F b i + V . C . of

8dm r c i

where V . C . stands for a vertical component; but the absolute values of

106

(S) V . C . of I (/ t/ E/ \

8dm rAi = 7r-28(p2 pi ) t cos $

8dm i c i = TT • 28 (p2 -— pi) t cos

B y substituting equation (8) Into equation (7) and adding equations a) and b) of equation ( 7 ) :

(9) V . C . of F a i + V . C . of F c i = 2 ( V . C. of F b i )

— 2TrS(p2 pi ) t cos 6 - j - 2S7r(p2 pi ) t COS B

or f rom equation (9) :

(10) V . C . o f F A i - h V . C . o f F c i = 2 ( V . C . o f F B i ) or f rom equation ( 1 0 ) :

Equation (11) is identical wi th equation (1) if we replace the depths of equation (1) wi th the vertical components given in equation (11 ) .

Equation (11) Indicates that for an even dipping regional structure of a very large extent wi th laterallv even distribution of density and whose density differs perceptibly f rom those of the overljdng strata, the observed gravity values obtained at two surface points located at equal distances f rom a central reflection point and/on a straight line passing through It are sufficient for the determination of the magnitude of gravity at the central reflection point, If no local anomaly exist near tbis central point or near the points of observation. If there Is a local anomaly near the central reflection point, the difference between the observed gravity value at tbe central point and the magnitude of gravity obtained wi th the use of equation (11) should give the vertical component of gravity of the local anomaly, so called, residual gravity at this particular central reflection point. Because of certain small variations in lateral density and regional dip, the gravity values should be evaluated at a relatively large number of pair-points located on the same surface reflection circle as we l l as on varying the radii of this circle. T h e number of tbese pair-points and the magnitudes of tbe radii necessary for tbe proper evaluation of residual gravity depends on the magnitude and character of tbe variations ivhich may exist in a regional structure under investigation.

Fo r regional structures of relatively limited extent, equation (11) cannot be applied. It can be shown, however, by carrying volume Integration given In equation (2) that for a regional formation whose densitj^ is greater than that of the overlying strata, a volume Integral of the force of attraction at the surface reflection point located up-dip is greater than that at the surface reflection point located down-dip. F o r a regional structure whose density is less than the densities of the overlying formation, the reverse-postulate is true.

T h e Indiscriminate summation of gravity values obtained at a few or a large number of surface pair-points shall yield, for the same regional structure, a greater error in the determination of a local anomalj^, the smaller is the number of the pair-points and the greater are their radii. T h e selection of the surface pair-points located on the lines parallel or nearly parallel to the regional strike should minimize, to large extent, an unavoidable error In tbe evaluation of residual gravity values In gravimetric interpretations.

Somewhat similar considerations can be applied In magnetic Interpretations i f the regional magnetic structures can be treated as the structures manifesting a uniform dissemination of magnetic material throughout their volumes-

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950-

\

By J A M E S L ELDERS and H U G H G . G R A H A M S

T h e Bureau of Mines , U . S. Department of tbe Interior, and the A l a bama Power Co . are both interested in underground gasification of coal f rom the standpoints of power generation, synthetic l iquid fuels manufacture, and conservation of natural resources. In view of these mutual Interests, the two organizations are conducting a series of experiments designed to develop the possibilities of this method of coal utilization.

Successful application of processes for gasifying coal in place w i l l make available a source of energy for electric power generation and gaseous products suitable as the raw materials for synthetic liquid fuels manufacture. Electric power stations would be eager to dispense with tbe storage, handling, and crushing of coal, if possible, as we l l as disposal of ash. T h e gas turbine, which seems well-adapted to use of the product gases f rom tbe process, may in future allow electricity to be generated without boilers and

'Work on manuscript completed Augnst 23, 1950. ''Supervising Engineer, Gorgas Un'derground Gasi

fication Project, Synthetic Liquid Fuels Rr.inch, B u reau ol Mines, U . S. DeparliJieiit of Interior, Gorgas, A la .

^Mining Engineer, Gorgas Underground Gasification Project, Synthetic Liquid Fuels Branch, Bureau of Mines, U . S. ISepartnieuC of Interior, Gorgas, Ala-

X' Figure 3—Twenty inch air manifold

without the Immense quantities of cooling wâter now necessary. In the development of techniques to convert coal into l iquid fuels, successful gasification of coal in place could help markedh' to reduce the cost of the process. In tbe two basic processes now employed for converting coal into oil —the direct-hydrogenatlon or Berglus p r o c e s s and the gas - synthesis or Fischer - Tropsch process — each requires production of a gas as a pre-l lmlnarjf—and costlj'—step. T h e cost of this gas Is a major item in either process.

M a n y coal beds in their natural state have only potential value because of pbysical factors, such as high percentage of mineral impurities, thinness of bed, or nature of immediate roof rock. By gasifying the coal In place, tbese adverse factors may be obviated, thereby Increasing the value of the Nation's coal resources.

If such an attractive proposition were a reality, it would, of course, be in widespread operation. T b a t It is not is partly because of the difficulty and expense of developing workable techniques and partly because the long-range increase In the costs of mining and processing coal has not yet reached the point where such technical Improvement becomes an absolute necessity.

W h e n man first began to mine coal, he backed and pried prodigiously for many hours to loosen a few pounds of the "burning rock," which he or members of his family scooped into baskets and hauled to the surface. Since tbat day, coal mining has been greatly Improved. T h e development of lighting, use of explosives, systematic mining, adequate roof support, and use of machinery have lessened the drudgery, Increased the safetj'', and enhanced the productivity of coal miners. Great as these achievements are, they may be regarded as Improvements upon the same basic process. T h e same coal Is broken down, scooped up, hauled to the surface, where it appears as tbe same black lumps and dusty fines. In 1912 Sir W i l l i a m Ramsey, speaking at a luncheon In connection wi th an International Smoke Abatement Exhibi t ion in London, England, was quoted as saying, "that just as deposits of salt were worked, not by mining the salt, but by pumping in water which was recovered as brine, so It would be ideal, Instead of mining coal, to have retorts In the bowels of the earth for the production of gas." H e thus stated the case for an entirely new method of winning the energy held in reserve In coal beds below the surface of the earth.


T h e earliest Icnown development work was done in Russia, starting about 1931"*. T h e Russians did experimental work on four processes, known as (1) chamber method, (2) percolation method, (3) borehole producer, and (4) stream method.

In the chamber method, rooms were driven in the coal bed in a fashion similar to room-and-pillar mining. T h e coal was left in broken condition in tbe room, which became a retort, filled witb broken coal. I n practice, good-qualitj' gas was obtained in the early stages, but tbe quality declined as tbe broken coal was consumed. T h e Russians attempted to make the process continuous by firing a number of rooms in succession. A workable system was not evolved, and at best the chamber or warehouse system substituted gasification in place for the transportation phase of mining only, i t required extensive pre-development underground and a system of control to shut off each chamber as it became exhausted and place another in operation.

T h e percolation method utilized boreholes dril led f rom tbe surface to the coal bed, arranged in a pattern of concentric rings. Connecting passageways were to be developed between the center borehole and one in the nearest ring, through the coal. T h e coal was to be gasified between the two boreholes, after which another borehole was to be put in operation. Various methods were proposed for effecting the connection between boreholes. It was at first believed tbat blast medium under pressure "would fol low capillary openings in tbe coal bed f rom one borehole to another, hence the name, "percolation method." F l o w through the bed was very low, and other methods were tried. One idea was to pass tbe gas-making fluid down a central pipe and remove the products f rom the annulus, in time burning a connecting passage. A n other was to install an electric heater, dry the coal, and cause cracking. A third was to pass an electric current f rom one hole to another, heating the coal to carbonization temperatures, and to gasify the resultant fissured coke. Whether a l l these ideas were tried is not known, but the process has not as yet been successfully applied. Its possible advantages are: (1) A systematic attack on each increment of coal bed; (2) close contact of blast wi th coal; and (3) performance of a l l work f rom the surface. T h e main disadvantage is the difficulty of effecting connection between boreholes in

"•.Mlcy, L, J., and Booth, N., Fuel, vol, Z-l, no. 2. pp. 3t-37, and no. .1, pp. 73-79, 1945.

108

the coal bed. T h e cost of constructing boreholes increases wi th depth, perhaps l imi t ing application of the system to beds at relatively shallow depths.

T h e borehole producer method was an attempt to apply tbe fact that good gas-making conditions were obtained in a small hole dri l led horizontally in tbe coal bed. T w o parallel entries, some distance apart, were connected by holes dri l led through the intervening coal. Combustion was started in a battery of boreholes, and the entries acted as collecting mains. Good-quality gas was obtained unt i l the holes had widened to dimensions greater than the thickness of the bed. D i f f i culty was encountered in d r i l l ing the horizontal boreholes. Also , the method suffered the same disadvantages as the chamber method — relatively large amount of underground preparation and difficulty in switching operations f rom one battery to another.

T h e most successful method developed by the Russians was the stream method. It was applied to steeply dipping coal beds wi th satisfactory results. A portion of the coal bed was blocked out by dr iving parallel entries on the dip and connecting their lower ends by an entry driven on the strike. A rectangular block of coal was then enclosed on three sides, the upper ends of the parallel entries being used as inlet or outlet openings. Combustion was started in the connecting entry, and tbe outlined block was gasified. T b e chief advantage of this system was the fact that ash and roof rock tended to f a l l away f rom the face of the coal, thus forcing the blast against the incandescent carbon. It was reported tbat at least three industr ia l installations using this system were operated in Russia. I n addition to the control of gas-making conditions the system had the fo l lowing advantages: T h e amount of underground preparation w a s relatively smal l ; and the tonnage of coal and the rate of gasification of a unit were of sufficient magnitude to be attractive f rom an industrial viewpoint.

In 1946 the Bureau of M i n e s began the present program of investigation of the underground gasification of coal. A preliminary experiment^* was carried out in 1946-47, in cooperation wi th the Alabama Power Co . at

^Dowd, James J., Elder, James L., Capp, J, V., and Cohen, Paul, Eipcriinent in Uiiderground Gasification of Coal, Gorgas, Ala.: Bureau of Mines Rept. of Investigations 4164, 1947, 62 pp.

Gorgas, A l a . , in the Prat t coal bed. A t this location, the bed is 35 inches thick, the dip is less than 1 per cent, and the coal is high-volatile A containing 13 to 16 per cent asb, including a 2-incb clay parting 8 inches below the top of the coal. A pillar of coal approximately 150 feet long and 40 feet wide was outlined by dr iving two parallel entries f rom the outcrop and connecting their inner ends by a cross cut. Ignition was effected in the connecting entry, and gasification was carried on for 50 days. T h e blast medium was air most of the time, but oxygen-air, oxj'gen-steam, and oxygen-steam-air blasts were tried for short periods. A f t e r reaching stable conditions, operation wi th air alone produced gas having an average heating value of 47 B. t .u . per cubic foot. O p erating conditions did not become stabilized while oxygen was being used, but gas w i th a heating value of ^1 B. t .u . per cubic foot was realized witb oxj'gen-air blast; of 110 B. t .u . per cubic foot wi th oxygen-air-steam; and of 135 B. t .u . per cubic foot with oxygen-steam. T h e experiment was terminated when it became very diff icult to prevent the fire breaking through to the outcrop. A f t e r the underground system was cooled down, entries were driven across the original entries and the coal pi l lar to determine physical changes that had taken place.

Results of this preliminary experiment were as fo l lows :

1. Combustion of coal was maintained without difficulty. F a i r l y uniform combustion had o c c u r r e d around the entire perimeter of the pillar.

2. T h e entire thickness of the coal bed had been gasified. I n areas where combustion had occurred only ash and clinker remained, and no islands of unreacted coal or coke were found. D u r i n g the experiment some 220 tons of coal were completely consumed, leaving only ash and clinker.

3. T h e reaction of the immediate roof rock at high temperatures appeared to favor tbe gasification process. T h e roof rock softened and expanded, filling the space occupied by the entries and by the consumed coal. T h i s action tended to increase the pressure required to force the blast through the system but at the same time helped maintain contact between the blast and the incandescent coke formed along the face of the coal. T h e coke was strongly fissured, and the fissures appeared to offer the least restricted passage to the air and gas.

THE MINES MAGAZINE ® OCTOBER, 1950

T h e Bureau of Mines has also performed laboratory experiments in underground gasification, using a retort constructed to simulate a coal bed in place. In these experiments, coal w as gasified wi th an air blast, using a U -shaped passage in the simulated coal bed. N o difficulty was experienced in producing combustible gas after the temperature everjTvhere along tbe length of the passage exceeded 1000° F , wi tb temperatures of 2000° F or more in the reaction zone. W i t h i n the limits imposed by tbe size of the retort and auxi l iar j ' equipment, gas quality and efficiency increased witb increasing blast rate.

Recent experimental work includes that done in Belgium, where an organization representing the Belgium Government and various industries performed a large-scale experiment. T h e site chosen was a steeply dipping coal bed cut off 300 feet below the surface by al luvial deposits. T w o shafts were sunk and crosscuts driven to intersect the bed. F r o m the points of intersection, parallel entries were driven on the strike and connected at their ends by a third entry at an acute angle to the dip. T h i s cross entry was so placed that its p i l lar side was above the side facing the solid coal bed. T h e pillar outlined was thus oriented 90° wi th respect to tbat described in the stream method, but the advantage of that method was retained by sloping the cross entry. Combustion was to be prevented f rom spreading into the solid coal by masonry walls and by water spras's in the lower or offtake entry. T h e project was operated for a time wi th some production of combustible gas. T h e experiments are continuing witb intervals of shut-down to cool the underground system and to permit examination of the combustion zone.

Since tbe end of W o r l d W a r I I ,

experimentation has also been under

taken in Italy in lignite deposits wi th

some success and in French Morocco

in a steeply dipping anthracite bed.

T h e latter experiment was operated

for a short time and tbe work doubt

less w i l l be continued.

T b e results of the first Gorgas ex

periment, and also the laboratory work

and studies that accompanied it, led

to the second Gorgas experiment. T b i s

experiment, being conducted by tbe

Bureau of Mines and the Alabama

Power Co. , was designed to furnish

engineering data that could be applied

to an industrial scale plant for the

production of gas. It was believed that

THE MINES MAGAZINE o OCTOBER, 1950

F l f i U R E t.-Plan' loyout; pIDn of unitergfound gosificotton ^rojflCt.

an underground gasification u n i t would consist of a coal face swept bj^ a blast of air or other gas-making fluid, and it was desired to study the characteristics of such a unit. These characteristics i n c l u d e : (1) T h e length of passage required, the optimum blast rate and the pressure drop encountered; (2) the quantity of coal that can be gasified f rom an ini t ial combustion zone and tbe shape and extent of tbe burned-out area formed ; (3) the quality and quantity of gas generated; (4) the action of the overlying strata. In the first experiment this seemed favorable but it was felt necessary to study the action over a wide area and for an appreciable length of time. T h e experiment, it was hoped, would provide some information regarding tbe broad phases of economic util ization of the technique, plant design, selection of sites, and related matters.

T b e site chosen is a h i l l that contains approximately 100 acres of the Pratt coal bed. T h i s body of coal is

completely isolated f rom tbe main body of coal in the field by outcrops along tbe banks of a river and in deep ravines on all other sides of the h i l l . T h e Pratt coal bed is the uppermost of three beds outcropping in this area and was chosen for this experiment because of tbis fact.

Before development w o r k was started, four diamond-core-drill boles were dril led along the line of the proposed entry. These holes indicated that weathered and fissured rock extended to 20 to 30 feet below the surface. Below this point very little Assuring or fracturing was encountered except at core d r i l l hole N o . 2 on the^ southern slope of the h i l l facing the river. T h e d r i l l log indicated fissur-ing approximately 100 feet below the surface. Accordingly, it was felt that the northern part of the h i l l was better-suited for the gasification work f rom the viewpoint of retaining gas under pressure and of controlling the process.

109

T h e coal bed at the site varies between 42 and 46 inches in thickness, and is high volatile, a bituminous. It contains about 14 per cent ash, which includes a 2-inch clay parting approximately 8 inches below the top of the bed. T h e coal slopes slightly east of south at approximately 4-per cent dip and lies under overburden averaging 150 feet in thickness. T w o parallel entries (f ig. 1) were driven south 1245 feet into the b i l l f rom the outcrop at the northern end in such a manner as to remain u n d e r greatest possible cover. T h e entries were each 10 feet wide, and were separated by a 10-foot-wide pillar of coal. Crosscuts connected the two entries at 300-foot in tervals. A large borehole designed to be used either as a gas inlet or gas outlet was dril led into each cross entry. F r o m the end of the double entry, an additional 300 feet of single entry was constructed. T h e development thus was one 300-foot length of single entry and three 300-foot lengths of double entry. T o prevent fire f rom spreading to the outcrop and confine the gas and air in the underground system, a seal w a l l was erected across the entries 141 feet f rom their outer ends. In preparation for this w a l l , a place was driven 25 feet into the solid on either side of the entries and extended approximately 6 feet into the roof and 2 feet into the floor rock. A w a l l was constructed of a double thickness of fire brick facing in by and backed by concrete reinforced wi th steel. T h e top of the w a l l was pressure-grouted wi th cement g r o u t pumped in through boles f rom the surface.

Five large vertical boreholes lo-

Figure

pressor is connected to the various boreholes by means of a 20-incb steel pipe manifold fitted witb valves at eacli borehole, ( f ig . 3) Each borehole is fitted so that it may be used either as an inlet or an outlet to the system. T w o smaller lobe-type compressors are installed as standby equipment.

O n M a r c h 18, 1949, ignition was effected at the base of borehole I. Combustibles, including wood and loose coal, were piled in tbe entry at borehole I, the p i p e s projecting through the seal w a l l were closed by blind flanges, and fuel o i l was poured down N o . I borehole. A thermite i n cendiary bomb was dropped down the borehole to initiate combustion. A i r flow was commenced at a low rate entering at borehole I, and gas was discharged at borehole I I . T h e project was operated continuously in this unidirectional manner for 10 days. D u r i n g the first 4 days the oxygen content of the effluent gas decreased and carbon dioxide content increased; in the latter part of the period the oxygen content increased and the carbon dioxide decreased. In addition, temperature measurements made in the underground entry indicated that the high temperature zone moved progressively down stream f rom borehole 1 to borehole I I . Accordingly, it was necessary to reverse the direction of air blast to promote combustion over the entire length of tbe passage. T h e project has been operated f r o m that time wi th periodically reversed air blast. D u r i n g the next 3 months, the oxj'gen content of the efJluent gas rose wi th consequent decrease of carbon dioxide, indicating loss of contact between tbe blast air and the reacting face. T o increase this contact, 6-inch churn-dri l l holes were dril led along the line of the entry, and sand was fluidized and injected into the entry by means of compressed air. D u r i n g tbe next several months 145 tons of sand was fluidized and injected into the underground system. T h e use of the sand brought about a marked increase in the'carbon dioxide content and decrease in tbe oxygen content of the effluent gas, thus indicating that injection of sand was partly successf u l in reducing the quantity of air by-passing the reacting face. T h e effluent gases contained excess oxygen and had a heating value of approximately 25 B. t .u . per cubic foot. Gas samples were taken f rom test holes near tbe burning coal ribs; the tj 'pical analyses shown in table 1 indicate that producer gas was being made on the reacting faces, and at tbese points al l of the oxygen flowing was being u t i l -

2—Two cylinder reciprocating compressor, 7200 c.f.m., dischare pressure 30 p.s.i.g. ized.


cated as shown and having the sites pressure-gouted wi th cement by means of four 6-inch boreholes dril led symmetrically on a 4-foot radius f rom the center were dri l led by a churn d r i l l . Boreholes I and V are 18 inches in diameter and unlined. Boreholes I I , I I I , and I V were dril led 28 inches in diameter and lined wi th 20-inch steel pipe to the top of tbe coal bed. Behind the steel pipe was poured a grout prepared f rom refractory cement. Several t3'pes of refractory cement were used to test their effectiveness. A l l five boreholes were fitted wi th a surface seal designed to withstand both heat and pressure. T h e seal was constructed as fo l lows : T h e borehole was enlarged to 54 inches diameter f rom the surface,to a point several feet into unweathered rock, a distance of approximately 25 feet in each instance; a water jacket consisting of 24- and 18-inch concentric steel pipes was set in the prepared 54-inch hole; and concrete was poured around it to the surface. In the case of lined boreholes, an expansion joint was provided between the l ining and the water jacket. I n operation, water flows through the water jacket, preventing damage to the seal f rom high temperatures. I n addition to the large boreholes, a number of 6-inch-diameter churn-dri l l holes were dri l led f rom the surface to points in the solid coal in order to measure temperature rise in the coal bed and thus fo l low the progress of the combustion.

T h e primary source of air at the project is a reciprocating compressor capable of delivering 7200 standard cubic feet of air per minute at a pressure of 30 p.s.i.g. (f ig. 2 ) . T b e com-

T a b l e 1—An.alysis of Gas Flou-ixc! Near B u R N m c C o a l Ribs

Gas analysis, per cent

Test Tes t Sample point hole 6' hole 13" CO3 __ 10.4 8.5 i n - - - 0.3 0.2 Oi, _ 0.7 0.0 H 2 - J0.9 11.4 C O 10.0 15.5 CH4 - 2.3 2.0 Na 65.4 62.4 Heat ing value, B.t.u. per

cubic foot 97 111

F r o m October to the latter part of December 1949, the length of time between reversals of the air blast was greatly increased. It was found that concentration of the combustible constituents of the gas increased slowly wi th time, and when a temperature of approximately 800° F was reached in the outlet stack ignition of tbe gas occurred at or near the bottom of the stack owing to the presence of excess oxygen that had bypassed the reacting faces. Eff luent gas containing little free oxygen and no combustibles was produced at temperatures ranging between 1500° and 2400° F after ignition took place. D u r i n g these periods the energy recovered as sensible heat of the gas was approximately 60 per cent of the heat of combustion of the coal consumed and the rate of coal consumption increased. T h e increase

Sample pohil 75 feet north and jS feet cast of No. I borehole, direction of blast: in No. IT i ore-hole out No. I borehole.

Sample point 30 feet west of No. II borehole, direction of blast: in No, I borehole out No. II borehole.

in rate of coal consumption was doubtless due to increased temperature, tur-bulance, and resistance to flow of the gases at or near the base of the outlet borehole and resulted in increased consumption of coal near the bottom of the borehole. T h e temperature of tbe effluent gases during this period was high enough to permit their use in raising steam or in operating a gas turbine.

T h e data obtained f rom the operation of the project during the period f rom M a r c h through December indicated that the major difficulty in operating the project was in maintaining contact between the blast medium and the coal faces. A new borehole, V I , was constructed between boreholes I and I I and 40 feet east of the center line of the original entry. T h i s borehole was then very near the burning face. It was 14 inches in diameter and lined witb 10-inch steel pipe grouted to the walls of the bole. Th i s borehole was operated at an air blast rate of 7,200 cubic feet per minute for four cycles w i th the fo l lowing results: D u r i n g 8-hour C3'cles 1 and 3, when V I was used as an air inlet and I I I as an outlet the effluent gas was high in carbon dioxide and had a very low heating value; the ox3'gen content was low and little or no overall bypassing of air was indicated; a maximum contact between hot carbon and air was obtained near the inlet. D u r i n g the second cycle, when V I was used as an outlet and I I I an inlet, a gas having a heating value of 90 B. t .u . was pro

duced. Here the point of maximum contact between carbon and the blast medium was near the outlet. I n this cycle little or no overall bypassing of air was indicated. D u r i n g the fourth cycle, V I was again the outlet, and air began bypassing early in the cycle and igniting the gas made. T h i s resulted in very high outlet temperatures, and the walls of the borehole slagged, plugging the bottom 90 feet of tbe hole. Use of this borehole showed the improvement in operating conditions that c o u l d be obtained when better contact between the blast medium and carbon was effected.

Subsequently a n o t h e r b o r e -hole, V I I , was constructed so that it was a few feet beyond the burning face. T h e location chosen was 75 feet east of I I , and it was planned to operate this unit in conjunction wi th I I I so that an area of fresh coal would be opened up.

D u r i n g the period f rom January unt i l June 1950, operation of the project was continued in the section between boreholes I and I I . D u r i n g most of this period, an air-blast rate of 7200 cubic feet per minute was used and reversals of flow were made every 8 hours. T h e purpose of the regularly scheduled reversal was to attempt to concentrate combustion near the center of the underground passageway and to stop excessive combustion of coal near the outlets. T h i s objective

.was largely achieved, for the data obtained f rom test-hole observations in- '


T a b l e 2 — C o a l Consumption and H e a t Balance

M o n t h

1949 M a r c h A p r i l M a y June _

J u l y - -August September October November December 1-22" December 22-31''

1950 January _. February M a r c h A p r i l M a y ' June' -

July

Coa l consumed,

tons'

...120 ..201 ...312 ...337 -.452 .-441 -.485 .-583 -4S4 -.508 -127

-.486 -393 ..326 -384 -386 ..766 ..582

Cumulat ive coai

consumed, tons'

120 321 633 970

1422 1863 2348 2931 3385 3793 3920

4406 4799 5125 5509 5S95 6661 7243

Coa l consumed,

tons' per day'

8.9 6.7

lO . l 11.2 14.6 14.2 16.2 18.8 16.7' 22.7 14.1

IS.7 14.0 10.5 12.8 10.9 30.1 18.8

Heat balance, per cent of heat of combustion of coal consumed Sensible heat content of dry

effluent gas

21.3 31.9 36.0 29.7 24.4 22.9 19.1 21.4 17.9 23.2 29.5

7.7 9.8

10.0 9.5

11.3 12.7 14.6

Heat of combustion

of dry eifiuent gas

9.3 11.6 23.5 34.2 24.3 26.2 32.0 34.1 31.9 27.5 13.3

22.9 18.9 14.2 16.9 20.4 33.1 36.S

Sensible and latent heat content of moisture

accompanying dry effluent gas

11.2 11.7 13.7 11.5

6.4 12.4

12.8 14.0 16.4 16.5 18.9 18.7 25.0

Heat left underground, by difference

59.4' 46.5" 30.5' 26.f' 41.3' 39.7 37.2 30,8 38.7 42.9 44.8

56.6 57.3 59.4 S7.I 49.4 35.5 23.6

Basis of moisture- and ash-free eoal. -Total tons divided by calendar days •Assuiiiiiig 10 per cent for heat content ol moisture. *This value derived from actual tmie operated and does not include idle periods of 2M days in November -Period conslsled of long cycles of 100 to UU hom's. Operation of 4 days between test hole !0 aud borehole II not included, "Operation on basis of 8-honr cycles be gan December 22. 'Includes operation between borehole" I and II to June S. 'Regan operation between boreholes III and VII on June 5.

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E « O C T O B E R , 1950

•vView of Plinta Adaro temporary staff living quarters shows the typical Quonset two and three bedroom bungalows ly accommodations. Water was originally imported by tanker but now is supplied by the new aqueduct from the Venezuelan mainland.

T h e facilities built by Creole Petroleum Corporation at A m u a y Bay, Venezuela are actually a combination of two projects. One project is the construction of a modern refinery, which had its beginning in a contract between the Venezuelan Government and Creole Petroleum Corporation in February 1943. A c t u a l engineering work on the refinery was started wdth economics studies early in 1944. T h e other project is the pipe line and deep water terminal for exportation of crude petroleum produced in the Bolivar Coastal F ie ld of Lake M a r a -caibo. T h i s latter project had been under consideration for many years.

T b e first site selected for tbe refinery was at T u r i a m o Bay but this site was subsequently changed to the present one, which is at Amuay Bay, on the Paraguana Peninsula, State of

Falcon. T h e site is comprised of a total of approximately 4400 acres. W i t b tbe selection of the latter site, the terminal of the crude pipe line and tbe refinery were integrated even though tbey were actually constructed as separate projects.

T h e pipe line f rom U l e , located on the eastern shore of Lake Maracaibo, to A m u a y Bay, was designed by Creole and constructed by W i l l i a m s Brothers Company. T h e main line is of 2 4 " and 126" diameter pipe and has two pumping stations. T h e capacity is 300,000 barrels per day of medium crude. T h e pipe line terminal tankage has a total capacity of 2,400,-000 barrels and is provided wi th three crude loading systems, wi th a capacity of 20,000 barrels per hour each.

T h e refinery project can be divided into two major parts: First , the re

finery proper which consists of processing equipment, utilities, storage, docks and maintenance facilities; and second, the camp, composed of housing, community and recreation fac i l i ties for both expatriate and national personnel.

W h i l e the survey of the site began in M a y 1946, work on the construction camp was not started unt i l October 1946 and the first cargo of materials was received a month later. W o r k was started on a wooden pier in January 1947 by W . Horace W i l l i a m s for handling of cargo f rom barges.

D u r i n g the middle and later part of 1947 work was started on terminal facilities w^hich were placed in operation in A p r i l 1948 by receipt of crude f rom T h e Bol ivar Coastal F ie ld by shallow draft tanker. O n December 17, 1948, tbe first crude was received

112 T H E M i N E S M A G A Z I N E d O C T O B E R , 1950

in terminal tankage f rom the U l e -Amuay pipe line and on January 3, 1950, the first processing equipment was placed in operation by charging crude to the atmospheric stage of the pipe s t i l l . It is anticipated that most of tbe construction w i l l be completed by the end of 1950 wi th the exception of some of the housing facilities.

A brief description of the more important facilities are given as fo l lows : I. Docks

T h e docks built on steel pile w i th bent structure and reinforced concrete deck are composed of 1132 foot approach trestle 60 feet wide which provides vehicle and pedestrian access and also carries the oil lines to tbe loading piers. T h e three finger piers provide six berths wi th minimum draft at low tide of 35 feet. One pier 670 feet long and 50 feet wide, was constructed for dry cargo handling but has necessary piping to load oil tankers. T h e other two piers are used for loading and discharging crude and products.

T h e barge dock built for dry cargo during construction has been converted to oil service for loading and discharging shallow draft tankers used for transporting crude and products both coastwise and to Aruba refinery.

T b e docks are adequately i l luminated for 24 hours per day operation and have office facilities for terminal, marine, customs and harbor pilot personnel.

2. Refinery Processing Equipment

T h e refinery equipment consists of a 63,000 barrel per stream day, two-stage crude distillation unit and faci l i ties for asphalt manufacture. T h e distillation unit is one of the largest ever built and is the largest in Venezuela. T h e atmospheric stage was placed on stream January 3, 1950, and it is expected that the Vacuum stage, now under construction, is expected to be completed in September,

_ The Amuay refinery consists of a two-stage atmospheric vacuum pipestrll, one unit of which IS shown above. The design capacity of the plant Is 63,000 B/SD Tia Juana Medium Crude .

several products in four blocked oper-1950. A t present, the atmospheric stage of the distillation unit produces


ations. These products are naphthas, varsol, kerosene, diesel fuels, gas oils, •V The Amuay refinery pipestill, shown In cut, produces one overhead and two side streams products on the atmospheric stage and one overhead, three side streams, and bottom products on the vacuum stage. A caustic and water wash treating plant is used for treating gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel products. In addition, the refinery includes an asphalt oxidation plant of 400 barrel charge capacity, fuel oil blending facilities, cutback asphalt blending facilities, penetration asphalt storage and drum filling facilities and gasoline blending, leading and dying facilities. The total refinery tankage is 3,200,000 barrels.

residual fuels and several grades of asphalt. A large portion of these products is consumed locally and the excess over Venezuelan requirements is exported. T h e yields f rom one operation on medium Bolivar Coastal F ie ld crude are given below:


M 3

Top — An aeria! view of Amuay Bay on Venezuela's Paraguana Peninsula shows Pynfa Adaro in fhe foreground, location of tho Creole Petroleum Corporation's refinery temporary staff living quarters, while the site upon which the refinery has been built is located in the background, rougly midway between the two tank farms back of the Bay. The new docks built by Creole for Its refinery-terminal facilities can be seen at the entrance to the bay.

•V Center—^The main pier (with the barge dock in the background) at Amuay Bay, on the Paraguana Peninsula jutting from northwestern Venezuela, is the end of the new 145-mile pipe line being built by Creole Petroleum Corporation—Standard Oil Company (N. J.) Venezuelan affiliate—to join the rich oil fields of Lake Maracaibo with its new refinery site. A t this pier some 285,000 bbls. of Venezuela crude oil per day will be loaded on ocean-going tankers for trans-shipment to an oil-hungry world.

•V Bottom—'The crude terminai at Amuay Bay consists of a total of 2,400.000 barrels of crude tankage, docks having six berths with 35 feet of wafer for ocean tankers and two berths with 25 feet of water for lake tankers, and a cargo loading pumphouse, capable of loading tankers at rates as high as 20,000 barrels per hour of crude.


Product Per Cent Y i e l d B / S D

Naphtha Kerosene -Gas O i l -Fue l and loss - -

16.4 10,330 11.3 7,120 11.3 7,120 61.0 38,430

Tota ls 100.0 63,000

T h e asphalt base for the several grades of cut back and oxidized asphalts is presently obtained by processing Lagunil las Heavy Crude in the atmospheric stage. W h e n tbe vacuum stage is placed on stream, penetration grades of asphalts w i l l be produced. A heavy distillate w i l l also be produced as a side stream f rom the vacuum stage and residual fuel production w i l l be reduced.

Facilities are under construction for packaging oxidized and penetration grades of asphalts. Oxid ized grades w i l l be packaged in paper bags and metal drums w i l l be used for the vacuum reduced penetration grades.

3. Other Process Facilifies

Other facilities consist of a naphtha stabilizer; caustic treating facilities for the naphthas, kerosene, and gas oi ls ; fuel o i l and naphtha blending facili t ies; and equipment for injection of tetra ethyl lead and dyes into the gasolines.

4. Refinery Storage

T h e crude storage tanks for the refinery consist of five tanks wi th total capacity of 650,000 barrels. T h e product tanks have a capacity of approximately 1,831,000 barrels. T h e crude feed tanks and the tanks for storing


*>3t

•V Venezuelan crude oil from th mile pipe line, a section

rich Lake be pumped through the 145-. , tion of which Is shown above, which Creole Petroleum Corporation—

Venezuelan affiliate of Standard Oil Company [N.J.}—is constructing between Lake Maracaibo and the new refinery which the Company is building at Amuay Bay in northwestern Venezuela. The 24"-26" pipe line will carry a maximum 325,000 of the more than 600,000 bbls. per day being produced by Creole in the Lake Maracaibo fields, for refining at the new Amuay Bay plant or for trans-shipment to various parts of the world.

the Venezuelan Government can of the Refinery, was designed by Skid-probably supply 75,000 barrels a day. more, Owings & M e r r i l l - P h i l i p Ives. T h e line has a total capacitj'^ of 225,-000 barrels per day by gravity flow. 8. Construction C a m p

T h e Employees Camp consists of two parts, the construction camp located on the Adaro Peninsula and the permanent camp to the north of the Refinery proper. T h e Adaro Camp bas 127 family houses, 21 apartments and 745 bachelor men and 35 bachelor women's quarters, T h e bachelor men's quarters are used to house principally the contractor personnel working on the construction of the various refining projects. T h i s construction camp has a staff school, laundry, messhall, theater, club, tennis courts and boat pier.

9. Permanent C a m p T h e permanent camp, located north

T h e housing program includes housing for expatriate and national employees, hospital, club, s c h o o l , Nat ional Gua rd Barracks, utilities and roads. T h e planning on this project has taken into consideration the facilities required in the event of future expansion of the Refinery. T h e basic type of construction is concrete slab floors, concrete block walls and concrete slab roofs. Construction of the club, school and a large portion of the housing units has been deferred.

T h e total cost of the Refinery project, excluding the land, w i l l be approximately $135,000,000. T h i s does not include cost of pipe line terminal which was included in the Ule -Amuay Pipe L ine Project.

the light refined products are floating roof type construction. Others are conventional. 5. Utilities

T h e Boi ler and Power Plant, providing steam and power for the entire Amuay Project, consists of a 58,000 pound salt water distillation unit, two 180,000 pound per hour boilers, and three 7,500 K V A , 13,800 volt Turbo-Generators. T h e salt water for cooling purposes in the Refinery process units and Power House is pumped f rom the bay by four pumps, each having 15,500 gallon per minute capacity, through a 48-inch cast iron line to a 6,000,000 gallon reservoir and thence to the various points of consumption.

6. Maintenance Facilities T h e Shops and Warehouse facilities

were destroyed by fire on February 24, 1950. A t the time construction work was nearly complete. Plans are under consideration to replace these facilities. 7. Aqueduct

In order to supply fresh water to the Refinery and Camp, it was necessary to construct an aqueduct. T h i s aqueduct is a joint project by Creole, Shell and the Venezuelan Government. It is seventy-five miles long and is of 30 and 34 inch diameter steel pipe. T h e line extends f rom Siburua Springs, located in the mountains on the mainland south of the town of Coro, to the point of trifurcation on the Paraguana Peninsula. F rom this point, a twenty-four inch line runs to Creole's Amuay Bay Refinery, a twenty-inch line to the Shell Refinery at Punta Cardon and a twenty-inch outlet is available for use by the G o v ernment. T h e springs supplying water to this aqueduct can be developed to supply 150,000 barrels per day for Shell and Creole Refineries. I n addition, the source of water supply of

R E C E N T O I L A N D G A S D E V E L O P M E N T S

(Continued from page 96) Pound, this Pincher Creek structure is also a fault block involving the Madison limestone, which appears to be a biostrome reservoir of limestone and dolomite. N o cross-section of this structure is available, but the section through T u r n e r Val ley , Figure 8, is probably similar to the Pincher Creek structure, save that in the latter the limestone block lies beneath the relatively shallow overthrust sheet at depths around 12,000 feet. Next to the Upper Devonian coral reef or bioherm oi l and gas traps, the Mississippian age fault blocks in tbe Foothi l ls belt are the most important gas and oil reservoirs in Western Canada. Current Exploration Ac t iv i ty

D u r i n g tbe month of August 1950

some ninety geophysical parties were conducting surveys in the Province of Alber ta of which seventy-nine were seismic reflection surveys, nine were gravitymeter parties, and two were magnetometer surveys. A dozen or more surface geological parties were also exploring.

A s of September 1st, 1950, some 1735 wells capable of producing had been dri l led compared to 1052 on that same date in 1949. D u r i n g the month of August 1950 there were 106 holes dril led of which 75 were oi l wells, 5 gas wells, and 26 failures. W i t h i n the last month (August 15th to September l 5 th ) three new wildcat discoveries were drilled (Acheson, F l i n t and B i g Vallej^—See M a p and Table 1). O i l and Gas Pipe Lines

W i t h completion of the Interprov-incial Pipe L ine f rom Edmonton to

the head of the Great Lakes the outlet for Alberta crude w i l l be enlarged correspondingly. However, this w i l l not be sufficient to absorb a l l available crude which could be produced under safe and conservative engineering practices. As far as the natural gas is concerned (about seven t r i l l ion cubic feet of proven reserves) no outside markets have been established because of failure to obtain permission f rom the Alberta Government to build pipe lines for gas export purposes.

Rumors and guesses regarding this afford one of the most interesting topics of conversation on the streets, behind closed doors and in the newspapers of Canada. W h i l e this is going on tbe additions to the gas reserves continue incidental to tbe search for oi l .

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 M 5

By J . H A R L A N J O H N S O N , M.Sc , '23

Curator

W h e n the Geology Bui ld ing , Berthoud H a l l , was built, the west w ing was planned as a geological museum. It was completed and formal ly opened in M a r c h 1940. It contains the main exhibition hall on the upper floor; while the basement floor includes a large room to be finished as a second and smaller exhibition hal l , and several small rooms which house the type mineral and paleontological collections, we l l cores, and one which serves as a preparation and work room. ( F i g ure 1.)

A s originally planned, it was tbe intention to place exhibits in tbe upper main exhibition room to cover the fields of mineralogy, igneous rocks and ore deposits; while the downstairs room was to contain exhibits to cover the fields of sedimentary rocks, fossils, and the petroleum industry. T o date we have only been able to prepare and display exhibits in the upper room, mainly because the downstairs room has not been finished. Also display cases are extremely expensive, and it has only been possible to obtain a few each year. So far tbe exhibits prepared cover some of a l l of the fields which it is intended to cover more adequately later. (F igure 2.) Minera logy and mining geology have formed tbe bulk of the exhibits. However, there are suites to illustrate the l i fe of the various geologic periods; and several others which definitely are of interest to petroleum men. These w i l l be discussed more in detail later.

T h e non-exhibition reference collections are of great value to the teaching work of tbe geology department, particularly in connection wi th graduate research projects. These are housed in the museum basement. T h e y include the type mineral collection; the type collection of fossils; tbe collection of organic limestones, and a recently

116

V Figure I—^The Museum,

Started series for ore deposits;—or we really should say economic mineral deposits, as it Is the plan to include In this series suites of specimens illustrating non-metallic as we l l as the metallic products.

Exhibits of Interest to Petroleum Men

A series of displays in table cases have been prepared to illustrate the life of the various geologic periods. These consist of fossils wi th small explanatory cards. T o date such exhibits have been prepared for the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. D u r i n g the present year we expect to prepare and display similar suites covering the Ter t iary . In addition, a long museum case is devoted to animals and plants tbat are important in reef building. M o s t of the specimens are f rom the B ik in i^ atoll, but there are also some f rom tbe Phi l ip pines and the Mariannas. T h e y form a very colorful exhibit. Another case is devoted to our various algal limestones. In s t i l l another case there is a display of sedimentary rocks, and features related to sedimentary rocks.

Some years ago, the U . S. Bureau of Mines bored a deep hole through the oil shale series in the vicinity of their Experimental Plant near Rifle , Colorado. Tbese cores were presented to the museum. A few selected portions are on exhibit In the museum. Ul t imate ly we hope to display tbe entire core.

Future Plans

In the near future we hope that the school w i l l be able to finish tbe downstairs exhibition room so it can be used for exhibits. It s t i l l needs to have the ceiling and walls plastered. W h e n It is

T H E M I N

Colorado School of Mines.

completed, we w i l l be able to move some of the exhibits downstairs, and to complete the original p lan; that is, to separate the various types, and to enlarge those dealing wi th petroleum, sedimentary rocks, and historical geology. A s the exhibits develop we hope to be able to prepare a number of animated models, i l lustrating the various methods of geophj'sical prospecting somewhat similar to those that the School of M i n e s prepared for tbe W o r l d ' s F a i r in Chicago in 1933. They were very popular at tbe time. A f t e r the Fa i r they were moved to the Rosenwald Museum of Science and Industry, and were exhibited there for a number of years. Recently they have been rebuilt and brought up-to-date by the Petroleum Committee, headed by D r . Theron Wasson of the Pure O i l Company. W e would like to get a similar set for tbe School of Mines . It would be very desirable to have a series of various types of petroleum and petroleum products to add to our exhibit. If such material could be obtained f rom any of the major petroleum companies we would gladly place it on exhibit.

Related Collections

Closely related to the museum, but not connected witb It directly are some of the department of geology collections of interest to the petroleum industry. A m o n g these particularly is the collection of we l l samples which contains approximately 225,000 samples f rom 1600 wells in the Rocky M o u n t a i n region. It is constantly being used by petroleum geologists.

Museum Needs

In addition to the several items

previously mentioned tbe fo l lowing

M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

V Figure 2—An interior shows the two types of display cases

items are needed to improve and increase the museum exhibits and collections :—• 1. Fossils of Cambrian, Silurian, Per

mian, Triassic, or Oligocene age.

2. Suites of minerals, rocks, and ores f rom various mining districts, especially In Nevada, Cal i forn ia , Idaho, and old Mexico .

3. M i n e r a l specimens f rom any locality for the type mineral collection.

4. Exhibi t ion grade mineral specimens especially f rom England, Mexico , Centra l America , B r a z i l , Co lombia and Venezuela.

5. Organic limestones f rom any local-i t y — ( i . e . limestones obviously composed largely of fossils and fragments of fossils). These are needed for graduate research.

6. W e l l preserved fossils of stromatopora, crinoids, cystoids, graptolites, or trilobites; both to add to the exhibits and for class study collections.

N E W R E S E A R C H L A B O R A T O R Y

(Continued from page 103) in the American Society for Test ing Materials , the American Petroleum Institute and the American Grease Institute.

" O u r new research laboratories w i l l furnish the highly scientific equipment and the knowledge required In research and development In the fields of exploration, production, refining processes and products-use," s a i d Davis .

" A survey of the patents held by Continental O i l Company, some 400 In number, w i l l indicate the scope of the company's research and development activities," Davis continued. "Patents in oi l -well dr i l l ing , pumping, geophysics, o i l refining, oxidation inhibitors, o i 1 detergents, anti-foam agents, marketing devices, p a i n t s , chemical processes and products of various types are Included In the list.

"Continental , leader in lubricating oil-perfecting additives and for over 25 years a pace-setter In lubricating oi l research, holds more than 100 patents on discoveries in this field alone. In its expanded laboratory space. Continental w i l l be equipped to continue aggressively ahead In its program of research," Davis said.

Largest of Continental's present laboratory buildings is the process laboratory, located at Ponca Ci ty , which conducts pilot plant and other large scale experimental programs normally not suitable for the chemical laboratory. Here, chemical engineers conduct a continuous study of fundamental properties of petroleum fractions and refining processes, evaluate crude

oils, prepare experimental lubricating oil formulations and operate pilot plant equipment for new refining developments and production of new chemicals, in addition to other tasks. In Continental's process laboratory Is a pilot plant for studjang solvent refining of lubricating oils that ranks wi th the most modern and complete similar type of units in the nation.

Another existing laboratory section In Continental's development and research department is the products-use laboratory, also at Ponca Ci ty , where automotive, airplane and Industrial products are tested to determine performance characteristics. Ac tua l road tests are conducted for automotive products as we l l as simulated "road-testing" in the laboratory.

Manager of Continental's central research laboratories Is E . R . Baker. Other research supervisory personnel Includes J . J . Reynolds, supervising production research engineer, W . F . Ford , supervising products-use research engineer; J . A . M u r p h y , supervising reservoir engineer; H . E . Lun tz , supervising the process laboratory; S. J . Bragg, l ibrar ian; and B . H . L inco ln , patent adviser.

E X P E R I M E N T A T I O N O N U N D E R G R O U N D G A S I F I C A T I O N

(Continued from page 111) dicates widening of the passage near the midpoint.

O n June 5, 1950, operation of the new section between boreholes V I I and I I I was started, as tbe burning face bad reached borehole V I I a few days previously. Boreholes V I I and I I I were fitted wi th water spray lines to control high effluent-gas temper-


atures, and fluidized sand was injected Into the original entry and air course between boreholes II and I I I as rap-Idly as possible to maintain maximum contact between the gas-making fluids and the coal faces. T h e operation during June yielded an effluent gas having a heating value averaging 44 B. t .u . per cubic foot and a low to negligible oxygen content. T o w a r d the end of June and during July , the oxygen content of the gas increased gradually, and the average heating value decreased to between 20 and 30 B. t .u . per cubic foot. T h i s indicated an Increase in the quantity of air bypassing the reaction zone undergi'ound, or a loss of contact between the gas-making fluids and tbe reacting faces. Table 2 summarizes operation of tbe project f rom tbe start unt i l the present tirrie and shows how tbe several modifications in operating procedure have affected the rate of coal consumption and the beat balance for tbe sj'stem.

T h e second underground gasification experiment at Gorgas has operated continuously for l]^ years, using air as a blast medium. N o difficulty has been encountered in maintaining combustion of coal underground, and to date no l imit bas been found as to the maximum quantity of coal that can be burned f rom a single entry— more than 7,000 tons of coal have been consumed during tbe operations described.

T b e optimum length of path underground has not yet been determined, nor has the optimum rate of air blast. Experimentation w i l l be conducted to obtain more Information on tbese items.


I 17

Precau t i ons 1. Don ' t c r o w d bite

2. C i r c u l a t e su fEc ien t £ u i d 3. K e e p j tmk out oi h o l e

By

J O S E P H J . S A N N A , '41*

In d i a m o n d dr i l l ing operations there are several factors that must he carefully watched and checked at a l l times. I t must be remembered that the type of formation, depth of dr i l l ing , size of core, size of core head, and the dr i l l ing fluid a l l have much to do wi th the dr i l l ing technique and changes must be made to meet varying conditions. X h e three most important factors to remember are: (1) A diamond bit cannot be crowded, (2) sufficient fluid must be circulated across the face of the diamond bit, and (3) the hole to be cored or dri l led must be free of loose material.

Cut t ing Speed

Regarding the iii-st requirement, cutting speed and forward speed must be exactly correlated. I f too mucb weight is applied, the bit can be burned In or the diamonds sheared of¥. A l so if the advance is not rapid enough for the cutting, the bit w i l l not be f i rm on the bottom and surging of the pump w i l l have a tendency to bounce the bit which may fracture the diamonds. G e n e r a l operating range for the majori ty of formations is indicated in the shaded area F i g . 1. A minimum of 3,000 lb. is recommended. T h e brake should be attended at a l l times because as nearly as possible the diamond bit should be fed uniformly as it cuts into the formation. D o not apply weight and then a l low the bit to d r i l l off and then ap-

'Christenscn Diamond Products Co., Salt Lake City,

^Reprinted from Oil & Gas Journal, May 18, 1950.

MINIMUM WEIGHT R.P.M. RANGE

ply more weight. T h i s point cannot

be overemphasized.

Circulating Fluid

Concerning the second point, if

pump pressure and fluid volume are

too low, the cuttings w i l l pile up on

the face of the bit causing the bit to

V Face discharge diamond core bit,

regrind these cuttings. Also , too low

a fluid volume w i l l result In too low

a velocity of mud in the annulus be

tween the core barrel and walls of the

hole, thus resulting In high density of

cuttings at bottom of hole and possible

sticking of the core barrel. T h e ralnl-

mum_ fluid to be pumped may be de

termined f rom F i g . 1. A n y volume less

than the lower portion of the shad'^d

area w i l l result In Insufficient flushing

and washing of the diamond-bit face.

T h e upper portion Indicates the maxi

mum practical fluid volume.

Leading diamond-bit manufacturers

have now perfected the matrix mate

rial so that considerable volume may

be passed across the face of tbe dia

mond bit without damage f rom fluid

erosion. T h e dr i l l ing - fluid volume

varies considerably and is to be kept

constant w i th hole conditions; of

course, the sand content, as in any

good dr i l l ing fluid, is to be kept as low-

as possible, preferably less than 1.5

per cent.

Diamond bits cut formations wi th

practically any type of fluid varying

f rom fresh water to heavy oil-base or

water-base muds. Viscosities h a v e

ranged f rom 35 to 175 seconds while

mud weights have varied f rom 8.4 to

16 lb. per gallon. Pump pressure may

vary f rom as low as 300 to as high as

1,800 psi and a specific rate cannot

be suggested as It is dependent on the

type of mud, depth of hole, size of

d r i l l pipe, and size of pump liners.

However, f rom F i g . 2 the fluid vol

ume for a given diameter may be de

termined. W h e n the resultant pres

sure for a given volume is determined

during dr i l l ing operations, careful at

tention should be paid to the pump-

pressure indicator as its variation w i l l

serve as a measure of conditions pres

ent at the bit.

VOLUME - G A L L O N S PER M I N U T E

GENERAL OPERATING RANGE

,JORITY OF FORMATIONS

4 a 12 i6 ; INDICATOR W E I G H T

JOOO L B , •V Fig. I—Applied weight versus rotary r.p.m.

I II •V Fig. 2—Drilling fluid volume versus bit diameter.


A sudden rise in pump pressure may be caused by several conditions. T h e first and most common one Is an unbalanced mud column; however, this may^ be prevented In most cases by making a complete circulation previous to coring. T h e second may be caused by tbe accumulation of foreign particles In the mud stream such as pieces of rubber, bits of rags, etc. T h e third reason for a sudden rise of pressure may be failure or malfunction of the core barrel, either through loosening of the Inner barrel or some clogged fluid ports. In any event, the core barrel and bit should be l i f ted off bottom and if the high pressure continues, the bit and barrel should be pulled out for inspection.

Sometimes a bit failure Is indicated when the bit is l i f ted off bottom and high pressure drops Immediately, but upon setting back on bottom the pressure increases over the above normal d r i l l ing conditions. A r ing of diamonds may have been destroyed causing the matrix to wear, resulting in a groove much the same in design and efifect as an " O " ring. T h e bit should be pulled and examined immediately to avoid needless destruction of more diamonds. It must be remembered, however, that when first setting tbe bit on bottom there w i l l be a slight Increase of pump pressure varying f rom 75 to 100 psi, depending on bit size.

Importance of Keeping Hole Clean

T h e third important consideration is to keep a l l " j unk" out of the hole. Every precaution to remove all junk resulting f r o m fishing jobs, or to prevent pieces f rom fa l l ing into the hole, is worth the time and effort.

Some good precautions In eliminating junk are:

0 ) Use an old wiper rubber while going into the hole and while dr i l l ing, (2) Inspect and keep tong dies In position properly, and (3) keep the hole covered at al l times when the d r i l l pipe Is out of the hole. It Is wise to observe these precautions long before the start of diamond coring.

_ D u r i n g the course of dr i l l ing, many bit teeth and other small particles are lost in the hole. iVIany operators

• Diamond bit as used for coring and drilling,

choose to use a junk subbasket on the last several bit runs previous to diamond coring. Others prefer to run a bailer or hydraulic junk basket immediately preceding coring. A s an added precaution, It Is wise to choose a diamond core head that has wide slots built Into It on the outside diameter. These are known as junk slots and generally four allow passageway for small particles of junk such as a

bit tooth to pass up over the crown of tile diamond bit.

A f t e r the diamond core bit and core barrel have been assembled and lowered to the bottom of the hole they should be picked up about 1 ft . and the fluid allowed to circulate for 30 minutes or longer, depending upon the depth of the hole and conditions of the mud. A t this point it Is imperative that a l l measurements be correct. A s may sometimes happen, circulation may have not been continued sufficiently to wash out cuttings prior to pul l ing the last rock bit, or cavlngs may have fallen into the hole before or while the core barrel is being lowered. If f rom previous trips it is known that caving occurs in the hole, the drop ball of the core barrel may be removed. T h i s w i l l permit flushing out of the inner barrel and washing to bottom. Then when coring begins, the drop ball may be returned to its proper position.

Drilling

W h e n actual dr i l l ing Is started, be

gin rotating the core barrel at approx

imately 40 to 50 r.p.m. while the bar

rel and diamond bit are still off bot

tom. Lower gently unt i l the diamond

bit touches bottom and then, using

f rom 4,000 to 6,000 lb. weight, start dr i l l ing. D r i l l the first foot at between

4,000 and 6,000 lb. at 45 r.p.m. and

then, depending upon the compressive


20 40 eo 80 (00 200 300 BIT RETOLUTIONS - PER MINUTE

Fig. 3~Relation of revolutions to linear velocity for various bit diameters.

• 0 eo eo 100 HOTARy T A B L E SPEED

R. P. M, Fig. 4—Suggested rotary speeds for various

bit diameters.

140

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E @ O C T O B E R , 1950

By Ben F. Rummerfield, '40

Seismic exploration in Mex ico has covered less than 2 5 % of the total possible petroleum province tbat Is suitable to seismic investigation and a major part of the area surveyed has been covered only once. I n many other parts of the wor ld it is not unusual for an area to be shot and reshot as many as fifteen times.

T h e exploration problem In M e x ico demands a somewhat different approach than most of those encountered presently In other areas. T h e main diiference is associated wi th the fact tbat refinements necessary to locate very small drillable anomalies (for example in the state of Illinois, U . S . A . , where as li t t le as 20 meters of closure is considered a favorable d r i l l ing area) are not of primary consideration in Mex ico . Here, known untested structures exist w i th as much as 1,500 meters of closure. T h e most modern and up to date personnel, techniques, instruments, and procedures are used in Mexico , but the emphasis on minute details is not of primary importance in considering structures of the magnitude mentioned above. T b e fact that not one, but many untested major anomalies exist, Influences the thinking and procedures m an exploration program; and also serves to point out the tremendous oil potentialities of Mex ico .

Velocity control

Velocity control is lacking over most of Mex ico . Al though it Is standard procedure to make velocity suryeys •on a l l important fields and wildcat welis, there Is not a sufficient number •of existing wells nor adequate geo-.graphic distribution of them to permit the desired velocity control. A s time is the parameter of seismic Investigations it is necessary to convert recorded times to deptbs in order to contour maps of subsea depths.

Instrusives and extrusives

1 here has been considerable Igneous activity In the petroleum provinces of Mex ico and Its presence at times forms a difficult problem. It is believed possible that a fortituitous arrangement of sills can very easily give a pseudo - Indication of fault ing. If a lower s i l l f rom a feeder dike extends

.120

BEN F. R U M M E R F I E L D

laterally beyond an upper s i l l , it is possible that reflected energy that has been received f rom the upper s i l l may jump down to the underlapping lower s i l l and in this manner indicate a nonexistent fault on the seismic section profile. T h i s situation and similar ones may exist In the San Jose de las Rusias area north of Tampico, as we l l as in other areas that are intensely intruded.

Igneous dikes and plugs also cause complications In shooting techniques and interpretations. Reflections have been recorded as far away as two kilometers f rom the flanks of an igneous plug in the T laco lu la region and areas of similar geologic conditions. I n some instances, it is possible to see tbese features where they penetrate the surface and to make an approximate calculation as to when reflections w i l l start to be received f rom their steep flanks. Seismic observers can often predict fa i r ly accurately in the field when this disturbance w i l l be recorded.

Extensive lava - topped mesas are found in the vicinity of Poza Rica and these form surface erosional features that are extremely difficult to traverse. I n addition, they constitute a dr i l l ing problem and It Is often necessary to plan the seismic program to circumvent them.

A t times, extremely steep and erratically dipping reflections are recorded in this region. These erratic reflections often occur on good records; In fact, they sometimes form a cross on the records by cutting sharply across continuous reflections of geologically simple areas. T h e y are be

lieved to be, i n many cases, "reflected refractions" f rom the vertical faces of the lava flows. (Th i s phenomenon has also been recorded in areas of the surface or near-surface Igneous outcrops of dikes or plugs). W h e n the apparently steeply dipping reflection persist over several shotpoints, it is possible to check whether they are actually reflected refractions by mult ip lying the half-recorded time by the elevation velocity. T b e coincidence of the displacements f rom the adjacent shot-points confirms this theory. Cross spreads contribute further to tbe coincidence of the anomalous reflections and the lava mesas or Igneous Intrusives.

Refract ion work is also limited by the presence of these igneous in t rusives, as the possibility of receiving primary refractions f rom beneath tbe igneous Intrusives is very problematical because of tbe usually high density, and concomitant velocity contrast between the sedimentary beds and igneous rocks.

Salt domes

T h e Saline Basin of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec contains many salt domes at varying deptbs. T h e shallower type domes readily lend themselves to simple refraction shooting techniques. Cross sections of the L a Venta Dome and the Zamapa Dome have been used to Illustrate refraction profiles across shallow domes in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. These cross sections are used through the courtesy of the Explorat ion Department of Petroleos Mexicanos.

T h e deep and intermediate-depth salt domes oifer many problems that tax tbe ingenuity of tbe exploration mind. T h e problems of overhang, peripheral and radial faulting, inter-domal relationships, and other associated complications offer an open field for interpretative thinking of the highest order.

Reefs and induced porosity zones

T b e subject of reefs and their effect on oi l accumulation bas recently been intensely studied and observed as a result of the new reef developments and associated oi l production in Wes t Texas (Scurry Coun ty ) , U . S . A . , and Canada. T b e reef question is an old one in Mex ico as it has been recog-


L I N E A R E F R A C C I O N N o . 1 . - Z A N A P A

NOV.-Die. 1943

nized since the early 1900's tbat Cretaceous reefs were the reservoir beds for the prolific producing area of the Golden Lane.

T h e problem of discovering reefs by geophj'sical means has been widely discussed and the general conclusion seems to be tbat reefs cannot be directly detected by geophj'sical methods but that they can be inferred by their secondary effects.

Where known reef facies exist, tbat is where reefs have been proven by dr i l l ing . It may be possible to define the extent of the reef deposition by working f rom a known area and fo l lowing its effects Into an unknown area.

Poza Rica Is an oil field in which the accumulation is known to be controlled to a great extent by the presence or absence of reefing. A seismic program Is being carried on In this general region at present wi th the primary purpose of defining subsurface structure. However, the geological conditions and their associated phj'sical properties suggest a geophysical approach that may be beneficial in attempting to delineate the reef deposl-

V Jungle—showing part of area to be surveyed

tion. T h e reef deposit (Tamabra) is found in the upper part of the Basal Cretaceous limestone. T h e lower portion of the Basal Cretaceous is a dense limestone (Tamaul ipas) . D i r e c t l y overlying the Tamabra limestone is the San Felipe which consists of thin-bedded to medium-bedded limestone layers wi th Intercalations of shale.

If a sufficient difference of density exists between the porous zone ( T a m abra) at the top of the Basal Cretaceous and the underlying dense portion of the Tamaulipas, it maj ' be possible that the density contrast would be sufficient to form a reflecting horizon. I f so, this reflecting horizon might continue to return reflected energy unt i l the porous zone changes facies, at which time there would no longer exist a sufficient density con-

" V Typical swamp area—men staking out geophone

THE M i N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 121

V Packing portable

trast between tbe Tamabra and overly ing San Felipe to conform a reflect

i n g horizon. In other words, the quality of the reflection f rom tbe top of the Tamabra might be an indication of porosity. However, it would be necessary to have records of the highest quality, and in addition, a continuous reflection f rom either the underlying Jurassic section or the overlying Eocene beds so tbat a "standard reflection" could be used as a qualitative control to make certain that any change in the Tamabra reflection is not due to purely surface conditions.

Sufficient wells have been drilled in the area to allow a frequent comparison of results so that their evaluation can be made at intervals.

It should be stressed that tbe above thinking is purely theoretical and may not be applicable in a l l cases. It is believed, however, that this is the type of thinking necessary to delineate reef areas and future o i l provinces.

Possible effect of fluid invasion in a reservoir bed

A similar challenge is offered to interpretive thinking by tbe thought

equipment by mule

that the inherent velocity of the geological reservoir bed is lowered by the invasion of a fluid and this results in a measurable time anomaly. It is granted that certain requisite conditions would have to exist but it is also

and regional geology, possible producing horizons, seismic velocity control, etc.

2. A reflecting horizon that is a potential producing bed and f r o m which a reflection is known to be obtained f r o m within the specific geologic horizon.

3. A persistently good reflecting horizon that is shallower than the reservoir bed which is to be investigated'.

4. A surface condition that would allow the shooting of a detailed seismic program.

T h e measurable time anomaly referred to above would be the result of a local decrease in the velocity of the reservoir bed due to the presence of a permeating l iquid. A n isopach study of tbe time interval between the shallow persistent reflecting horizon and the deeper horizon being investigated for fluid content would reveal an abnormal increase in the time interval due to the velocity decrease in the permeated zone. T h e investigation of this phenomenon necessitates a trace by trace analysis of the seismic records and a corresponding elevation and weathering correction control for each geophone station. However, an attractive feature of this study is that the

•V Drill setup

known that these conditions do exist -—• for example, in Canada where a Cretaceous reef facies zone provides a major petroleum reservoir. Some of these required conditions are: 1. A reasonably complete knowledge of

the area to be investigated as to local

Moving portable camp

in jungle

anomaly, if present, is manifested in the time interval between the two reflecting horizons and is not appreciably affected by any possible poor surface corrections for elevation and weathering differences between receptor stations.

A parallel approach is being applied to the investigation of potential reservoirs of similar geological and physical conditions, such as "shoe-string sands" and sand lenses. In these cases a decrease in velocity, wi th a concomitant increase in time, results f rom the addition to the geologic section of low velocity material in the form of loosely packed saturated sands. T i m e anomalies resulting f rom these conditions are of such a small magnitude ( in the order of .010 of a second) that they may be masked by a large number of variable physical and geological factors, therefore it is considered the better part of good judgment to thoroughly qual ify any such studies. A


122 THE M i N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

In these columns the latest in equipment ot interest to our readers is reviewed. Many readers request additional Information and prices. For their convenience each article Is numbered. Fill in the number on the coupon at the bottom of tiie page and mail your request io Mines Magaiine, eheciiing information requested.

Multi-purpose Utility Drill in Handy Carrying Case (762)

A new, lightweight utility dri l l f or plant maintenance crews has just been announced by G a r d n e r - D e n v e r Company of Quincy, l i i inois . T h e S17 Uti l i ty D r i l l comes in a handy carry ing case with a complete kit of dr i l l accessories, including a 14-inch dr i l l steel and three assorted-size rock bits, a star dr i l l adapter and 25 feet of air hose.

T h e G a r d n e r - D e n v e r S17 is said to be a fiill-fledged, self-rotating pneumatic hammer dri l l that weighs only 19 lbs. A c cording to reports, it's a handy too! for placing anchor bolts, for running conduit, cable, pipe, and for many other jobs. It wi l l dr i l l either concrete, brick or stone with standard dri l l steel, and a star dr i i i adapter fi irnished with the dri l l accomodates standard star drills. A special stop-rotation feature converts the S17 to a lightweight chipping hammer or pick.

W r i t e to G a r d n e r - D e n v e r Companj' of Quincy, Illinois, for Bulletin covering ful l details.

New Wi l f l ey Sand Pump (763) A . R. Wi i f iey and Sons, Inc. of Denver,

Colo, are introducing their new M o d e l " K " Centr i fugal Sand Pump. T h i s pump embodies refinements in hydraulic design which have resulted in markedly increased efficiency.

One of the major mechanical improvements is a new improved check valve with simplified and better bearing protection.

Neither the intake nor discharge piping need be disturbed dur ing this operation.

Improved frame assembly further contributed to the utility of this new W I L F L E Y M o d e l " K " Sand Pump.

W r i t e for W I L F L E Y Catalog—E-200, g i v i n g complete details.

"New Low-Cost Design for Petroleum Storage" (764)

G r a v e r T a n k & M f g . Co. , of East C h i cago, Indiana has recently patented its design for a Center-Weighted Pontoon Float ing Roof. T h i s new design was developed to combine the vapor-sav ing and corrosion-resistant features of the doubie-deck floating roof with the more economical aspects of the pan-type floating roof.

T h i s new pan-type floating roof operates on a simple principle. T h e roof itself is a low-angle, inverted flexible cone which, floating on the top of the petroleum product in the tank, gains stability by the weighted pressure of the cone into the l iquid and by a pontoon around the outer circumference of the roof. A ful ly effective sea! against the side walls of the tank is maintained by an impervious fabric seal connecting the roof with a steel shoe actuated by a series of patented hangers and pushers. Drainage is accomplished from the depressed center of the roof-—•

the apex of the inverted cone—from a center sump connected with the outside of the tank at ground level.

B y its construction the G r a v e r Center-Weighted Pontoon Roof floats directly upon the l iquid in storage. Since it allows no a i r / v a p o r space and provides for no venting it prevents the loss of any volatile elements, stops corrosion arising f r o m the interaction of the petroleum product with air, is fire resistant, and holds the product in storage, free f rom contamination by dirt and water.

Addi t iona l data and information wi l l be furnished by the manufacturer.

New Coupling (765) Introduction of the new A j a x Dihedra l

Coup l ing designed to adequately handle angular and offset misalignment up to 7 degrees with a standard coupling and special models for handl ing up to 12 de

grees, is announced by the A j a x Flexible Coupl ing Co. Inc.

"Misalignment capacity and performance of the new A j a x Dihedra l Couplings are based on a D ihedra l tooth shape which provides for maximum misal ignment with minimum clearance or backlash," according to W a y n e Belden, Vice President, in commenting on the basic principles used in its design.

"Dihedra l surfaces of splines provide more tooth contact under operating conditions than with any other shaped tooth. T h i s is in contrast to the conventional straight tooth which provides only end-of-tooth contact when under any misalignment, and also requires the most clearance for any given degree of misalignment. T h e A j a x Dihedra l Coupl ing design contributes to long life, cool running and quiet chatter-free operation.

"Under all practical conditions o£ misalignment, the d r i v i n g area is at the center of the tooth where it is the strongest. A t maximum rated misalignment, the d r i v i n g area spreads over an entire half tooth.

" A m o n g thc important economies of the new A j a x Dihedra l Coup l ing is the fact that it saves time spent on l in ing up equip

ment. Tt simplifies machine design by eliminating necessity for precision al ign-

A n entirely new discharge keeper registers on machine surfaces, thereby prov iding accurate discharge piping alignment. T h i s assembly also supports the discharge piping dur ing removal of pumping parts,


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123

ment of d r i v i o g and dr iven siiafts. It also eliminates most alignment p r o b l e m s caused by normal bearing wear, old or inadequate wooden floors, weav ing chassis or structural mountings such as created by temperature changes, settling or heaving foundations and other conditions typical of coal tipples, earth moving equipment, wel l -dri l l ing rigs, high buildings and on shipboard.

"Ajax D i h e d r a l Couplings are made in a well-graduated tine of standard sizes and capacities for handl ing misalignment up to 7 degrees. F o r special applications teeth can be cut to accommodate angular and offset misalignment substantially in excess of the standard line for use with jackshafts, adjustable rol l mills, paper machinery, etc.

Special flangeless or sleeve type D i h e d ral Couplings are offered for use where outside diameters must be held to a min i mum such as on cluster mi l l installations.

Complete details are given in Bulletin 50 available by wri t ing A j a x Flexible Coupl ing C o . Inc., Westfield, N . Y .

Nev/ Magnaflux Unit—Portable for Maintenance and General Plant Inspection (766)

A new, portable, and general purpose Magnaf lux Uni t is announced, which is expected to find wide application for maintenance inspection, safety inspection, and for wide application in general i n spection. W i t h Magnaf lux , all defects such as invisible fatigue cracks, shrink cracks, weld cracks, etc., are made readily visible by a magnetic particle indication built up on them by quick magnetization.

T h e K H - 0 5 Magnaf lux Uni t is developed to furnish the best on-the-job inspection. It requires only 110 volt A . C . supply line to give A . C . or D . C . magnetization with safety and flexibility, using low voltage, high amperage magnetizing currents. 500 magnetizing amperes are available. T h e A . C . magnetization is best for location of all surface defects such as service fatigue cracks in tools or shafts, and the A . C . furnishes a powerful demagnetizing field whenever needed. T h e hal f -wave rectified D . C . has been especi-

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Geologists Find Mineralight Helpful (767)

Geologists are turning to a relatively new technique in the study of oil samples —the use of ultra-violet light. In this respect they are fo l lowing their counterparts in the mining field, for this has, for many years, been a f a m i l i a r and indispensable phase of operations in the raining industry.

Since all oi! is fluorescent, or reacts to ultra-violet light, it is a natural procedure. Fresh cores, sand, shale, cuttings, are examined in darkness or semi-darkness to determine the presence or absence of oil particles.

T h e importance of analysis by ultraviolet inspection is demonstrated by the photograph of oi l -bearing mud taken under ultra-violet light. T h e presence of oil is clearly defined by bril l iant fluorescent color.

One oil company reports its procedure for field examination as fol lows: " T h e method is to remove the core f rom the core barrel , wipe off the coating of dr i l i ing mud, break the core to obtain a fresh surface and examine immediately under the M I N E R A L I G H T . Solid fluorescence of yellow to green-yellow results f rom oi l-stained cores of this region."

T h e long wave type of ultra-violet light:, with maximum concentration of energy at 3660 Angs trom Units, is by all standards best for oil analysis. T h e oil stains are brighter when subjected to long wave inspection. Minera l ight M o d e l S L 3660 manufactured by Ul tra-Vio le t P r o d ucts, Inc., 1+5 Pasadena A v e . , South Pasadena, Cal i f . , is claimed by the manufacturer to be ideal for testing samples for oil. T h e y wi l l furnish complete in formation.

ally developed for location of sub-surface defects such as internal cracks in welds, and for cracks on the inner surface of cyl indrical parts.

T h o u g h portable enough to be carried in a car trunk, the K H - 0 5 is ruggedly built of heavy duty industrial components. T h e integral welded steel frame is supported directly on ball bearing semi-pneumatic rubber tired wheels. In the maintenance shop, or small weld shop, or wheeled out in the plant to equipment such as conveyors or punch presses, cranes and elevators, where shafts, hooks, or other parts may need to be inspected in place, the K H - 0 5 unit is ready to go immediately. A n accessory compartment in the unit contains powder and materials needed, and built-in storage is provided for the 30' of magnetizing cable supplied and the line cord to reach the nearest 100 volt outlet.

T h r e e Eitherend connector outlets on the unit allow connection to two for A . C , or another combination o£ two for D . C . magnetizing current. A H operation is controlled by a single switch on an inclined control panel, which also carries a meter that reads In true magnetizing amperes, and a red indicator light to show when magnetizing current is available in the cable.

W r i t e to M A G N A F L U X C O R P O R A T I O N , 5900 Northwest Highway , Chicago 31, Illinois for additional information.

"Varec" Announces New Series of High Flow Capac i ty Vent Units (768)

A new series of Conservation Vent Valves , " V A R E C " F igure No . 5800 Series, is said to offer the greatest possible protection for venting inflammable liquid storage at the lowest cost per thousand cubic feet of venting capacity.

Certified tests by the manufacturer, proves that the vent valve portion of the Unit , the " V A R E C " Figure No . 2000 C o n servation Vent Va lve , actually flows more


New Link-Beit Shale Shaker Announced (769) Link-Be l t Company, 307 N . M i c h i g a n Ave . , Chicago 1, III.,

announces that it is now in production of an entirely new Shale Shaker, M o d e l 49, for the reconditioning of oil well dr i l l ing mud.

Embodied in this v ibrat ing shaker are the ideas of practical dri l lers and mud engineers, plus Link-Belt 's own experience of over 20 years in the design, manufacture and application of mud screens,

Actua l installations in the field have demonstrated that the new. M o d e l 49 shaker wi l l screen oil-base mud or other high viscosity and heavy muds at larger capacities through smaller openings, and with minimum loss of mud.

Significant features of the new shale shaker are greater strength and rigidity in the screen box; adoption of shear rubber mountings; and a corrosion-resisting coating.

A l l metal parts nf the shaker are Zincilated. T h i s haked-on corrosion resisting coating penetrates the surface, thereby affording resistance to abrasion and corrosion.

In two years of off-shore dr i l l ing under constant exposure to salty atmosphere, and in the laboratory under concentrated corrosive action, this coating has been found superior to any ga l van iz ing or comparable treatment.

Link-Bel t furnishes these shale shakers in single or dual units, with or without intake mud boxes, in a range of sizes and modifications to suit any operating conditions, pump capacities, flow line, mud flume arrangements and type of power.

W r i t e for new 12-page Book No. 2336, g iv ing complete details and operating instructions.

than an open nipple of the same size, In fact, these tests show that the vent va lve flows more than the open nipple could theoretically flow alone.

V a l v e is designed with venturi inlet, hyperbolic pallets, center and side pallet guiding, regrindable and renewable seats, and many other desirable features. It is available without flame snuffer and may be had in a wide range of pressure and vacuum settings.

F iame Arrester portion of the Unit , " V A R E C " Figure No. SO is listed by U n derwriters' Laboratories for use on oil storage tanks, approved by Associated Factories Mutuals ' Laboratories for use on chemical storage, approved by U.S. T r e a s u r y Department for alcohol storage and approved hy U . S. Coast G u a r d for M a r i n e Service.

T h e new No. 5800 Unit is manufactured « f aluminum but may be obtained in special materials to meet most corrosion problems. It comes in a complete range of sizes from 2" to 12". W r i t e to V a p o r Recovery Systems Co,, 2820 N . A l a m e d a St., Compton, Cal i f . , for complete information.

Two New A i r Impactools for Nut Running (770)

Ingersoll-Rand Company of 11 B r o a d way, New Y o r k , announces two new air operated Impactools, the Size 504 for nut running up to % " bolt size, and the Size, 510 for nut running up to % " bolt size.

for ease of operation. T h e large, easy-to-grip reverse caps are deeply grooved so the tools may quickly be reversed even with greasy hands. Palm-fitt ing pistol grip handles make these tools easy and comfortable to operate over long periods of time.

In designing both of these new tools, emphasis has been placed on scientific muffling to tower operator fatigue and increase morale and safety. T o save time on assembly line operations, both tools, have a high run-down speed before impacting starts. Small but powerful vane type air motors give ail the speed and power needed to handle difficult nut running jobs.

T h e Size 510 Impactnot, a completely new size tool, weighs 1 1 - ^ pounds and measures 10-%" long.

T h e Size 504 Impactool, a completely redesigned tool, 20% more powerful and 65% faster than the old model 504 tool, weighs 5-% pounds and is 8-9/16" long.

Bui l t - in , automatic lubrication in both the Size 504 and the Size 510 assures continuous top performance and trouble-free operation. Service life of these two new tools has been increased by built-in air strainers to keep rust, scale, dirt, small bits of hose, etc., out of the motors which prevents scoring or undue wear.

W r i t e Ingersoii-Rand Company, 11 Broadway, N e w Y o r k 4, N . Y . , for information on these two new tools in the complete line of air and electric Impactools to handle nut running up to 4" bolt size.

of these features are: instant heating, rapid analysis, visible combustion, a sturdy Vycor reaction tube, and avai labi l ity in one or two tube models.

T h e Burre l l Combustron operates on l i s or 230 volts—60 cycle, single phase, power supply. W r i t e Eo Burre l l C o r p o r a tion, 1942 F i f t h Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa. , for additional information.

Improved Lifting Magnet (772) T h e Dings Magnetic Separator C o m

pany of Mi lwaukee , W i s e , announces that an Improved L i f t i n g Magnet has

Both tools are of the pistol grip type, and are streamlined and well balanced

Improved Determination of Carbon-by-Combustion (771)

Announcement has been made of the availabil ity of T h e Burre l l Combustron, brilliant new electronic instrument for rapid and accurate determination of carbon by combustion. Its sponsors, Burre l l Corporation of Pittsburgh, Pa. , are pioneers in use of high temperatures for the detection and analysis of chemical elements.

T h e B u r r e l l Combustron is a compact, bench-mounted self-containei! instrument; it comes fully equipped, ready to p lug into the power supply. T h i s new tool, for which exists a universal demand, was developed and designed by Burre l l with the cooperation of leading steel chemists and metallurgists. It empioj^s induction heating and has exclusive features which have been incorporated after extensive research in both the laboratory and the field, Some

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 I2G

been added to its line of magnetic equipment. T h e magnet can be used on overhead or crawler cranes to hoist, load, transport or otherwise handle all types of magnetic materials.

T h e manufacturer states that this magnet has the fo l lowing improvements over earlier models . . . lighter weight . . . welded construction replaces bolted construction . . . an insulating compound that dissipates heat more rapidly and provides more protection against short-circuits between ind iv idua l coil wires . . . four-point chain suspension instead ot three . . . protector guards for the cable . . . a balanced magnetic circuit that e l iminates flux "bottle-necks" and thereby grves the magnet greater l i f t ing ability. Ihe manufacturer also says that the j i r t m g strength of each magnet is tested and certified before it leaves the factory.

T h e Improved Dings L i f t i n g Magnet is available in sizes—29 inches diameter, 39 inches diameter, 45 inches diameter, 55 inches diameter and 65 inches d iameter W r i t e to the Dings Magnet i c Separator Company, 4740 West Electric A y e . , Mi lwaukee 46, W i s e , for fu l l information.

New Tricone M i l l fo r Grinding and Pulverizing (773)

H a r d i n g e Company, Inc., Y o r k P a . announces its new "Tricone" B a l l M i U for wet and dry gr inding and pulver iz ing applications. . . .

T h e important feature of the mi l l is its slightly tapered shape, which keeps the larger gr inding balls at the feed end ot the mil l . It augments the w e l l - k n o w n Hardinge Conical M i l l line, embodying all the good features of the Conical M i l l , but providing additional room for smaller gr inding media at the discharge end, with v ir tual ly same floor space requirements,

Structurally, it consists of: a conical or convex feed head; a short cyl indrical section; a long tapered conical section; and a wide-angle conical or convex discharge head. Since it is, basically, a union of three truncated cones of v a r y i n g degrees, the name "Tr i -cone" was chosen. T h e cyl indrical section is omitted entirely in certain cases.

Operat ing advantages: (a) proper ball segregation — the condition of "reverse segregation," common in other than C o n i cal M i l l s , is eliminated entirely —the large balls remain at the feed end to crush the coarser incoming materials; (b) maximum energy is gained at the feed end where diameter is greatest and where greatest crushing force is needed; (c) the convex heads increase ball turbulence —eliminate dead corners; (d) the nearly spherical shape provides maximum working volume for min imum liner surface, resulting In lower overal l m i l l deadweight, less bearing frict ion, lower power, and lower liner consumption per ton of

New Micro Barometer (774) F o r the first time in history, a super

sensitive aneroid barometer—accurate to 1/1000 inch of mercury—is now available in the new precision micro barometer just announced by the A m e r i c a n P a u l m System of Los Angeles. T h e reliable indication of minute changes in air pressure recorded by the micro barometer are ot the utmost importance for industrial and mi l i tary purposes in ships, airports, weather stations, laboratories and many other operations.

W i t h etched graduations reading to 1/1000 inch of mercury and accurate to one graduation, the micro barometer gives instantaneous readings without the neces-sity of corrections for temperature and latitude. These new instruments are built around an exclusive system of Instrumentation that represents the first new pr inciple in aneroid construction in over 100

^^Mode! P M B - 1 micro barometer described above has a range extending f rom 24.80 inches to 31.00 inches of mercury. Other ranges available on request. _

A l l micro barometers are furnished with either wal l mounting flange or handsome russet leather carry ing case for portable use. W r i t e to A m e r i c a n Pau l in System, 1947 S. F lower St., Los Angeles, C a l i f .

Industrial Safety Equipment Association Elects Officers

Charles H . G a l l a w a y , sales manager of the safety products division, A m e r i c a n Optical Company, Southbridge, Mass was elected president of the Industrial Safety Equipment Association at the A s sociation's annual meeting held the last part of June at Whi te Sulphur Springs, V a .

material ground; (f) less wear on discharge grate when used—tapered barrel keeps larger balls away from grate. W r i t e to H a r d i n g e for ful l details,

126

C H A R L E S H . G A L L A W A Y

H e succeeds Lawrence E . Dickson, president of the Standard Safety E q u i p ment C o . of Chicago who has completed two years in office.

E . L . Wheeler , of Wheeler Protective A p p a r e i , Inc., Chicago, was elected vice-president to succeed G a l l a w a y . Stewart N . Clarkson, 420 Lexington Avenue, N e w Y o r k City , was reappointed secretary-treasurer.

Sohio Petroleum Company Scholarship

T h e Sohio Petroleum Company announced on June 1, that M r , Robert A r -rendiell was the winner of their 1950-51 scholarship at the Colorado School of Mines . M r . A n e n d i e l l is a senior in petroleum production of the Class of 1951.

T h e scholarship takes care of $600 in tuition and fees and also carried the stipu

lation that the winner should work one summer for the Sohio Company. M r . A r -rendiell has just finished his tour with the company i n the Hayes area in Kansas . H e has returned to Mines to register for the f a l l term.

International Increases Annual Dividend

T h e board of directors of International Minera l s & Chemical Corporat ion declared a regular quarterly div idend of eighty cents (80c) per share on the common stock of the corporation, thereby increasing the annual dividend rate f rom two dollars eighty cents ($2.80) to three dollars twenty cents ($3.20) per share, according to Louis W a r e , , president. T h e board also declared the regular quarterly div idend of one dollar ($1.00) per share on the four per cent (4%) preferred stock, both dividends were payable September 29, 1950 to stockholders of record September 18, 1950.

International Minerals To Build Fort W o r t h Plant

International M i n e r a l s & Chemical C o r poration has completed negotiations for purchase of a site in Fort W o r t h , T e x a s f rom Consolidated Chemical Industries, Inc., upon which w i l ! be erected a new chemical fertil izer plant, according to announcement by M a u r i c e H . Lockwood, vice president in charge of International's Plant Food D i v i s i o n . T h e site on Fort Worth's north side has an area of approximately thirty acres, and is adjacent to the plant of Consolidated Chemical Industries, Inc., which wi l l be the source of supply of sulphuric acid used in In-ternarional's manufacture of superphosphate at For t W o r t h .

T h e new plant when completed is expected to represent an investment of approximately $500,000 in land, buildings and equipment, and have a capacity of 40,000 tons annually. T h e products of the plant, in addition to superphosphate, wi l l include mixed fertil izers used in growing wheat, hay, corn, cotton, truck and pasture crops.

Bids for the plant now are being obtained and the starting time of construction wi l l be announced in the near future.

41st Annual Report International Minerals

T h e 41st annual report of International M i n e r a l s & Chemical Corporat ion for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1950, distributed to stockholders, records the largest year in the corporation's histoi-y in both sales and earnings, according to Louis W a r e , president. T h i s is the fifth consecutive year in which earnings have established new records.

T h e net sales for the year were $58,-402,180 an increase of 9 per cent over the sales of $53,394,760 last year and an increase of 17 per cent over sales of $50,-123,269 for the year ended June 30. 1948.

Point ing to the future, M r . Louis W a r e , President sa id: " T h e demand for the minerals and chemicals produced by this corporation should continue strong dur ing the coming year. W e are convinced that increased application to the selling of our products, the continued improvement in our plant efficiencies, the moderate expansion of our capacity and_ the earnest applicadon of a good working team to each of our problems should result in a satisfactory rate of operation and profit in the year ahead."


W O R M GSAR DRIVES

(4747) WORM GEAR DRIVES. B o o k N o . 2324 bv L i n k - Be i t Ooiupaiiy, 307 N o r t h Mic-liigan Avenue, C h i cago 1. Illinois, contains SO pages illus-trating and describing L ink-Be l t W o r m Gear D r i v e s . EaKineering data is included, to-Kcther with infornia-t io i ! to assist in tlie selection of the proper drive. Outline drawings are included, together wi th tables of dimenBions. Complete t a b l e s are included, g iving the h.p. ratings

to meet diiferent conditions. Included is an information data sheet, and also price H^s^ (474S) "TOMORROW'S TOOLS — TODAY," th ird quarter, 1360, by Lane-Wells Company, 5610 South Soto Street, Los Angeles d3. C a l i fornia, contains 36 paRea of articles of value and interest to the o i l field man. A n i o n s the articles of this issue w i l l be found Shaped-Charge I'rocesa for Open-Hole Shooting," a story on Spain , "Lane - Wells Packer Handbook, Section 3.6, " T h e Development of the D-2 B r i d g i n g P i n g , " and "Dual-Purpose Packer Provides for High-Pressure Injection Through T u b i n g . " A l l of these articles are wel l i l lustrated and' contain valuable information.

(4749) "WOOD TANKS." Bul le t in 4418 by Morse Bros . Machinery C o . . 2900 Broadway, Denver 1, Colorado, contains 8 pages, i l lustrating and describing redwood tanks handled by this company. Tables of sizes and capacities of tanks are giveii, as wel l as dimensions.

(4750) "FLUOR-O-SCOPE," September, 1950, by F l u o r Oorporatioi!. L t d . , 2500 South At lant ic B ivd , Los Angeles 32, Cal i fornia , contains 16 pages i l lustrat ing and describing some of tbe construction projects of this company, as well as personnel activities. Included in this number are illustrations covering some portions of Panama

(475 ir 'DTIsEL-ELECTRIC INDUSTRIAL L a COMOTIVES. Publ ica t ion G E A - 3 6 6 9 C fay General E l e c t r i c C o . , Schenectady, New York, contains 12 pages i l lustrating and describing General Miectiic Diesel-Electric Locomotives from 25 ton, 150 h . p , to 95 ton, 660 h . p . This pubiicatloti contains a listii ig of the usere of these various sized locomotives, and also brief specifications covering various sifies,

(4752) GATES VULCO ROPES. "Gates Indust r ia l News," September, 1950. fay Gates Rubber C o . , 099 South Broadway, Denver, Colorado, contains 4 pages i l lustrat ing and describing new applications tor V-Bel t s Drive , A m o n g these is an installation where high-speed diesel engines are connected to slow-speed compreBsors. (4753) ULTRA-VIOLET MINERALIGHT. A recent 4 page bul let in , l lhistrations describe TTltra-Vio lot Pi'oducts, Inc. equipment and apparatus used for identifying minerals found in mining , Broapecting. and in oil field development. A p p l i cations are also described in connection with use ill other industries. Th i s complete line of equipment i l lustrated and priced in tliis bullet in is for sale fay Machine Controls & Specialty C o , , Post O f f i c e ' B o x 1867, Abilene, Texas.

(4754) ALUMINUM, "A l coa A l u m i n u m News-Letter," August, 1960. contains 8 pages illustrating and describing new and important uses whore this matei-ial is used in connection with bui lding, construction, and manufacturing of tools and equipment. One interesting item in this issue is the subject of A l u m i n u m siding for houses.

(4755) CONSERVATION VENT UNITS. Bul le t i n N o . C P 2000 by Vapor Hecovciy Systems C o . , Compton , Cal i fornia , U . S, A . , contains 8 pages describing and i l lustrating the advantages of this equipment. Outline drawings are included witb tables of dimensions and weights. F u l ! F l o w roof nozKles and hi l ls ide nozzles, together wi th tables of information, are also included.

(4756) "PAY DIRT." F o r August 18, 1950, by Charles F . Wi l l i s , 52S Ti t l e and Tj-ust B l d g . , Phoenix, Ar izona , contains 16 pages of short articles and news items covering sufajects of importance to the mine. Considerable space is devoted to duty-free copper h i l l and their mine a id program.

(4757) "SHALE SHAKER." Book K o . 2330 by L i n k - B e l t Company. 3 07 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago 1, Illinois, contains 12 pages illijs-trating and describing L i n k - B e l t Model 49 Sbale Shaker for use in connection with oil well dri l l ing, illustrations show equipment in actual use, and also replacement parts that are supplied. Operating instructions are included.

(4758) "HARDINGE HIGHLIGHTS," Soptem-

Send your publications to Mines Magazine Cooper Building, Denver, for review in

these columns. Readers will please mention Mines Magaiine when requesting publications from the manufacturer. Readers may order publications from this office by giving indax number. These publications are FREE,

her, 1950, Ilardinge Company, Inc., 240 A r c h Street. Y o r k , Pennsylvania, contains 6 pages giving impressions ot Europe and A f r i c a as viewed by Harlowe Hardinge . Included in this issue is a description of Hardinge Con ica l Scrubber used in connection wi th the Gravel Plant. (4759) "ELECTRONIC COMBUSTRON." Bullet in No. 319 by Burre l l Corporation, 1943 F i f t h Avenue. Pit tsburgh 19, Pennsylvania, contains 4 pages i l lustrat ing and describing the new Burre l l Oomfaustroii, a new tool to be used i n connection witli induction heating in tbe determination of carbon and sulfur. F o r your information, complete details are given in this bulletin on the equipment and its use, as wel l as a table of typical determinations by using the Bun-el! Combustron.

(4760) " T H E BEACON." August, 1950, by Ohio O i i Company, F ind lay , Ohio, contains 36 pages, largely devoted to personnel activities of the company in the various fields where it operates. Seven pages are used to acquaint the reader wit l i the Ohio's Office at Casper, W y o m i n g .

(4761) "TIE-IN." T h i r d quarter, 1950, by H . E . Price Co . , Bartiesvil le. Oklahoma, contains 20 pages i l lustrat ing and describing many pipeline jn'obleins which this company has solved during their extensive pipeline construction. In this issue work on the Texas-Illinois pipeline and the Teimessee Gas Transmission L i n e is il lustrated and described. Projects under way at the present time are listed. More is given in regard to "Soinastic" pipe coatings. News of personnel activities of the company are also included in this issue.

(4762) "STORAGE BATTERY POWER." A u gust. 1950, by Edison Storage Bat t c iT Divis ion, West Orange, New Jersey, contains 16 pages of short iOuatrated articles showing many new in dustrial uses for the storage battery, and especial ly in connection with plant delivery trucks used in connection with manufacturing operations.

(4763) "COMPACT COMMENTS." September, 1960. contains 9 pages of statistical information and news items covering the various o i l producing states. Statist ical informat ion and tables cover production of o i l and gas, and also progress of o i l field developments.

(4T64) STEAM CLEANER. Thi s recent circular hy Homestead Valve Manufacturing C o . , Ooraopolis, Pennsylvania, illustrates and describes a new Homestead-Yeager a i l electric steam cleaner for use fay eoal and metal mines, explosives industry, petroleum industry, atomic energy plants, chemical plants, food plants, aboard ships, and granaries, which is electrically heated and powered, has no flame, no sparks, no contaminati n g fuel odors, and is 100% portable. Th i s circular gives specifieations and tells how tbe equipment operates.

(4765) "NICKEL TOPICS." September, 1950, by International Nicke l Company, Inc., 67 W a l l Street, New Y'ork 5, New York, contains 12 pages of shoi-t iilusti-atod articles showing many uses for nickel alloys. Tl ie center spread is i l lustrated with uses of nickel alloys in connection wi th the mining and metallurgical industry.

(4766) "BUSINES . . . BIG AND SMALL." The Uni ted States Steel Corporat ion, 71 Broadway. New Y o r k 6, New Y o r k , has just published a book of 172 pages entitled "Business . . . B i g and S m a l l . . . B u i l t A m e r i c a , " which is composed ot statements by ofticiais of Uni ted States Steel before the sub-committee on a study of monopoly power of the bouse committee on the judiciary. Th i s book is f u l l of photogi-aphs. d iarts , and statistical information covering a very complete story of the steel in dustry. Copies may be obtained fi-eo by writ ing

to 3, Carlisle MacUonald , Assistant to C h a i r m a n , Uni ted States Steel Corporation, 71 Broadway, New Y o r k 6, New York. (47S7) "LABORATORY MACHINERY," Bullet in N o . 4613, fay Morse Bros. Machinery' iCo., Post Olliee Box 1708, Denver, Colorado, illustrates and describes 2 0 pages ot laboratory equipment that is essential for a complete continuous laboratory in ore dressing and fiotation plants.

(476S) "SHAPED-CHARGE P R O C E S S IN OPEN-HOLE SHOOTING." Lane-Wells Company, 5610 South Soto Street, Los Angeles 58. Ca l i fornia , has tor distribution 5 page illustrated reprints of an article by John T . Gardiner, one of their field service engineers, describing the use of shaped-charge process in open-hole shooting as applied in connection with o i l wells. Th i s is a highly constructive article covering the process wi th a great deal of merit.

(4769) "RARIN'-TO-GO." September, 1950, by Frontier Refining Company, contains 12 pages of information largely devoted to personuel activities of employees. A m o n g other items included is a description of No. 1 Siemers well in Cheyenne Countv, Nebraska.

(4770) ORE LOADING MACHINES. Bul l e t in No. J - 1 0 8 by Joy Manufacturing Company, Henry W . Oliver Bu i ld ing , Pittsburgh 22, Pennsylvania, contains 4 pages i l lustrat ing and describing their 18-HR-2 loader, which is specifically designed for a high capacity tonnage in metal and non-metal mines. This macbine has a loading speed up to 12 tons a minute. It is mounted on ei-awler treads. Illustrations show the machine in action, and diagram shows gen-oral dimensions and space necessary to operate. Specifications aro included.

(4771) CUTTING CONSTRUCTION COSTS. " L e T o u m e a u Co-Operator" for September and August, 1950, by E . G . Le Tourneau, Inc., . Peoria, Illinois, contains 16 pages of siiort illustrated articles showing how construction coats mav be cut. (4772) "ALLIS MESSENGER." July and A u gust, 1950, fay Louis A l l i s C o . , Milwaukee 7, Wisconsin, contains 20 pages of poems and short stories, together with colored fu l l page il lustrations ot mountain scenra and famous paintings. (4775) "SERVICE RECORD." Volume 4, No. 3, by General Electr ic Apparatus Service Shop, with headquarters in 30 of the princ ipal cities of the Uni ted States, contains 12 pages illustrating and describing the work of General Electr ic Service Shops in these 30 cities.

(4774) HEAVY-MEDIA SEPARATION PLANT. Bul le t in No. 902, by Southwestern Engineering Company, 4800 Santa F e Avenue, Los Angeles 11, Ca l i forn ia , contains 8 pages i l lustrat ing and describing the factory-built , heavy-media separat ion plants producing a middl ing product. Th i s bullet in describes tho operation of the Tilant, gives general dimensions, and tells how these plants can be used to advantage.

(4775) "INDUSTRIAL HOSE REPORTER." September, 1950, fay Gates Rubber Company, 999 South Broadway, Denver, Colorado, contains 4 pages i lhistrat ing new uses for industrial hose. A list of Rocky Mountain distributors are included, and also a record of warehouse stocks.

(4776) "MINERAL NOTES L NEWS." Augurt , 1950, of f ic ia l Journal Ca l i forn ia Federation of Mineralogical Societies and Amei iean Federation of Mineralogical Societies, contains articles on minerals, lapidary, gemology. geology, and fossils. Anyone interested in the above subjects may obtain copies fay contacting the pufalishtng company at Post Office Box 204. Ridgecrest, C a l i fornia.

(4777) "ON TOUR." September. 1950, by U n i o n O i l lOompany of Cal i forn ia , 617 West 7th Street, Los Angeles I d , Cal i fornia , contains 24 pages of il lustrated articles. A m o n g the articles in this issue, there is ono entitled "Logg ing B a l L " Another shows the construction of the Hungrj ' Horse D a m . Another is entitled "7,000 Salesmen." More views are published on refining, but your general interests w i l l be found in this issue.

(477S) "PROGRESS NEWS." September, 1950, by Gates Rubber Company. 999 South Broadway, Denver, Colorado, is essentially their employees' magazine, and shows many actii-ities among the employees of this compaiiy. (4779) SEWAGE TREATMENT. 12 page bullet in published hy the Don- Company, Westport, Conn. , i l l u s t r a t e and describes Dorr equipment and methods for modern sewage treatment. In addit ion, for descriptions ot the equipment, typical flowsheets are included, showing applications of the eqwipment.


I MINES MA6AZINE

I 734 Cooper Building

I Denver, Colorado

I am Interested in the following publications;

Nos. .

I Please have copies

I mailed to:

Name .

Street .

City State _

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950 :27

roPeAdiona

Lester S. Grant, '99

p. O . Box 912

Midland Texas

James L. Morris, '38

The Pure Oi l Company

3ox 2)07 Ft. Worth, Texas

H . W . Height, '27

Creole Petroleum Corporation

Caracas Venezuela

William D. Lord. Jr.. '44

International Mining Company

CaBilia 852 La Paz, Bolivia

B. W . Knowies. '08

1524 Mesa Avenue

Colorado Springs Colorado

Murrell D. Long, '50

!08 McElroy

Morqanfieid Kentucky

Bernard M . Bench, '30 Aeria! Geologic Surveys

1608 Broadway Denver. Coio.

S. Power Warren, '13

1910 Kalorama Road, N . W .

Washington 9 D. C .

John J . Abendschan. '50

1521 East Street

Golden Coforado

Frank E. Delahunty, '25 General Superintendent

Baguio Goid Mining Company

Jaguio Philippines]

R. S. Mann. '40 Consulting Petroleum Geologist

Davis & Mann

2023 Alamo Natl. Bidg., San Antonio, Tex.

Robert £. Zimmer, '49

800 The Caiifornia C o . Buiiding

New Orleans 12 Louisiana

roPeddiona

Stewart M . Collester. '50

c/o General Delivery

Whittier Caiifornia

A . J . Heiser. '43 Brown Drilling Company

1456 E. Hill St. Long Beach, Calif.

Charles E. Prior. '13 Special Representative, Europe & Africa Amer. Sme It. & Refining C o . of N . Y.

London England

T E C H N I C A L M E N W A N T E D


(1225) E N G I N E E R A N D P H Y S I C I S T . A shipyard haa position open for an Bneineer and Piiysicist with experience in the control of sonnd and vibration. Wust be able to develop new techniques for reducing and controi l ing these elements. Probable start ing salary. $5400 per annum.

(1227) S A F E T Y A N D V E N T I L A T I O N E N G I N E E R . A permanent wel l established company has position open w i t h its foreign operations tor a Safety and Vent i lat ion Engineer with experience i n large underground mines, technical background. Three year contract. Generous vacations. Housing and util it ies furnished. Travel expenses paid . Must he in good physical condition. Salary l iberal , depending upon experience.

(1228) M E T A L L U R G I S T , Fore ign company has position open for a young Meta!lorgist_ with some actual experience in ore beneficiation. Natura l aptitude for research important . Salary open. (1229) M E T A L L U R G I C A L S U P E R I N T E N D E N T . A mining company operating a sulphuric acid plant in connection with copper leechinR plant where pyrite roasting is used has position open tor a Superintendent of sulphuric acid plant. Should have broad chemical knowledge. Good academic background and pract ical experience. Three year contract with l iberal salary. Housing furnished, travel ing expenses paid . Vacat ion a l lowed. Appl icant must be in good physical condit ion.

(1230) M I N I N G G E O L O G I S T . A well established company with foreign operations has position open for M i n i n g Geologist with_ broad experience in connection with ore deposits and geological field work. Salary open, depending upon experience and abil ity. (1233) M I N I N G G E O L O G I S T . A mining company has position open for Chief Geologist with good academic background and experience in mine examination work and mine reports. Salary w i l l depend upon experience and abi l i ty ot applicant. (1236) R E F I N E R Y E N G I N E E R . A refinery construction company has position open for a Refinery Engineer with several years expenenoe in actual operation, who is capable of developing specifications and requisitions for instrument equipment from working sheets and process data for petroleum refinery units. Salary depending upon experience and abi l i ty of applicant,

(1238) R E F I N E R Y E N G I N E E R . A company constructing refineries and refinery equipment has position open for a Refinery Engineer with at least four years experience in actual operation. Must bo capable of supervising and inspecting inrtrument installations during construction, and able to check cal ibration and adjust control functions. Must be able to assist operators during s tart ing up period. Headquarters in New Y o r k but work w i l l be botli foreign and domestic. Salary open.

(1239) S M S M O G B A F H P A R T Y C H I E F . A weli known geophysical company has position open for Party Chief in comiection wi th geophysical work in Canada. Appl icant should have at leart two


E S T A B L I S H E D 30 Y E A R S R E S E A R C H DEVELOPMENT A N A L Y S I S S Y N T H E S I S

,, T E S T 1 N G C H E M I C A L & E N S i N E E R I N S C O N S U L T A N T S

L A is "EMBER! AMERICAN COUNCiL fi\ gS Of COMMERCIAL L A BOB A TOR I E S

Request Brochure W a y n e s b o r o , P a . D i r e c t o r ; W . R. M c E i r o y , P h . D .

K. E. Bodine. *48 Prairie States Marine Terminal

Seneca Hhno!;

Allen E. Hambiy. '23 Byron Jacltson Company

Box 2017, Terminal Annex

Los Angeles 54 California

E. W . Isom. '07 V. p. in charge Research & Development

Sinclair Refining Company

630 Fifth Ave. New York 20, N. Y.

Frank E. Lewis, '01 Now operating Horse Heaven Mine

Cordero Mining Company

Ashwood Oregon

John J . Rupnik. '33 Geophysicist

Sinclair Oii & Gas Company

Tulsa Oklahoma

Robert E. Mann, '38 Engineer

Phelps Dodge Corporation

Box 182 Clifton, Arizona

V. G . Gabriel,

M.Sc. '31; D.Sc. '33 p. O . Box 213

M Issouri

R. C . Earlougher, '36 Earlougher Engineering

319 East 4th S i Tulsa 3, Okie.

Jack B. Ferguson, '30 Vice President

Tldelands Expioration Company

2626 Westheimer Houston, Texas

Myron C . Kiess, '25 Geologist

Tu! Oklahoma

J . D. Perryman, '35 Geotechnicai Corporation

Phone: Dlxon-3947 Dallas, Texas

John J . Christmann, '36 Consulting Geologist &

Independent Operator

First Natl. Bank Bldg. Lubbock, Texas

128 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , i

S E I S M I C P R O B L E M S IN M E X I C O

(Continued from page 122) conservative evaluation is necessary for the method is limited in its application and the results can be ascertained only by an intense dr i l l ing program.

Considerable thought has been evidenced concerning time-velocity anomalies and the idea is not a new one. A m o n g others, M r . W . T , Borne and M r . J . E . O w e n published a related article in the A . A . P . G . bulletin for January, 1935, titled "Effect of M o i s ture U p o n Veloci ty of Elastic Waves in Amherst Sandstone." In this article they illustrate that by an addition of two to three percent of moisture by weight to a slab of Amherst sandstone the bar velocity of sound can be altered f rom 7,500 feet per second to 4,700 feet per second, a decrease of 4 7 % . A similar but much reduced effect would diminish the vertical velocity under these conditions.

Faulting and fracl-uring T h e determination of fault ing by

seismic methods is very often accomplished by an indirect means as it is somewhat unusual to have a clear definition of fault ing on seismic records. W h e n the absence of data can be

clearly attributed to a subsurface condition in an area that otherwise gives reliable seismic results, it -is assumed that the lack of data is due to a complexity of the reflecting horizons. Inasmuch as many faults are evidenced by a "disturbed zone" rather than by a clear cut fault plane, the seismic results may be obscured for several consecutive shot points. T h e n too, unless the traverse line crosses the fault at approximately right angles, erratic results may be registered for a considerable distance.

T h e often referred to "induced porosity" of the Fanuco-Ebano, or northern, oil fields is believed to be associated with , and caused by, fracturing. T h e shattering of the Cretaceous indurated limestones results in fractured zones that form oi i reservoirs. T h e w e l l control establishes that production in the general area is found along narrow zones that t r e n d northeast-southwest and at right angles to that direction. Some of these zones are definitely fault zones wi th vertical displacement of beds, others are fractured zones along which no measurable vertical displacement has been found.

W i t h the above conditions in mind, it is hoped that the seismic method

can help to locate these zones of " i n duced porosity" by an alignment of zones of disturbance or erratic results. W o r k has been started on this problem but is not sufficiently developed to form any definite conclusions.

M a n y other problems associated wi th fault ing exist in Mexico . T h e possible extension of the Sam Fordyce Fau l t and Cerralvo Faul t system in northeastern Mexico , the Sierra de San Jose in Tamaulipas and the west flank of the Golden Lane, to mention a few. Conclusions

O n l y a few of the many problems encountered in Mex ico have been mentioned and emphasis has been placed on the interpretative and technical problems, whereas an equal number of operational problems exist. These problems are no more or less than those encountered in other petroleum provinces of the earth, although some of them are peculiar to M e x i c o because of the specific geology involved.

T h e suggested possible solutions for some of the problems are theoretical and conjectural and set forth only as a suggested line of thought wi th the hope that they may stimulate interest and help toward final solutions of mutual problems.

gy B y D O R S E Y H A G E R

Consult ing Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Fifth edition, 466 pages, compact 5*4 x Z'/j size, illustrated, $4.50 T h i s is a guideboolt of ai l -around interest for the oi!

geologist, engineer and producer who vpish to know exactly how geology may serve them. Descriptive and reference materials are combined to cover every phase of prospecting for oil and exploiting oil iields in which geologic science may be applied. T h e book gives facts on the composition and properties of oii, geologic structures in wiiich oil occurs, as well as helps in investigating and apprais ing fields, choosing methods of dr i l i ing and operating, etc.

Order your CM>y from

M I N E S M A G A Z I N E 734 Cooper Building Denver, Colorodo

B y J . J . J A K O S K Y , Sc .D.

Consultant

2nd E d i t i o n , 1195 pages, 6" x 9", 700 illustrations. $12.50.

A complete treatise covering all phases of geophysical explorat ion—Magnetic Methods—Gravi ta t iona l M e t h o d s -Electrical Methods—S e i s m i c Methods—Radioact ivity M e t h o d s — T h e o r y and Practice covered—Equipment and Methods fui ly described. Separate chapters on Bore-hole Investigations and Production Problems. A style that is easily read. A book which should be in the reference l ibrary of every Engineer, Geologist, Geophysicist and others interested in oil field expioration—five minutes reference may save hours of time and thousands of dollars.

Order your copy now from

734 Cooper Building Denver, Colorado

CHECK CORES FOR FLUORESCENCE! The ffrsf test by leading core labs

and many geofog/sfs

USE THE NE] SL 3660

Long Wave Ulira-Violef

BEST FOR OIL ANALYSIS

Positively Identifies oil show and minimizes chances of passing up possible pay. Requires no experience to operate. Weighs only 16 ounces. NO volt A . C , and with special adapter, on MO volt D . C .

FIELD CASE 404 Send for folder MM and article 'Tluorochemistry in Petroleum Science."

M I N E R A L i S H T SL 3660 also operates on batteries when used with field case 404. whicfi contains special circuit for battery use, holds the lamp and has buiit-in view box for daylight

^ examination of cores.

AVAILABLE THROUGH MANY OIL WELL SUPPLY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT DISTRIBUTORS

ULTRA-VIOLET PRODUCTS. INC. SOUTH PASADENA. CALIFORNIA


A R I Z O N A

Two meetings in year, second Saturday in

April and October. H . Z . Stuart, '36, Bisbee,

Vice-Pres.; C , A . Davis, '27, Phoenix, Vice-

Pres.; W . W . Simon, 'IS, Superior, Vice-Pres.;

a. G . Messer, '36, Secretary-Treasurer, Rt. I,

Box 40, Globe, Ariz.

B A G U I O

Franlc E. Delahunty. '25. President; Luther

W . Unnox, '05, Secretary-Treasurer, Ben-

guet Consolidated Mining Co . , Baguio, P. 1.

Meetings upon call of secretary.

B A R T L E S V I L L E

Burt R. Kramer, '42, President; John W .

Tynan, '41, Vice President; Richard M . Brad

ley. "36, Secretary, Cities Service Oil C o . ,

Bartlesviile. Luncheon meetings every Friday

noon in the Burlingame Hotel Coffee Shop.

B A Y C I T I E S

Louis DeGoes, "48, President; George Play-

ter, '30, Vice President; Clyde Osborn, '33,

Secretary; James N . Peros, '38, Treasurer.

Visiting Miners contact Secretary, c /o

Western Machinery Co . , 762 Folsom Street,

San Francisco, Calif., Exbrook 2-4167.

tvleetings, last Friday of October, Novem

ber, January, February, March and April at

the Believue Hotel, Geary and Taylor Streets,

San Francisco, C a l i l . Time: 6:30 P. M .

T h e picnic of the Bay Cities Section was heid on Sunday, August 20, as scheduled, at the beautiful T o w n and Country C lub , M a r i n County, Cal i forn ia , on the outskirts of the town of Fa i r fax . T h i s is, approximately, 25 miles f rom the heart of San Francisco.

Al though not many members attended, those that did brought their families and friends; consequently the total number was suJficient to make the affair quite a "picnic."

Thanks to the,, generosity and kindness of J i m Peros we had plenty of beer. A l l of the kids and most of the ladies enjoyed the swimming pool. For some reason or other the " M i n e r s " just looked on. 1 guess we never shook the fear of water after the tug-of-war across Clear Creek!

T h e big surprise of the day was the arr ival of the W a r r e n family. M r . and M r s . " P i " W a r r e n , '13, were visiting their son and his family at San Carlos and they a l l came to the picnic. W e enjoyed seeing " P i " and we hope he w i l l favor the Bay Cities Section with another visit real soon.

Those attending were: M r . a n d M r s . S. P . ( P i ) W a r r e n , ' 1 3 ;

M r . a n d M r s . A . W , ( D u b ) W a r r e n , '40,

a n d t h e i r Ic iddies , J o h n n y a n d S u s i e ; M r .

a n d M r s . D a n J . L y o n s , '30, a n d d a u g h

t e r s , M a r y , L o u i s e , a n d K a t h l e e n ; M i s s

B e v e r l y B e s t w a s the g u e s t o f the L y n n s

f a m i l y ; M r . a n d M r s . W . S. B r i s c o e , '30,

a n d t h e i r d a u g h t e r . P e n n y ; M r . a n d M r s .

C . K . V i l a n d , '29, a n d t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ,

B a r b a r a a n d J u d y ; M i s s P a t t y C a d e n a s s o

w a s the g u e s t o f the V i l a n d f a m i l y ; M r .

a n d M r s . J . N . P e r o s . '38, a n d t h e i r c h d -

d r e n , N i c k y a n d P h y l H s - J e a n ; M r . J i m

J . P e r o s , u n c l e o f J . N . , w a s a g u e s t ; M r .

a n d M r s . C . E . O s b o r n , ' 3 3 ; M r . a n d M r s .

H a l C o g s w e l l a n d t h e i r d a u g h t e r , S u s i e ;

M r . a n d M r s . R o b e r t C a r p e n t e r a n d t h e i r

d a u g h t e r , B a r b a r a ,

H a l Cogswell and Bob Carpenter were the guests of M r . and M r s . C E . Osborn. Cogswell is f rom the mining school of the Universi ty of AVash-ington; Carpenter is f rom the mining school of the Universi ty of Idaho. T h e Carpenters were visiting San Fran cisco, having just come in f rom Bishop, C a l i f o r n i a ; the Cogswells live in San Mateo , Ca l i fo rn ia .

A most enjoyable time was had by al l who attended.

B I R M I N G H A M

Robert J . Blair. '39, President; Stanley M .

Walker, Ex- ' l l , Vice President; Hubert E.

Risser, '37, Secretary-Treasurer, Bradford

Mine, Dixiana, Alabama. Meetings held

upon call of secretary. Visiting "Miners"

please contact secretary.

C E N T R A L O H I O

Roland B. Fischer, '42, President; Frank M .

Stephens, Jr.. '42, Secretary-Treasurer, Bat

telle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio.

C E N T R A L W Y O M I N G S E C T I O N

Herbert Schlundt. '43. President; Lynn D.

Ervin, '40, Secretary-Treasurer, c /o Stano

lind Oi l & Gas Co . , Casper. Wyoming.

Meetings, first Saturday, March. June, Sep

tember, December.

C L E V E L A N D

Joseph R. Gilbert, '42, Secretary. 14513

Northfield Ave.. East Cleveland 12, Ohio.

Meetings last Friday of each month at the

Carter Hotel, Cleveiand.

C O L O R A D O

E. S. Hanley, '34, President; Herbert W .

Heckt, '36, Vice President; David Roberts.

"40. Treasurer; William J . Holtman, '43.

Secretary, 930 Downing St., Denver, Colo .

Meetings upon call of Secretary.

E A S T E R N P E N N S Y L V A N I A

Samuel M . Hochberger. '48. President; A r

thur C . Most, Jr., "38, Vice-President, Sec

retary-Treasurer. 91-7th Street, Fullerton.

Penna. Meetings upon call of Secretary.

G R E A T L A K E S

Francis W . Mann. '43, President: R. D. Fer

nald, '37, Vice President; Stanley Ohlswager,

Ex-'49, Secretary. Meetings: Fourth Friday.

January, April , October. Visiting Miners con

tact President, c /o Standard Oii C o . (Ind.),

Pipeline Dept., 910 So. Michigan Ave.,

Chicago I.

H O U S T O N

Albert L. Ladner, '27, President; McKay S .

Donkin, '29. Vice President; W . Bruce Bar

bour, '37, Secretary, c /o Tho Second Na

tional Bank of Houston, O i l & Gas Div^

Houston, Monthly luncheon meetings held

on the first Tuesday at Noon, Tenth Floor of

the Houston Club, Visitors please contact

the secretary at The Second National Bank

of Houston.

K A N S A S

All activities suspended,

M A N I L A

John R. Wagner, Jr, . '40, President; Ernesto

C . Bengzon, '21, Vice-President; M . M .

Aycardo, Jr., '41, Secretary-Treasurer, 3rd

Floor Soriano Bldg., Manila, P. I, Luncheon

meetings second Saturday all even months

of the year.

M O N T A N A

A B Martin. '23, President; M , R. Hoyt.

Ex-'08, Vice-President; C . B, Hull, '09. Sec

retary. 646 Galena. Butte, Montana. Meet

ings upon call of Secretary.

N E W Y O R K

Domingo Moreno, '22, President; Fred D,

Kay, '21, Secretary-Treasurer. Room 2202,

120 Broadway. New York 5. N . Y . Telephone:

Worth 2-6720. Monthly meetings.

N O R T H C E N T R A L T E X A S

E J Brook, "23. President; J . W . Peters, '38,

Vice President; H . D. Thorntbn, '40. Secty-

Treas. (Ft. Worth) 506 Neil P. Anderson

Bldg.. Fort Worth, Texas, Telephone: 3-3058;

Henry Rogati, '26, Secty-Treas (Dallas)

1215-16 First Natl. Bank Bldg.. Dailas, Texas,

Telephone: Riverside 4846. Four "leetings

during year, second Monday of month. Feb

ruary, May, September and November.

O K L A H O M A

Carl R. Holmgren, '38. President; M . E.

Chapman. '27. Edgar R. Locke '28, C . O .

Moss. '02, Vice Presidents; Phiiip C . Dixon,

'31 Secretary-Treasurer. Midstates Oi l C o r

poration, National Bank of Tutsa Bldg.. Tulsa,

Okia.

O K L A H O M A C I T Y

J . S. "Monty" Montgomery, '31, President;

H . M . "Hugh" Rackets, '42, Vice President;

M , O . "Shorty" Hegglund. '41, Secretary-

Treasurer, c /o Stanolind Oil and Gas C o . ,

First National Building, Oklahoma City,

Okla. Meetings, first and third Thursdays of

each month at the Oklahoma Club, Lunch

eon 12:00 Noon, All Mines Men are cordially

invited to drop In,

P A C I F I C N O R T H W E S T

A , R, Kesling, '40, President, 2915 Holgate,

Seattle; Phone: PR-7392. W . I, Sedgeiy, 40,

Secy-Treas., 6040-36th Ave., S. W . Seattle

6; Phone: AV-8641. Meetings upon call of

Secretary.

130 T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E • O C T O B E R , 1950

John E, Hatch, '26, President; Robert W .

Jones, Ex-'37. Secretary. 85 Aluminum Ter

race, New Kensington. Pa. Meetings upon

call of officers.

P E R M I A N B A S I N

Norman E, Maxwell. '17, President; Perry

A . Gil l , '36. Vice President; M . S. Patton.

Jr.. '40, Secretary, c /o Sunray Oil Corpora

tion. 407 Midland Tower, Midland, Texas.

Meetings to be announced later.

S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A

John Biegel. '39. President; A . J . Heiser. '43.

Vice President; C , J , Cerf. '41, Treasurer;

Franklin S. Crane. '43, Secretary, c /o Oilwell

Supply Co . , 934 North Alameda St,, Los

Angeles. Telephone: MUtual 7311.

Scheduled meetings second Monday of Jan

uary, Apri l . July and October, at Officers'

Club, 2626 Wilshire Blvd.. Los Angeles, 6:30

P.M. Phone Secretary for reservations,

S T . L O U I S

Jewel E, Morrison, '26, President; George

C . Bartholomees. '29, Secretary-Treasurer.

St. Joseph Lead Company, Bonne, Terre, M o ,

U T A H

H . Dave Squibb, '34, President; Geo , H .

Allen, '37, Vice President; James Cassano,

'3i. Secretary, c /o Kaiser Steel Co . , Judge

Building, Salt Lake City. Utah,

W A S H I N G T O N . D . C .

Marcus G . Geiger, '37, President; Frank

E. Johnson. '22, Vice President; Leroy M ,

O t i s , '14, Secretary-Treasurer, Muirkirk,

Maryland,

Scheduled evening meetings called for the

third Thursday of every other month at the

Continental Hotel. Washington, D. C . Spe

cial meetings arranged when warranted.

C A T A L O G R E V I E W S

(Continued from page 127) (4750) " M I N E R A L I N F O R M A T I O N S E R V I C E . " September. 1950, Ca l i forn ia Division of Mines, Pcri\v Ei i i l f l i i iK. Siiii Francisco 11, Cal i fornia , contains S pajês of news items referring to ore deposits and mines in the State of Cuiil 'oniia. Over 2 jiafjes are devoted to the siibject of asbestos, its production and marliet.

(4751) " L I N K - B E L T N E W S . " Ausnst and September, ] 950, contains 8 pases of sliort illustrated articles dosei'ibina' various iostallatious nsinsr industrial equipment. In thiK issue the new Liniv-Belt siiale sliaker in described, also, solvent extraction o i l mi l l for soybeans. Several oLlier articleii illustrate uses of conveyor eiiuipment.

(4752) " L I N C O L N - M E R C U R Y T I M E S . " .July and AiiST-ist. 1950, by Kord Motor Company, Dearborn, Mich igan , a 32 page mafiaKine containing articles of general interest i l lustrated in many colors. A m o n g tlie feature articles i u this issue is one on Cal i fornia Ghost To\yii. one on thc kingdom of Saguenay, and another one on Waviip TJnivei-sity,

( 4 1 7 8 3 ) T E X R O P E S H E A V E S . Bul le t in K o . 2 0 B 7 2 2 3 A , by Ali is-Chalmers ManufacLurini;-Company. Jlihvaiikee, Wisconsin, contains X '2, pages descriptive of the automatic vari-pitch drives from 1 to 40 li . p. The bulletin de-BcribcH methods for the selection of contponeiits used in this drive, 'i'aliles for selection are included. Installation and operations sections are also included. Dimensions are shown for special texrope belts, supplied on a motor hasis,

<47S4) " H E A T I N S U L A T I N G B L O C K . " This recent 4 page bullet in by K a y l o Division. Owen.s-Illinois Glass Oompany, Toledo 1, Ohio, furnishes information covering a licat insulation block, for temperatures up fo 1200" F . Physical characteristics are included, and also charts of temperatures and efficiencies,

(4785) " I N T E R N A T I O N A L M I N E R A L S & C H E M I C A L C O R P O R A T I O N . " ly.' in A n n u a l Report contains 34 pages of information and financ ia l statisticii showing the results of the operation for the year of 1950. Tl ie report shows the location of the different plants of this coin-paiiv and various products as well. (47S'6) F L U O R E S C E N T I N S P E C T I O N . F o r m N o . l f i02-5 . by Magnaflux Corporat ion. Chicago.

Ili inois, contains S pages describing the new product (Zyg lo ) used as a fluorescent penetrant for inspection. Th i s hii l ietin illustrates this inspection and its results. (47S7) C A T E R P I L L A R E Q U I P M E N T . F o r m 3002.S, by Caterpi l lar Tractor Co . , Peoria, Il l inois, contains 16 pages i l lustrat ing and describing catei-pillar equipment for all uses, and especial ly for preparing roads and highways during thc Winter . (47SS) V I B R A T I N G F E E D E R . Bul le t in No. 134,

by Hewi t t -K oh ins. Inc., Passaic. New Jersey, contains 4 pages of informat ion describing ful ly mechanical vibrating feeder. (4789) " G E M S A N D G E M O L O G Y . " F a l l . 1049. 30 page magazine published quarterly hy the Geinological Institute of Amer ica , 541 South Alexandria, Los Angeles 5, OaJifomia, subscript ion price. IjiS.SO per year, contains much in-formatiou in regard to gems and their product ion, as well as color and other characteristics.

(4790) C O N S T R U C T I O N . F o r m 12770, Caterpi l lar Tractor Co . , Peoria, Iliinois, contains 32 pages ilUisLrating and describing caterpillar tractor equipment for use in a l l types of construct ion, such as in connection with roads, mines, pipelines, dams, and others. (4791) " N E W M E X I C O M I N E R &. P R O S P E C

T O R . " Published by New Mexico Miners and Prospectors Association, Albuquerque, New Mexico. July , 19r>0, contains 14 pages of short articles and news items pertaining largely to the New Mexico mining industry.

(4792) " B A R O I D F I L T R A T E S T E R . " Recent circular by B a r o i d Sales Division, 35 Artesian Place. Houston 2, Texas, describes a number 550 B a r o i d F i l t r a t ester for dotcrminiug type and amount ol ions present in dr i l l ing fluid. Th i s equipment can be used at the dri l i ing r ig .


CContinued from page 128)

years experience aa Party Chief in seismic field work. Single man preferred. Start ing salary $600 to $750 per month, depending upon experience and abi l i ty . Good chances for advancement within six months. (1243) O O N O E N T E A T O R M I L L F O R E M A N . A copper min ing company with 1500 ton mi i i ing plant haa position open for m i l l foreman with experience in the flotation of copper ores. L i v i n g and c l imatic conditions are good. Salary open depending upon experience and abil ity of applicant.

(1244) S M E L T E K F O R E M A N . A foreign operated copper smelter has position open for a smelter foreman, with experience in smelting fiotation concentrates in reverberatory furnace with pulverized coal as fuel . Must have had experience wi th horizontal copper converters and copper casting machine. Good l iv ing and housing conditions. Salary open depending upon experience and abi l i ty of applicant.

(1246) J U N I O R M I N I N G B N G I N E E R . Posit ion open with a well established mining company for young ni ining engineer who can handle underground surveying, mapping and otiier work that he may be called upon to do in connection with mining. Probable starting salary, around $275 per month.

(1257) J U N I O R M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . One of the large coal ni ining companies bas position open for a young mining engineer as trainee for engineering and operation iu one of their coal mines. Salary open. (1259) M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . A n eastern manufacturing company has position open in • the ore buying department of their organization, which is engaged in tlie furnishing of raw materials for the company. Appl icant should liave knowledge of metals and ores of columbium, tantalum, cobalt, tungsten, nickel and others. Salary open.

(1201) J U N I O R M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . A western mining company has a position open for Junior M i n i n g Engineer who is qualified to handle surveying, mapping and drafting. Salary open. (1262) A S S A Y E R A N D C H K M I S T . A n old established assay office has position open for an assayer and chemist who has had considerable experience in complete analysis of ores and metals. Good opportunit.y for the r ight man. Salary w i l l depend upon tbe experience and abil ity of the ar^Plicant.

(1269) G E O P H Y S I C I S T S . A well known geophysical corporation has positions open for party chiefs, computers, osbervers, surveyors and others. Good opportunities for men with experience and also recent gi'aduates, Top notch men w i l l be required for every job. Salaries w i l l be in proportion to a man's experience and abil ity.

(1274) G E O P H Y S I O A D E N G I N E E R . A geophysical conipany wi th headquarters in Dal las has position open for Computer and Draf tsman as trainee on seismograph crew. M a n with small amount of previous experience preferred. Salary open.

(1275) J U N I O R M f f l I N G E N G I N E E R O R G E O L O G I S T . One of tho larger copper companies has position open for Junior M i n i n g Engineer or Geologist aa trainee. Work would start underground and man would be gradually adi'anced as his tra ining .iustiSed i t . Appl icant must bo able to pass physical examination. Start ing salary w i l l be on day wage basis. Employment w i l l probably be in the southwestern part of the Uni ted States.

(1277) P R O C E S S E N G I N E E R , A large chemical manufacturing company extending their plant facilities has position open for Process Engineer with at least five years experience in designing, constiTjetion, estimating and plant operation. Start ing salary $;i50 to $450 per month, dependi n g upon experience and abi l i ty of applicant. Excel lent opportunity for advancement. Locat ion in Rocky Slountain Region.

(1270) M I L L S U P E R I N T E N D E N T . A weB known mining company witli operations in South America has position open for metal lurgical graduate who has given special attention to ore-dressing and had several years experience in flotat ion plant operation and testing woric. Must have held previous positions ot responsibility. Age under 45 years. Should have speaking knowledge of Spanish. Must understand maintenance of m i l l equipment. Capacity of mi l l , 1000 tons. Kinc , lead sulphide ores. Married man preferred, travel expenses paid for man and fainib'. L i b e r a l vacation allowance. L i v i n g Quarters furnished. Start ing salary. $600 per month, U . S. Currency. (1290) E L K O T R I C A L K N G I N E E R . A large manufacturing company in the East bas position open for electrical engineer capable of designing and developing radar systems. Three years exiierience required in electronics and closely related fields. Salar.v open.

(1204) G E N E R A L M I N E F O R E M A N . A South Amer ican mining company lias position open for general mine foreman between the ages of 30 and 40 years with underground experience using room and pi l lar methods. Operations aro largely


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H E R O N E N G I N E E R I N G C O .

P E . 6097

Plant layout and design of mine, mill and smelter facilities, including structures, aerial tramways, and waste dispoEal systems.

2000 So. A c o m a St.. Denver. C o l o .

L E T T E R S

(Continued from page 10) P r e s e n t l y o p e r a t i n g g o i d m i n e s i n the P h i l i p p i n e s c o n t i n u e to be g r e a t l y h e l p e d b y the

f r e e g o l d m a r k e t b e s i d e s c o n t r i b u t i n g 2 5 % o f t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n Eo the C e n t r a l B a n k f o r

.$70.00 p e r o u n c e t o h e i p su . s ta in d o l i a r b a l a n c e s . I m p o r t a n d e x c h a n g e r e g u l a t i o n s c o n

t i n u e v e r y s t r i c t a n d n o t too weJI d e f i n e d b u t i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t m i n i n g h a s f a r e d

b e t t e r t h a n m o s t , d o e to a r e a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h to p r o b l e m s b y m i n i n g c o n i p a n y o f f i c i a l s , the

C h a m b e r o f M i n e s , B u r e a u o f M i n e s , a n d the G o v e r n m e n t O f f i c i a l s o f the I m p o r t C o n t r o l

B o a r d a n d C e n t r a l B a n k . I t is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m v p h i c h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a t t a c h e d at l e a s t

t w o y e a r s b e f o r e it w a s , o n D e c e m b e r 9, 1949.

I e n c l o s e m y d u e s f o r the c o m i n g y e a r , a i o n g w i t h Mines Maejazine K u b s c r i p t i o n , a n d

the res t as a c o n t r i b u t i o n to Mines Flacement Ser'vice.

M E T A L T R E A T I N G & R E S E A R C H C O .

James Colasanti, '35

651 Sherman St,. Denver 3. Colorado Keystone 4973

Commercial Heat Treaters — Consulting Metallurgical Engineers High performance of tools and mechanical products through selection and treat

ing of metais.

T H E M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 131

Check U p O n Y o u r Book Requirements. Prices A r e Advancing and Editions Being Exhausted.

O R D E R N O W !

Machinery ' Handboolc— Oberg & Jones - $ 7.00

Metallurgists & Chemists' H a n d b o o k — L i d d e l l 6-00

Hackh's Chemical Dictionary-— G r a n t - 8-50

Structural Geology—Bil i ings 4.7S Dict ionary of Geological

T e r m s — R i c e ^-50 Hydraul ics H a n d b o o k — K i n g 4.50 Chemical Engineers'

Handbook—Perry 12.00 Standard Electrical Engineers'

H a n d b o o k — K n o w l t o n 10.00 Mechanical Engineers' Handbook

Design—Kent"-12th E d 8.50 Mechanica l Engineers' Handbook

P o w e r - K e n t — 1 2 t h E d . 8.50 Handbook of M i n e r a l Dress ing—

T a g g a r t 15.00 Handbook of Non-Ferrous

M e t a l l u r g y - L i d d e l l 14.00 Psychology of Selecting

Employees—Laird 4.50 Mathematics for the M i i l i o n s —

Hogben - 4.50 M o d e r n Metal l i irgy for

Engineers—Sisco - 4.75 Optical Minera logy—Rogers - 4.O0 Revised L a p i d a r y Handbook—

H o w a r d - - 3.00 Sewage Treatment W o r k s —

Keefer - 7.00 A Treat ise on A p p l i e d Hydraul i c s

— A d d i s o n — 3 r d E d . - - . 6.50 Principles of M i n e r a l Dress ing—

G a u d in - - 5.50 T h e Electron Microscope—-

Burton and K o h l - 5.00 Petroleum Production—Jones

Vol . 1 Mechanics of Production - - - - 4.50 V o l . 2 Opt imum Rate of Production — - 4.50 V o l . 3 O i l Production by W a t e r - - 5.00 V o l . 4 Condensate Production and C y c l i n g - - S.OO V o l . 5 O i l Production by G a s and Flooding — - 6.00

Secondary Recovery of O i ! in U . S . — A . P . I - - . - 3.50

A m e r i c a n Petroleum Ref in ing— Be l l—3rd E d 7-50

Elementary Mechanics of F lu ids —Rause - 4.00

Internal-Combustion Engines — L i c h t y - 5.00

Fuels, Combustion and Furnaces —Grisvi-oid - - 5.50

Introduction to M i n e Surveying —Staley - - 3.50

Principles of F ie ld and M i n i n g Geology—Forrester 7-00

T h e Principles of Physical Meta l lurgy — D o a n and M a h l a - 4.25

Identification & Qualitative Chemical Analys is of Minera l s—Smith 6.50

Mechanica l L o a d i n g of C o a l U n d e r g r o u n d — G i v e n 4.50

Mathematica l and Physical Principles of Engineer ing Analysis—-Johnson - - 3.50

Steam Power Plant Auxi l iar ies and Accessories—Croft — 5.00

Al loys , Structure & Properties— B r i c k and Phi l l ips—2nd E d 6.00

C o b a l t — Y o u n g - S-00 Principles of Geology Structural

— N e v i n - ^ - t h E d . - 6.00 Industrial Relations Handbook—

Mathematics at W o r k — H o r t o n 6.00 M i n e Plant Design—Staley 7.00 M i n e r a l s and H o w to Study T h e m ?

Dana' s—Hnrlbut , J r 3.90 Conversion of Petroleum—

Sachanen - H-OO Rock Alterat ion, an Ore G u i d e — Tint i c , Utah—Love idng 2.50 T i n : M i n i n g , Production, Technology

& Uses—Mantei l—2nd E d 10.00 Structure of Gran i t i c Pegmatites

— C a m e r o n & Others 4.00 Physical Principles of O i l

Product ion—Muskat - 15.00 F r o m Fai lure T o Success In

Selling—Bettger - - 3.95 Principles of Petroleum Geology

— L a l i c k e r - 5.00 A p p l i e d Sedimentation—Trask 5.00 Economic M i n e r a l Deposits—

Bateman—2nd E d - 7.50 Quality Control and Statistical

Methods—Schrock - 5.00

Subsurface Geologic Methods — L e R o y — 2 n d E d 7.00

Chemical Spectroscopy—Brode— 2nd E d - $ 8.00

Steet and T i m b e r Structures— Hool & K i n n e - - 6.50

Genera l Engineer ing Handbook— O'Rourke - - 6.50

Mechanica l Engineers' Handbook — M a r k s - - 10.00

C i v i l Engineers' Handbook— M e r r i m a n , V o l . 1 - 9.00

V o l . 2 - - 11.00 Structural Engineers' Handbook—

Ketchum 8.00 Refractories—Norton 8-00 Mathematics for Engineers—

D u l l - - 5.50 W e l d i n g M e t a l l u r g y — H e n r y 1.50 T h e o r y and Practice of Fi ltration

—Dickey - 6.00 M a t e r i a l s - H a n d l i n g E q u i p m e n t -

Potts - -- 2.50

A i r Condit ioning A n a l y s i s -G o o d m a n — 6.00

F lo ta t ion—Gaudin ^ 6.00 Ore Dressing—Richards &

Locke . . - - . - 6.00 Fundamentals of Physics—

Semat - - 4.00 Electronics in Industry—Chute S.OO Refr igerat ion D a t a Book—

A . S. R. E - 5.00 Handbook for Prospectors—

—-Von Bernewitz 4.50 Chemistry o£ Portland Cement

—Bogue - - 10.00

Port land Cement Technology

— W i t t - - - 10.00

Micropaleontology—Glaessner 6.00

Mater ia ls Handbook—'Brady— 6th E d - 7.00

Fuels and Fue l Burners— Steiner - 4.50

Igneous Minera l s & Rocks— W a h l s t r o m . - - 5.50

Chemical Process Principles—. Hougen and Watson—Vols . 1, 2 and 3 (Bound Together) , . - 12.50

Petroleum Production E n g i n e e r i n g -O i l F ie ld Development—Uren 7.00 O i l F ie ld Explo i ta t ion—Uren 6.50 Petroleum Production Economics - - - 7.50

Techn ica l Methods of Ore A n a l y s i s — L o w , W e i n i g & Schoder—11th E d - . +.00 Aspley - - - . - 10.00

If you don't know the book you want — give us the subject, and ask for recommendations. W e can get you any

published and in print. — O R D E R N O W f r o m : M I N E S M A G A Z I N E , 734 Cooper Bui ld ing , Denver 2, Colo

T h e Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures—Peabody —2nd E d 5.50

Comprehensive Treat ise on Engineer ing Geology—Fox 17.50

Peele's M i n i n g Engineers' Handbook (New Edit ion , 2 V o l . only) 16.00

Dana's System of M i n e r a l o g y — Palache, B e r m a n and Frondel , V o l . 1, 7th E d 10.00

Chemical Ref ining of Petroleum— Kal ichevsky & Stagner—2nd E d - - 8.25

Temperature—Its Measurements & Control in Science & Industry 12.50

B u i l d i n g Estimator's Reference B o o k — W a l k e r 10.00

Chemistry and Physics Handbook — H o d g m a n 6.00

Conveyors and Related Equipment —Hudson—2nd E d 7.00

Heat ing, Venti lating, A i r Condit ioning Guide , 1949— A m . Soc. of Heat ing and Venti lat ing Engrs - 7.50

Structure of Matter—Rice - 5.00 M i n e r a l Property, Examinat ion

and Valuat ion o f — P a r k s — 3rd E d 5.00

Industrial M i n e r a l s and Rocks — A . I. M . E - - 8.00

Physics in the M o d e r n W o r l d —Semat - 5.00

Steel and Its Heat Treatment— BuUens - - 7.50

T u n g s t e n — L i and W a n g — 2nd E d - 8.50

Methods of Jo ining P i p e — Y o r k 3.00 Phenomena, Atoms and Molecules

— L a n g m u i r lO.OO Industrial Mater ia l s H a n d l i n g —

Footlik, Y a r h a m & Carle 4.75 Sales M a n a g e r s Handbook, Revised

—Aspley—6Eh E d 10.00 Principles of Sedimentation—

Twenhofe i—2nd E d 6.50 Hydrology-Fundamenta l Basis of

H y d r a u l i c E n g i n e e r i n g -M e a d - 7.50

Ore Genes i s -A Metal lurgica l Interpretation—Brown .— 3.50

Motor Oi ls and Engine Lubr icat ion—Georg i 8.50

Geophysical Exp lorat ion— He i iand 10.00

Explorat ion Geophysics—• Jakosky 32.50

O u r O i ! Resources—Fanning 5.00 Fundamentals of the Petroieum

Industry—Hager 4.00 Practical O i l G e o l o g y — H a g e r 4.50 N a t u r a l G a s and N a t u r a l Gasoline

—Hunt ington - 8.00 Petroleum Refinery Engineering

—Nelson 9.00 Geophysical Prospecting for O i l

—Nettleton 5.50 Accounting Systems—Nelson

and M a x w e l l - 6.00 Chemical Formulary , V o l . I X —

Editor , Bennett . . - - - 7.00

Petroleum Register, 28th Edit ion (1950) Editor , Penn. 15.00

Elements of O i l Reservoir Engineer ing—Pirson 6.50

G a s Producers and Blast F u r n a c e s — G u m z - — - 7.00

R a p i d T r a v e r s e T a b l e s -Goldsmith 5.00

book

rado.

132 THE M I N E S M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

These books may be obtained through the Book Deportment of The Mines Magazine.

Elements of Oi l Reservoir Engineering

B y Sy lva in J . Pirson. Research Associate, Stanolind O i l and G a s Co. M c G r a w -H i l l Book Co. , N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 1950. 6 X 9, 441 pages, 225 illustrations. .$6.50.

In "Elements of O i l Reservoir E n g i neering," D r . Pirson presents the pr inc i ples governing the behavior of petroleum reservoirs so necessary in forecasting oil and gas reservoir performance, A i l the elements of reservoir engineering are presented in a logical order so as to give a ful l and complete understanding of its application and the best practices to be used in connection with oilfield development.

Chapter 1 discusses reservoir rock properties while Chapter 2 classifies reservoir rocks and structures and supplements discussion with many illustrations and diagrams of great value in helping the student or reader to visualize the relationship of reservoir rocks to the various types of structures. Chapters 3 and 4 cover the subject of reservoir fluids and reservoir forces and energies. These chapters include many helpful illustrations covering practical examples and also charts, tables and mathematical formulas. C h a p ters 5, 6 and 7 take up the fundamental equations of reservoir engineering together with the fundamental production processes and conclude with analysis of field data and the evaluation of various conditions found as a result of study in research. Included in Chapter 7 is an example of analytical method of field data analysis. M a g n o l i a Fie ld , Arkansas , which has been selected to illustrate the application of "Elements of O i l Reservoir E n g i neering." T h i s example is thoroughly treated and includes map of the oil and gas fields covered together with many cross-sections. A n appendix of symbols is included.

E v e r y petroieum engineer and student of petroleum engineering wil l find this a much needed and valuable companion.

Gas Producers and Blast Furnaces

B y W i l h e l m G u m z , Consultant, Battelle M e m o r i a l Institute, Columbus, Ohio . John W i l e y & Sons, Inc., N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 51^ X sVa. 316 pages. $7.00.

In this book, the author discusses fundamentals covering gasification reactions and kindred problems of importance in connection with the operation of blast furnaces and processes for gas production. T h e book is divided into three parts, the first part of which discusses gas producers, fundamental equations and the mathematics involved. M a n y calculations are included with practical illustrations. M e t h ods of gas production are discussed and calculations involved are thoroughly treated.

Part 2 covers blast furnaces together with analysis of reactions and composition of gases. Methods of computation of problems are included together with examples il lustrating practical uses of the mathematics of the various stages of the process.

Part 3 discusses reaction kinetics and appendix includes table of information for reference and use in connection with the problems illustrated throughout the book. Book includes 66 diagrams and charts

and also a like number of tables of information.

T h i s book wi l l be found valuable both to the metallurgical student as well as the practicing metallurgist.

The Transuranium Elements Edi ted by G l e n n T . Seaborg, Joseph

J . K a t z and Winston M . M a n n i n g . M c -G r a w - H i i i Book Co. , N e w Y o r k . 1949. Par t 1: X X X V I + 8 5 9 pages. Part 2: X I I + 872 pages, illustrated, $15.00. (parts not sold separately)

T h i s work consists of 162 research papers assembled for publication in the Manhat tan Project Technica l Section of the Nat ional Nuclear Energy Series. T h e papers deal with investigations, some nf which began in 1940 and others of which have been prosecuted since the close of the war, but most of which were made in the nation's wartime atomic energy program. Not ing the nature of the technical information presented and the number of authors and co-authors, one is certainly justified in asserting that an amount of research that would normal ly require at least a score of years was successfully completed in less than a quarter of that time under the pressure and with the resources resulting from our participation in the war.

Most of the papers embody information collected while developing methods for producing plutonium. Some deal directly with nuclear physics and chemistry, but more are concerned with technical processes. M a n y are of great value to basic science and technology.,, T h e elements with which tbey deal pr imari ly are neptunium and plutonium, with americium and c ir ium receiving less attention. A few o£ the papers are concerned with the elements numbered 88 to 92; none with elements beyond 96.

T h e Atomic Commission is to be congratulated upon making this information available without restriction to all scientists throughout the world . M a n y fields of science and technology wi l l develop more rapidly because this has been done' Incidentally, the format of the two vol umes is an excellent demonstration of the completely satisfactory use of litho-printing, instead of the usual letter press, a method far less expensive for an edition of only a few hundred copies. American Scientist. July 1950.

Accounting Systems B y Oscar Nelson, Associate Professor,

Whorton School of Finance and C o m merce, Univers i ty of Pennsylvania and A r t h u r D , M a x w e l l , Assistant Professor of same school. Richard Irv in , Inc., C h i cago, Illinois. 1950. 6 x 9, 716 pages. $6.00.

T h i s new book is a manual of accounting which furnishes the reader with all procedures necessary in setting up a complete accounting system. T h e book enables one to study the various methods used for accounting, systems in, not only banking, but in federal loan and savings associations, fire insurance companies, stock broker transactions, department stores, utility corporations, rai lroads and munic i palities. T h e book is designed for the use of both the student and the experienced accountant.

Throughout the book wil l be found many forms and examples illustrating methods of procedure to accomplish the results required. Questions listed at the close of each chapter wi l l help one to discover their understanding of the complete subject. A well arranged index enables one to turn quickly to the information needed. Everyone interested in accounting or accounting systems wi l l find this book very valuable for easy reference.

TECHNICAL MEN WANTED (Continued iiom page 131)

mechanized. Production of 1000 tons daily. Two-year contract. Fiu'iiiBhed house ayailable. Prob-able starting' salary, $450 per month, U . S. Ouixeiicy.

(129 5) M I N I N G G E O P H Y S I C I S T . A mining company with international operations has a position open in their exploration department for a younfC graduate engineer with University train-infr in Physics and EleetronicB, who is interested in geophysical field work in connection with mining: expioration. Applicant should be between the aKes of 25 and 30 years and wi l l ing to travel in any part of the world. Salary open. (1398) M I L I j S H I F T F O R E M A N . Posit ion is open for M i l l Shi f t Pore man with a company operating a large flotation plant in the northwest. Appl icant should have experience in the flotation and cyanidation of ores and the operation of large mi l l ing units, Wases. $12.70 per day.

(Continued on page 136)'

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THE MINES M A G A Z I N E m O C T O B E R , 1950 133

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G R O U N D G A S I F I C A T I O N


A t times during operation of the project, a combustible gas has been produced, and at other times the sensible heat of the effluent gases constituted a high percentage of the heat of combustion of the coal underground. T h i s sensible heat was obtained at a temperature level high enough to make possible its use in raising steam or in operating a steam turbine.

T h e major difficult^' that has so far attended underground gasification

experimentation has been the bypassing of carbonaceous faces by the gas-making fluids. Par t ia l control of this bypassing has been accomplished by the introduction of fluidized solid medium at points, where this effect has been most serious. T h e problem, however, w i l l require more investigation and development of a better method of control.

It is believed that the difficulty encountered in obtaining better-quality gaseous products is a consequence of the bypassing the carbonaceous faces.

Further experimentation in underground gasification w i l l be directed

toward development of systems wherein maximum contact is maintained between the carbonaceous faces and the gas-making fluids and a study of the effective temperature on the overlying strata, a factor affecting this condition.

W r i t e fo r List o f Used

U L T R A - V I O L E T M I N E R A I I G H T S

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T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950 135.

(Continued from page 119) strength and dri l labi l i ty of the formation, the weight and rotating speed can be adjusted to obtain the most advantageous cutting speed.

A shghtly higher starting weight is recommended than is usually run as indicated in F i g . 1 since this serves two purposes. First , if coring in an

V Diamond reamer and sub.

open hole wi th a smaller size core head, the higher weight w i l l have a tendency to keep the smaller bit f rom " w a l k i n g " in the larger hole; second, if, as sometimes happens, small pieces of chert may be in the hole, they w i l l be held f irmly and not permitted to rol l . T o o low a fluid volume, causing accumulation of cuttings, or too high a bit weight may cause an increase in torque. If the torque builds up suddenly, slowing rotary speed may return the gage to normal. If not, raise the bit 12 in . off bottom and circulate for a few minutes. T h e n go back to bottom and resume dr i l l ing , watching the torque indicator and fluid pressure gage closely. If a l l indications are back to normal, continue dr i l l ing . Otherwise, come out of the . hole and determine the cause.

F i e l d experience has revealed that once an optimum cutting speed for a particular formation is found, increasing the rotary speed w i l l not necessarily increase the penetration rate. W h e n a satisfactory speed is determined, the linear speed in feet per second of an individual stone on a given diameter may be determined. Thus for a given formation the same linear velocity for various sized bits, f rom say to 9 in. , may be attained by adjusting the revolutions per minute. (See F i g . 3.)

In discussion of dr i l l ing speeds of diamond bits, reference is often made to the high rotation obtained in the mining industry. B y actual calculation, it can be seen that the same

136

linear velocity of the smaller mining bits, rotating at speeds exceeding 1,000 r.p.m., is obtained by the larger o i l field bits, and is we l l wi th in the practical rotational range of oil-field rigs, between 45 to 200 r.p.m.

W h e n necessary to make a connection to add a single or when the core run is finished, stop the rotation of the d r i l l unit, increase the pump pressure 300 to 400 psi over the normal pressure, and raise the core barrel 4 to 6 in . f rom bottom. I n hard ground the weight indicator w i l l show an increase of f rom 3,000 to 8,000 lb. as the core l i f ter grips the core. In most cases the core w i l l break by a straight l i f t . However, if the core does not break, set the brake and "rock" the rotary. T h i s should snap the-core. Be careful, however, not to "wind up" the d r i l l pipe. I n some extreme cases it has been necessary to hold a strain of 15,000 lb. and wait a few minutes unt i l the stress ruptures the core.

A f t e r the core has been broken, raise the core barrel 4 or 5 ft . o£f bottom and then lower slowly back to bottom, checking the weight indicator a l l the time to see that it goes all the way down without showing any indications of weight. If it does, the core has been successfully broken and locked in the core barrel and the string of pipe can be pulled in the usual manner. If just a single is added go back to bottom while rotating and proceed as outlined. In some instances it may be necessary to d r i l l for the first 6 in . w i th a weight 50 per cent above the normal d r i l l ing rate. T h i s is for two possible reasons: first, a heavier weight may be needed to release the grip of the core l i f ter spring; second, if a small section of core has broken off and is lying horizontally, the added weight may help to keep the piece of

core f rom rol l ing under the bit. A f t e r 6 in. or so has been made, return to the normal d r i l l ing weight.

M a n y surveys have been made regarding the recommended speeds and feeds wi th diamond bits, but the net results indicate that the operator must decide for himself the optimum for the formation being dri l led. There is no substitute for proper operations. T h i s is revealed in the instance of one major company when its records of bit salvage as wel l as bit footage decreased sharply, A field survey by a competent diamond dr i l l ing, expert revealed a general let up on proper care and operation of equipment. A quick return to a more intensive supervision was reflected in bit records which returned once more to the previous high performance level.

Essential to successful diamond coring is maximum stabilization of the core barrel. I t is recommended that a minimum of three d r i l l collars be used. However, in some areas coring has been successful w i th no d r i l l collars. It has been observed on some wells that very successful coring has been done wi th as many as 16 d r i l l collars. T h i s is a matter that is usually left to the discretion of the operator, based on conditions in his particular area. However, it is good coring practice, as it is good dr i l l ing practice, to use sufficient d r i l l collars so that the weight exceeds the load applied on the bit.

Diamond bif and body for whipstocking

operations.


(Continued from page 133) (1299) A S S A Y E R & C H E M I S T . One of the South Amer ican niininfc companies has position open for assayer and chemist. Appl icant must have h a d experience in fire asBaying and wet determinations. Probable startinK salary. $4000 [ler year plus bomss.

(1304) J R . M I N i N G E N G I N E E I l . One of the large coal mining companies with operations in the western country liafi positions open for two J r . M i n i n g Engineers as trainees in the E n g i neering Department. Salaries open. (1S05) A S S I S T A S T G E O P H Y S I C S PROFP^S-S O R . One of the eastern colleges has position open for Assistant Professor in Geophysical Department who has a knowledge of fundamental p r i n c i p l e and their relationship to techniques in exploration geophysics. Pi'obable salary. $400 per month for ten montbs.

(1306) G E O P H Y S I C S I N S T R U C T O R . A posit ion is open wi th the Geophysical Department of an eastern college for a man who desires to tlo graduate work at the same t ime assisting in laboratory and teaching. Salary. $120 per month for ten months pins free tu i t ion for graduate work,

(1307) J R . M E T A L L U R G I S T . A large manufacturing company in Ohio bas position open for .Jr. JlletiLllurgist in research work. Must be well trained in fundamental principles of Metallurgy, alert and industrious. Probable salary. $276 per month based on 40-hour week.

(1308) D R A F T S M A N A N D D E S I G N E R . One of the large cement companies has position open in their plant for Draftsman and Designer, and As-sktant Plant Engineer. Probable starting salary, $300 per month. (1309) J R . G E O L O G I C A L E N G I N E E R . One of the major o i i companies has position open for J r . Geological Engineer for tra ining in geophysical worlt. Must have good knowledge of mathematics, single and wi l l ing to accept foreign employment. Salary open. (1314) J R . M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . W e l l established fflininir company operating in Rocky Mountain region has position open for J r . M i n ing Engineer. Probable start ing salary. $275 per month, depending ujjon experience and abil ity of applicant .



B / E D W I N H . B R O W N , Vice Pi-c.siilenI, Engineering Development Division

Allis-Chalmers Mtiim/cictiiriiig Company {Gradiiale Training Conrse 190S)

w ILL I T W O R K ? Is it prac

tical ? Is there a U'tler way to do it? Tf you feel thc challenge in questions like these and get a thrill out of finding the answers — perhaps you're cut out for research.

There arc a lot of us like that hereat Aliis-Chalmers. Pioneering beyond the immediate frontiers of industry has been one of the major factors in the growth of this company for over 100 years. Yet today we're finding more exciting frontiers to explore than ever before.

My part in this work started back in 1906 when 1 joined the Allis-Chalmers

1 \SA •wi *^

Unusual Range of Activities

Research here at A-C covers a tremendous range of industrial fields. I might point out that product development is considered a responsibility of each product department, while the central research and develop-

E D w t N H . B R o v / N 1""^"^ Organization works with the many departments in a staff

capacity. Since Allis-Chalmers produces important machinery for every basic industry, you can see that our development work is extremely varied.

It includes such things as methods of burning coal deposits underground, to produce power without the intermediate steps of mining, processing and transporting Ehe fuel to power plants. We're developing equipment for the application of atomic power in naval vessels. Work-

Allis-Chalniers Maniifactnring Company

Measur ing cavitation resistance o f

various materials for pumps and hy

draulic turbines. Material under test is

electronically vibrated at a high rate

while submerged in water.

Graduate Training Course, from the University of Nebraska. During my two years in thc course, I spent a good deal of time on the test floor. That's the spot where original thinking, new designs, and new methods pay off in results. It's a great vantage-point from which to watch industrial development at work.

After completing my G T C , I worked as a test engineer . . . as development and sales engineer on steam turbines . . . as a chief engineer and department manager . . . and into my present work in research and development.

ing closely with engineers of the Turbo-power Development Department, we're developing gas turbines for shi^ propulsion and high-temperature gas turbines for locomotive service, burning powdered coal.

Other engineers and scientists are engaged in pure physical research into factors that influence power transmission over long lines. There's constant departmental research and product development going on in the fields of flour milling, ore processing, water conditioning, hydraulic turbine design, electronics, new manufacturing methods and techniques, industrial design.

Pick Your Spot

Graduate engineers selected for the Aliis-Chalmers Graduate Training Course have a unique opportunity to explore many engineering and industrial fields, and find tfie work that suits them best. Here, you help set your own course—may cliange it as you go along and special interests develop. You can gain first-hand experience with almost any major industry you can name—electric power, nfining, wood products, hydraufics, public works. You can work in machine design, research, manufacturing, sales engineering. You can earn advanced degrees in engineering at the same time. When you finish the course, you know where you're headed— and you're on your way!

".V

Experimental Gas 'nirl)ine at Annapolis is shown in new buildmg to which it was

recently moved. After extensive testing at progressively higher temperatures, the U . S.

Navy unit has now been operated in several tests at its design temperature of 1500° F .

T H I M I N E S M A G A Z I N E # O C T O B E R , 1950 137

(Continued from page

Preston Grant , Ex-'33 Lester S. Grant , '99 T . I-I. Garnett, ' U Jno. C . Mitchei i , '39 W . W . Lowrey, Ex-'41 Robt. E . Simon, '48 R. E . Watson, '+3 R. C . Cutter, '49 C . E . Stiefken, '41 Heine Kenworthy, '32 A r d r i s H a i g , '36 F . M . Nelson, '25 W . P. M o r r i s , '32 C . E . Dismant, '31 G . Ke i th T a y l o r , '23 T . L . Wells , '29 Jean Goldsmith, '41 Oscar D a v i l a , '47 V . L . Mattson, '26 D . C . Deringer, Jr . , '24 J . W . H y e r , Jr . , '42 M . G . Zangara , '48 C . E . Prior , Jr . , '13 LeRoy G . H a i l , '3S Ralph Bowman, '4S G . Featherstone, Jr . , '43 Orv i i l e P. Smith, '49 John A . Bowsher, '34 J . C . Stipe, '40 Chas. L . Wi l son , '44 Victor R. M a r t i n , '41

D . J . M c M u l l e n , '44 Paul B . Davis , '39 W . K . Dennison, Jr . , '40 John J , Rupnik, '33 E . C . Phi lpy , '49 V . G . G a b r i e l , '31; '33 Robert G . Wheeler, '49 Dale Nix , '26

E . E . H a n d , Jr . , '12 W . E . Burieson, Ex-'26 John C . Dyer, '27 Geo. M . Thomas , '44 Ninetta C . Davis , '20 W i l l i a m S. K i n g , '49 Chas . M . T a r r , '38 George E . Norris , '27 A . W . Heuck, '36 W i l l i a m G . Park, '49 L . D . T u r n e r , '41 j . L . Soske, '29 Jno. B . Botelho, '42 D . B . M a z e r , '47 Joe T . Robison, '49 James W , M c L e o d Douglass F . Evans , '25 Chas. T . Pease, '48 John H . Winche l l , '17

C . W . Gustafson, Ex-'34 M . L . Ta l l ey , '49 L . F , Borabardieri , '41 T . E . H o w a r d , '41 D . M . Coleman, '49 C . J . M c G e e , '47 A n d r e w M i l e k Chas. B . Hoskins Jack F . Frost, '25 C . E . Osborn, '33 John M . Suttie, '42 H . Z . Stuart, '36 R. E . Lintner, '43 M . O. Whi t low, '49 C l a r k W . Moore , '32 Ber! E . T e r r y , '33 Jack D . Duren , '48 P. M . Ralph , '48

W . E . E i lwanger , '43 John Robertson, J r . , '49

F. L . Stewart, '43 K . E . Lindsay, '40 L . H . Shefelbine, '43 L . E . McCloskey , '47 C . A . Einarsen, '47

J , H . M c K e e v e r . '47 A . N . Neison, '26 Geo. A . Kiersch , '42 H . K . Schmuck, Jr . , '40 R. L . Hennebach, '41 Roy F . Carlson, '48 Ralph L , Bolmer, '44 Jas. D . A l d e r m a n , '49 Jos. R. Soper, Jr . , '44 K . T . Lindquist , '46 Robt. F . Barney, '35 Charles S. Pike, '39 Clyde 0 . Penney, '36 Jack Q . Jones, '40 Thos . E . Gaynor , Jr . , '48 R. P . Comstock, '41 H . L . Gardner , '27

G . A . Golson, '42 C . N . Bel lm, '34 K . H . Matheson, Jr . , '48 Charles O . Clark , '49 R. K . Lisco, Ex-'47 Fred C . Sealey, '17 W m . G . Cutler, '48 J . E . Serrano, '20 D . R. M a c L a r e n A . E . C a l a b r a , '48 John A . Fraher , '44 B. B . LaFollette, '22 N . S. Morr i sey , '42 A . C . Levinson, '47 W . M . T r a v e r , '16 George D . T a r b o x , '38 Jul ian B . W i l l i s , '40 John J . Butr im, '42 D a v i d P. Morse , '49 N . H . Norby, '49 W m . M . Aubrey , J r , , '43 Robert W . Price, '35 A . A . Bakewel l , '38 W . P. Gi l l ingham, '47 Geo. O . A r g a l l , Jr . , '35 Theodore W . Sess, '34 Robert L . Garrett , '45 V . L . Easterwood. '49 A . F . Suarez, '41 P. A l b e r Washer , '26 James E . Werner , '36 T h o m a s H . Cole, '43 A l e x A . Briber , '48 C . F . C ig l iana , '41 W . W . Fertig, Ex-'24 L . E . Sausa. '38 Charles P. Gough, '48 James M . Perkins, '49 R. A . M a r i n , '45 ). W . Bodycomb, '48

R. B . Nelson, '47 Charles W . Tucker , '47 B i l l y F . Dit tman. '49 W . F r e d Gaspar , '43 Louis Hirsch , '49 H . A . Bruna , '41 C . C . C r a w f o r d , '40 R. S. W a r f i e l d , '48 R. S. Bryson, '49 Ernest E . B r a u n , '49 C . D . Frobes, '24 Louis C . Rubin , '27 W . T . Townsend, '48 E d m o n d A . K r o h n , '43 W m . G . Robinson. '48 John Robertson. '22 T . A . M a n h a r t , '30 John M . Carpenter, '35 N . E . M a x w e l l , Jr . , '41 M . B . Seidin, '48 John F . W h a l e n , '49 A , L . C a r v e r , '43 J . P. M c N a u g h t o n , '42 H a r r y E . Lawrence, '48 John W . Chester, '44 W . T . M i l l a r , '22 John M . T u f t s ; Jr . , Ex-'38 A . F . Boyd, '26 D a v i d P . Morse , '49 Thos . P . Bell inger, '47

Robert J . Black, '49 R. W . Parker , '49 Lester B . Spencer, '44 G . H . Lancaster, '41 M a r v i n E . Lane, '44 A . G . Hampson, E x - ' S l C . W . Gustafson, Ex-'34 T . E . Phipps, '49 D . W . Thompson . '42 R. J . A r n o l d , '49 Vincent M i l l e r , '35 W . H . Kohler , '41 M a s a m i Hayashi , '48 R. K . V . Pope Robert D . Bowser, '49 M a r v i n H . Estes. '49 W . F . E d w a r d s , '48 Russell Badgett, Jr . , '40 L . G . T r u b y , '48 Glenn E . W o r d e n , '48

A . E . C a l a b r a , '48 E . C . Robacker, '42 S. H . Stocker, '42 M a r i o n S. Bel l , '49 A . E . Falvey, '34 V . R. M a r t i n , '41 E d w . C . B r y a n , '42 F tank DeGiacomo, '32 R. W . M o y a r , '41 E . L . Honett, '47 V . L . Lebar, '36 J . C . Car l i l e P. E . Leidich, '43 C . B . Larson, '23 C, L . Fleischman, '30 Jos. E , Hatheway, '41 M a r i o Fernandez, '39 Vincent L . Barth, Ex-'41 R. E . M a r k s C . M . Hales, '48 Wal ter H . Ortel , '49 Peter C . Cresto, Ex-'50 W i l l i a m H . Volz , '39 Gene W . Hinds , '49 R. E . Morr i son , '41 Stanley W . Parfet, '42 I, J . Sanna, '41 M . W . Mote, Jr . , '49 E . E . Ruley, '43 John L a b r i o l a , '49 Charles E . Foster, '27 E d m o n d A . K r o h n , '43 M . L . E u w e r , '25 D a v i d P. Morse , '49 A . B . C a r v e r , '25 D . W . Gunther, '39 Eugene F . K l e i n , '43 Silas DoFoo, '41 John E . Moody, '39 E d w . S. Larson, '23 A l a n E . H a l i , '39 E d w . W . Anderson, '43 L . S. Woeber, '22 D . L . Cedarblade, '44 E a r l H . M i l l e r Charles S. Knox , Ex-'27 S. R. Licht, Jr . , '43 R. E . G . Sinke. '39

H . D e l i Redding, '47

F . W . M a n n . '43

E . H . Shannon, '36 A r t h u r G . W o o d , Jr . , '41 George E . Wagoner , '28 H . Y . Yee, '38

R. W . Deneke. '43 F r a n k E . Love, '36 P a u l M . T y m a n , '44 John J . Folger Charles F . A l l en , '34 R. A . Gustafson. '47 Dona ld W . Roe, '44 D a v i d P . Morse . '49 Pitt W . Hyde , '22 Joseph C . K n i g h t R. J . K n o x . '49 W . M . Gebo, '23 D . F . Sylvester, '38

G . S. Schoenwald, '48

H o w a r d C. Parker, '41 E d F . Porter, '40 Bert J , Shelton, V , '44 Raymond T . Burns, '48 E . C , Bengzon, '21 D. A . Kel logg, '49 Ben F . Angus . '29 Robert T- Rose, '35 A . W i l l i a m Paris i , '41 D a v i d P . Morse , '49 J . W , Caldwel l , Ex-'49 Paul B . Dav i s , '39 Donald E . H o l l a r d , '41 H . S. Fowler Thos . F . Bradley . '37 Joe T . Robison, '49 A r t h u r J, Jersin, '49 C. W . Gustafson, Ex-'34 M . G . Hei tzman, '17 AVm. E . M c C a l l . '49 Oscar A . Lampe, '98 J . H . M c A n e r n e y , '35 ' F r a n k W . T o d d , '41 Phi l ip Doerr , '27 Don H . Peaker, '32 John R. W a g n e r , '40 Donald Kochersperger, '43 W . G . Blackwel i , '39 Robert W . Sneed, Ex-'49 G l e n E . Fassler, '29 C . D . Beeth, '24

E . D . Bar low, '37 D a n f o r d H . Dobbs, Ex-'50 A . R. Fosdick. '23 E . L . G r a h a m , '28 K . E . Hickok, '26 Raoul E . K a h n , 39 P. J. Lonergan, '05 W m . H . Roberts, III, '46 W . J . Rupnik, '29 Norton A . Smith, '35 P. P. Sudasna, '48 Wakeley A . Wi l l i ams , '99 H a r r y Y , Yee, '38 W a l t e r H . Zwick, '32 John F . Hatch, III, '49 Victor R. M a r t i n , '41 Herbert P. T . H y d e H o w a r d G . Schoenike C . E . Golson, '34 Joe T . Robison, '49 Eugene A . M i l l s , '39 Robert C . M c C a i n , '49 Lawrence E . Smith, '31 J . R. Soper, Jr . , '44 T . J . Lawson, '36 F . J. Wiebelt, '16 D . M . Shaw. '28 Ben E . T e r r y , '33 C. H . Carpenter, '09

(Continued from page 136) (1315) J U . M K T A L L U R G I S T . A position is open with a company in tlieir m i l l i n g plant for a lounff Metal lurgist who lias had previous experience in experimental work, m i l l operation, designing and construction. Salary , depending upon experience and abil ity of applicant.

(1316) M I N I N G K N G I N E E R , A n eastern coal mining company has position open for M i n i n g Engineer with experience iu surface and underground survej'ing and also i n plant desigri and construction. Salary open. <I31S) J R . C H E M I O A L O R M E T A L L U R G I C A L

E N G I N E K R . A well known industrial company has positions open for J r . Chemica l Engineers o r Metallurgists, lor trainees in some of tlieir plants-Salaries w i l l depend upon the qualifications of applicants.

(1219) ,TR. M I N I N G E N G I N E E R . A company with ruining operations in tbe middle-west has position open for J r . M i n i n g Engineer as trainee for supervision in production capacity. (1321) M E T A L L U R G I S T . A well established smelting and refining company has position open for a Metallurgist capable of handl ing job as Assistant to General Eoreman. Appl icant siiould have had at least 5 years smelter experience or refining cxpeiience. Salary open.

(1322) I N D U S T R I A L K N G I N E E R . A well established eastern company has position open f o r Industrial Engineer 35 to 45 years of age. Must be graduate of recognized engineering college with manufacturing experence in metal working-industry as Piant Engineer or Assistant Plant Manager. Salary open, depending upon qualif l -cations of applicaufc.

138 T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R , 1950

Made in single, twin and quad units, 38 to 520 horsepower (continuous rating) G . M . Diesel Engines are available for every type of installation, and with accessories and opfiona! equiment to handle any and all oil-field power jobs. And if you are operating in high altitudes, you will be very interested to know that the continuous horsepower rating of the G . M , Diesel two-cycle engine is not affected by altitudes up to 10,000 feet.

Other equipment necessary to fhe petroleum, mining and allied industries represented by this firm includes the following:

BUCYRUS-ERIE « H U B E R M F G . C O . « LE T O U R N E A U

B I A W - K N O X » F O O T E C O . » E. D. E T N Y R E & C O .

I N G E R S O L L - R A N D » C . M . C . ( W y o . & N e b r . )

C O B U 5 C O » S T A N D A R D

Roberf S. Siocldon, '95 Consulting Engineer

Irrigation & Land Development

4 i 5 East 29+h A v e . S p o b n e fO, W a s i i

Albert G . Wolf, '07 l009-2nd Nat'l Bank Bldg.

H o u s t o n 2 Texa:

Ben F. Zwick, '29 630-Bth Ave.,West

C a l g a r y , A l b e r t a C a n a d a

Ellis W . Akin. '49 District Representative

C . A . Norgren Co.—Hansen Coupling

Co.—Mil ler Cylinder C o .

ox 912 Kansas C i t y 10, M o

Frank B. Harris, '13

Engineer of Mines

U . S. Smelting, Refining & Mining C o ,

M i 9 N e w h o u s e B l d g . Sal t Lake O i l y

A . Hartwell Bradford, '09

President

West Coast Refining Company

302 R i c h f i e l d B l d q , , Los A n g e l e s 17, C a l i f

Theodore Say, '30 R. D, 2

W e s t C h e s t e r Pennsylvanic

J . R. McMinn, '42 Productior? Department

Fred M . Manning, inc.

L a m e s a Texas

John F. (Frank) Purdum, '30 Subsurface Engineering Company

H o u s t o n a n d Tulsa

Albert L. Ladner, '37 Apache Exploration Company

Esperson B l d g . H o u s t o n , Texas

THE COLORADO BUILDERS' SUPPLY CO. EQUIPMENT DIVISION W. EVANS AND SOUTH MARIPOSA, DENVER, COIORADO ,

EAST YEllOWSTONE HIGHWAY, CASPER, WYOMING

S T O N E H O U S E S T A N D A R D S T E E L S I G N S F O R A C C I D E N T P R E V E N T I O N

Just as ihe P e i r o l e u m Indus I r y is s p e e d i n g

the p r o d u c t i o n of iis p r o d u c l s , so are Slone

house Signs d o i n g their part b y h e l p i n g lo

s a f e g u a r d w o r k e r s in Petro leum operat ions .

Prevent ion S igns" . . . the o n l y authent ic

s t a n d a r d s . W r i t e for Stonehouse complete

C a t a l o g N o . 9; it's free.

S T O N E H O U S E S I G N S , I N C . s tonehouse S igns c o n f o r m to " A m e r i c a n S tand- 9ih af L a r i m e r D e n v e r 4, C o i o .

a r d s A s s o c i a t i o n Spec i f icat ions for A c c i d e n t "Signs since 18S3"

TRESPASSING K UNDER PENALTY ^

Q F T H E L A W H

I^MSPtHSARY]

F I R E H O S E

ACCIDENT PREVENTION Steef SfGNS IN STANDARD COLORS AND DESIGNS E X A M I N E Y O U R

I WDRKiNG PLACE WELL |BEFOR£S!ART!NliTaWDIlK


ICAL CO. of CANADi

422 No. Main

Tulsa 3, Oklahoma

620 Fifth Avenue

New York 20. New York

1912 Niels Esperson Bldg.

Houston 2, Texas

407 No. Garfield

Midland, Texas

735 Eighth Avenue, West

Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Apartado 1085

Caracas. Venezuela

P.O. Box 1310

Fairbanks. Alaska

Rua Uruguaiana 118

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Casilla 1162

Santiago, Chile

Y U B A offers you information and consulting service based on actual operating experience and over 40 years of designing and building bucket ladder dredges and dredge parts for use from Alaska to Malaya, from Siberia to Colombia. Y U B A dredges now in use are producing big yardages on many types of alluvial deposits.

No matter what your dredging problem—deep ground, hard bedrock, clay, boulders, levee building; deepening, widening or changing channels; cutting canals, or production of sand and gravel, Y U B A can furnish the right dredge for the job.

Room 709 , 351 California St., San Francisco 4, California, U. S. A. AGENTS / s iMEt D A R S Y & C O . , L T D . • S I N G A P O R E , K U A L A L U M P U R , P E N A N G .

\ S H A W D A R B Y & C O . , L T D . , 1 4 & 1 9 L E A D E K H A L L S T . , ! . • N D O N , E . C . 3 .

C A B L E S : Y U B A M A N , S « H F S A N C I S C O • S M A W D A R B C O , l U K o a n

506 Neil P. Anderson Building

FORT WORTH 2, TEXAS

EDWARD J. BROOK '23 Herbert D. Thornton, '40 Kenneth W. Nickerson, Jr., '48


S

In labora tory and pi lo t tests the W e i n i g C o n c e n

t ra tor has p roved Its ab i l i ty to handle sizes o f iron ores

and other materials border ing where heavy densi ty

processes begin to f a i l . The l abora to ry model i l lus

t ra ted is now a v a i l a b l e — 4 i " t a n k .

The Concen t r a to r for labora tory tes t ing can be put

into opera t ion in a f ew minutes and requires no unusual

t reatment or accessories. A s k fo r test results on iron

ore and other materials . W r i t e for detai ls on the c o m

mercia l size W e i n i g Concen t r a to r fo r plant ins ta l la t ion.

1620 17th Street Denver 2, Colorado

The crews . . . the supervisory staff . . . the equipment , . . and the experience

. . , f o r the successful completion of contracts covering every phase of geo

physical exploration work. Excellent employment opportunities open f rom time

to time for geological and geophysical engineers. You are invited to visit our

laboratories and shops.

1922 West &ray Street Houston, Texas

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950 141

spang Tools are made by expert workmen fi'om the very best of materials to specifications most

suitable for the Intended use

Spang Tools are known all over the world for their quality and unequaled sei-vice

Spang Tools are for sale by dealers in all areas

B U T L E R , P A .

Winfield, Kcmsas Mt. Pleasant, Mich.

Bolivar, N. Y.

142

Seismic Surveys

Esperson Building

Houston, Texas

A . L. Ladner, '27, President

T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E © O C T O B E R , 1950

4 4 1

D N E 7-3313 >. BOX 5 8

0 S O U T H P E O . S A , O K L A H O K

idable for Continuous Duty—Fully Automatic. Morse Drum

>isc Filters ore highly regarded for sotisfoctory performance

>w maintenance—made in a wide range of sizes to meet most

]uirements,

IE DISC FILTERS are ideal for filtering more than one charac-concentrate or moterioi where seporated filfrates ore desired.

Write fo r aullet in N o . 4 7 1 0

INERY C O M P A N Y O R A D O , U. S. A . ( C A B L E M O R S E )


Mt9 Scrvici Corp PtaliRdelpiiia, Penna., 236 E. Courtland Btrest

Atnsworth & Sons, Ine., Wm. * Dcnrer, Colo., 2151 Lawrence St.

Albany Hotel D i D i e i . Colo., i r t l i & Stout Sts.

Alcoa Aluminum * Pitleburih, Fenna., Quit Buildine

Aliis-Ciialmors Mfs. Co. * 137 Continentul Oil tlldg. Denwr, Coiorado Miiwaiiliee, Wisconsin

American Pauiin System 6-7 Los Angeles, Calit., 1817 S. Flower St.

Apaclia Exploration Co., Ine 142 Houston, Texas, Mellie Esperson Bids.

fhe Appliance Slioppe Golden, Colo., 1118 W. Ash

Armco Drainage & Iêf'l Prod. Inc. * DenTer, Colo., 3033 Blahe St. Hardeatf DiT.

Barher-Greens Inside Back Cover Aurora, HI.

Slack Hili) Bentonite Moorcrolt, Wyo.

The Catilornia Company New Orleans, La . , ISIS Canal Bide.

Can pits Service Station Qolden, Colo., 1102 19 Bt.

Capability Excliange * Denter, Colo,, 734 Cooper BldE-

Card Iron Works Company, C. S. *.. 8 DenTer, Colo., 2501 West IGtli Ate.

Gary Hotor Company — Qolden, Coiorado

Central Bank and Trust Company * Senter, Colo., IStli & Arapahoe

Century Geophysical Corp - 5 Tutsn, Oklahoma New York, New lork, 149 Broadway Houston, Teias, Neili-EspereoD BIdg.

Chrttlensen Diamond Pdeti. Go Salt Lake City, U U h , 19TS So. 2Dd West

Climax MoSybiienum Co 14 New York, N. Y. , 500 Fifth A T B .

Colorad!) Builders Supply Co - 139 Denier, Colo.. W, Evans and S. Mariposa Casper. Wyo.. East Yellowstone HlEltwsy

Coiorado Central Power Co

Colorado Fuel & Iron Corp 22 Amarillo, Texas, T i l Oliiei Sakle Bldg. Butte, Mont., 505 MeUls Bank Bli^. ChlcHEo 4, 111., 613 !tai l«ay Eichange B I ^ . Dallas, Texas Denver I, Colo., Continental Oil Bids-fil Paeo, Texas, 805 Baesett Tower Bide. Fort Worth 2, Texas, 1562 Fort Worth

National Bank Bldg. Uncoln 1, Nebraska, 330 North Stb St. Los Angeles I, CallF., 733 East 60th St. Oklahoma City 2, Okla., 906 Colcord Bldg. Phoenix, Arizona, 112-116 West Jackeon Salt U k e City I, UUh,

604 Walker Bank Bldg. Ssn Francisco 3, Calit.,

1245 Hotrard St. Spokane 8, Wash.,

910 Old National Bank Bldg. Wichita 2, Kansas,

430 So, Commerce St.

Colorado Iron Works Company * 141 Denver, Colo., 1624 Seventeenth St. KinEston, Ontario, Can.,

Canadian Loco. Wlu. Co. Vancouver, B. C , Can.,

Vancouver Iron Wks., Ltd. Johannesburg, So. Atrka,

Head, Wrightson & Co. Stockton on Teea, Eng.,

Head, Wrightson Ic Co. Granviile, N. S. W., The Clyde Eng. Co., Lid.

Colorado Hationai Bank Denver, Colo., 17th & Ciiampa SL

Colorado Transcript Goiden. Colorado

Coors Porcelain Company * Golden. Colorado

Craig-Frederick Chevrolet Golden. Colo.. 131b & Ford St.

Deister Concentrator Co. A Port Wayne, Ind., 911 Glasgow Ave. N*w York, N. Y. , 104 Pearl St. Nesquehoning, Pa., 231 B. Catawissa St. Nibbing. Minnesota, P. 0. Bor 777

*AdTBrtised in Year Book ot "Mines" Mew. 1948.

144

Birmingham, Alabama, 930 2nd Ave, North

Denver Eqaipment Company * 3 Denver 17. Coio., 1400 I7th Street New York City 1, N. Y.,

4114 Empire Blste Bldg. Chicago 1, 1123 BeH Bldg.,

307 N. Michigan Toronto, Ontario, 45 Biebmond St., W. Vancouver, B. C ,

305 Credit Foncier Bldg. Mexico, D. F . , Ediflcio Pedro de Gante, Gante 7. London E. C. 2, England,

Salisbury House Johannesburg, S. Africa, S Village Road Richmond. Aiistraiia, 530 Victoria Street

Denver Fire Ciay Company * 8 Denver, Coio. Salt Lake City, Utah, P. 0. Box S36 EI Paso. Texas, 209 MOls Bldg.

Denver Maetilne Shop Denver, Colo., 1409 Blake St,

Denver & Rie Grande Western B.R. Co .. Denver, Colo., 1S31 Stout St.

Denver Sewer Pipe £ Clay Co Denver, Colo., W. d5th Ave. & Fox

Denver Steel & Iron Worki Co Denver, Colo., W. Coifax Are. & Larimer

du Pont de Nemours & Company, E. I. 13 Denver, Colo., 444 Seventeenth St. Wilmington, Dela^5afe San Francisco, Calit., I l l Sutter St.

Dorr Conipany, The * New York 23, N. ¥ , , 570 Lexington Ave. Atlanta, Wm. Oliver Building Toronto, 80 Biebmond St., W. Chicago, 221 N. LaSalie Street Denver, Cooper Building Los Angeies, S l I W. 7th St.

Duval I-Davidson Lumber Co tfolden, Colo., 1313 Ford St.

Eastman Oii Wei! Survey 20 Denver, Coiorado 13G0 Speer Blvd.

Eaton Metal Products Company * 3 Denver, Colo., 4800 York St.

Edison, inc., Thomas A West Oraiê, New Jersey

Elmeo Corporation, The * Chicago, 111., 333 No. Michigan Ave. E l Paso, Texas, Mills Bldg. New York, N. Y. , 330 W. 42nd St. Sacramento, Calif., 1217 7th St. Salt Lake City, Utah

Empire Foandry Co iienver. Cole., 130 Larimer

Exploration Service Co. .._ 134 BartiesviUe, Okia., Box 1289

Firjt National Bank Golden, Colo.

Florenee Mehy. & Supply Co Denver, Coio., Equitabie Bldg.

Flyer Corporation, Ltd Los Angeles, Caiif., 403 W. Sth Street

Foss Drug Company Golden, Colo.

Foss, Ine., M. L Denver, Colo., 1001 Arapahoe

Frohes Company * . _ Salt Lake City, Utah, 156 West 4th Street South

Frontier Refining Company Denver, Coiorado, Boston B!dg. Cheyenne, Wyoming

Frost Geophysical Corp 143 Tulsa, Olda. Box 58, 4410 So. Peoria

Gardner-Den ver Company * 2 Quincy, Illinois Denver, Coiorado Butte, Mont., 215 S. Park St. Bi Paso, Texas, 301 San Francisco St. Salt Lake City, Utah,

130 West 2nd South Los Angeles, Calit., B45 E . 61st St. San Francisco, Calif., 811 Folsom St. Seattle, Wash., 514 First South

Gates Rubber Company * - Inside Front Cover

Birmingham, Ala., 801-2 Liberty National Life Bidg.

Chicago, H L , 649 West Washiugton Dallas, Texas, 2213 Griffin Denver, Colo., 999 South Broadway Hoboken, N. J . , Terminal Building Los Angeles, Calif.,

2240 East Washington Blvd. Portland, Ore., 333 N. W. Fifth Avenue San Francisco, Calif., 1090 Bryant St.

General Electric Company 16 Schenectady, New York

General Geophyslea! Co Houston, Texas

Geoloaraph Co., Inc Oidahoma City, Ohla., P. 0. Box 1291

Geepiioto Servieei ~ Denver, Colorado,

305 Ernest & Cranmer Bldg.

Gibraltar Equipment fi Mfg. Co. * Alton, IU., P. 0. Box 304

Golden Motors Golden, Coiorado, 1018 Washington Ave.

Golden Savings fi Loan Assoc Golden, Colorado, S08-13th St.

Golden Theatre Golden, Coiorado

G. G. Grigsby * 12 Desioge, Missouri

Grisham Printing Company * Denver, Colo., 925 Eighteenth Street

Mrs. A. J. Gude Golden, Colo., P.O. Box 374

HassGo, Inc Denver, Colorado, 1745 Wazee St.

Heiiand Besearcb Corporation * 9 Denver, Colo., 130 East Sth Ave.

Hendrie & Bolthoif Co. A Denver, Colorado, 1669-17tb Bt.

Hercules Powder Company * Denver, Colo., 650-17th St. Wilmington, Delaware, 737 Iting Street

Heron Engineering Co 131 Denver, Colo., 2000 So. Acoma

Hilper S Watts Ltd 21 Watts Division, 48, Addington Sq.,

London, S.E.S. England Holland House, The

Golden, Colorado

Humphreys Investment Co. ..: Denver, Colo., 1st Nat'l Bank Bldg.

Husky Dil & Refining Co Calgary, Alberta, 531 Eighth Ave. West

independent Exploration Co 141 Houston, Texas, Esperson BIdg.

Independent Pneuniafie Toot Co Denver, Colorado, 1040 Speer Blvd.

Ingersoii-Rand * 11 Birmingham, Ala., 1700 Third Ave. Butte, Mont., 845 S. Montana St. Chicago, 111., 400 W. Madison St. Denver, Colo., 1637 Blake Bt. E l Paso, Texas, 1015 Texas St. liansas City, Mo., 1006 Grand Ave. Los Angeles, CaUt., 1460 E. 4th St. Manila, P. I., Eamshane Docks k

Honolulu Iron Works New York, N, Y . , 11 Broadway Pittsbureh, Pa.,

706 Chamber of Commerce Bldg. Salt Lake City, Utah,

144 S, W. Temple St. San Francisco, Calif., 350 Brannan St. Seattle, Wash., 626 First Ave. So, Tulsa, Okla., 319 E . Sth St.

intermasntain Exploration & Engineering Go

Casper, Wyoniing, 214 Cottman BIdg.

Ives, Richard

Denver, Colo., 661 W. CoKax Ave.

Jellrey Manutaetufins Company A Columbus, Obio, 940-99 Ho. Fourth St. Denver, Colo., E . £ C. Building

toy HanufaeturlflB Co. * Henry W. Oliver Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Keliogg's Hardware, Inc Goiden, Colo., 1217 Washington Ave.

Kondrick-Bellamy Company A g Denver 2, Colo., 1641 California St.

Kistler Stationery Company * 135 Denver, Colo.

Krails, Dan 134 Abilene, Texas

Box 1992, 230 White Bldg.

Lane-Wells Co _ 15 Iios Angeles IX, Calif. 5610 So. Soto St.

Leschen & Sons Rope Co., A St. Louis, Mo., 5909 Kennerly Ave.

Lfnk-8elt Company A Chicago, n i . , 300 W. Pershing Bd. Atlanta, Ga., 1116 Murphy Ate., S.W. Indianapolis, Ind., 220 S. Belmont Ave, San Francisco, Calif., 400 Paui Ave. Philadelphia, Pa.,

2045 W. Huntington Park Ave. Denver. Co lo . , 1026 Wazee St. Toronto, Can., Eastern Ave. & Leslie St.

Lufkin Rule Co Saginaw, Michigan

Mace Company, The A Denver, Colo., 3763 Biake St.

Machine Controls & Specialty Co 134 Abilene, Texas Bos 1867

Manning, Fred M . , Ine 142 Denver, Coio., Continental Oil Bldg,

Martin Decker Corporation Long Beach, Calit.

MeEIroy Ranch Company 140 Ft. Worth, Texas, 506 Neii P.

Anderson Bldg.

McFarlane-Eggeri Hchy. Co. Denver, Colo., 2763 Blake St.

McKeehen Clothing Ce Goiden, Colo., 1222 Washington Ave.

Merrick Scale Mfg. Gs. A _ Passaic, New Jersey

Metal Treatins & Research Co 131 Denver 3, Colo., 651 Sherman St.

Metropolitan Barber Shop Golden, Coiorado

Midwest Steel & Iron Works Go Denver, Colo., 25 Larimer St.

Mine & Smeller Supply Company .. . . 4-12 Denver, Colorado E l Paso, Texas New York, N. Y. , 1775 Broadway Sait Lake City, Utah Montreal, Canada,

Canadian Vickera, Ltd. Santiago, Chile, W. B. Judson Lima. Pern, W. R. Judson Manila, P. I., Edward J . Nell Co.

Mines Magazine A....3-129-132-133-134 Denver, Colo., 734 Cooper Building

Morse Bros. Machinery Company A.... 143 Denver, Coio., 2900 Broadway,

P. 0. Box 1708

Mosebach Elect, fi Supply Pittsbui^h, Penna, 1115 Arlington Ave.

Mountain Statei T. fi T. Co Denver, Colo., 931 14th St.

National Fuse & Powder Company A 3 Denver, Colo.

National Titanium Co

Koelear Development Lab Kansas City, Mo,, Box 7601

Osgood Company Marlon, Ohio

Paramount Cleaners Golden, Colo., 809 12th St.

Parker & Company, Charles 0. A.... 3 Denver, Colo., 2114 Curtis Street

Price Company, H. C. * 20 BartlesvUie, Okla. Los Angeies, Calif. San Francisco, t^lif.

Professional Cards 6-10-18-128-139

Puhlle Service Company ot Colo. A Denver, Colo., Qas Sc Electric Bidg.

Reed Roller Bit Co 17 Houston 1, Texas

Roebling's Sons Company, John A. A 1 Trenton, New Jersey Denver 16, Colo., 4801 Jackson St.

Seismie Explorations, Ine.

Seltmograph Serviea Corporation Tulsa, Oklahoma

Sinclair, Harry (Hard Roek> A Denver, Colo., 2224 Welton St.

Spans fi Company 142 Butler, Pennsylvania

Stearns-Roger Mfg. Company A 19 Denver, Colo., 1720 Caiifornia St.

Stephan Corporation, The Sacramento, Caiit., Rt. 8, Box 1782, Freeport Blvd.

Stephens-Adamson Mfg. Co. Aurora, Illinois Los Angeles, Calif. Belleville. Ontario, Canada

stonehouse Signs, Ine, A 139 Denver, Coio., 842 Larimer St.

Strawn's Book Store Golden, Colo., 1205 Washington Ave.

Thomas-Hickerson Motor Go

Denver, Colo., 1000 E . lath Ave.

Topside Oil Company _

Denver. Colorado, Symes Bldg.

Ultra Violet Products Co., Inc 129 So. Pasadena, Cslif. 145 Pasadena Avenue

Union Sapply Co Denver, Colo., 1930 Market St.

United Geophysical Company, Inc. .. 140 Tulsa 3, Okla., 822 Thompson Bidg. Pasadena 1, Caiif., 595 E . Colorado St.

Vulcan Iron Works Co Denver, Coio., 1423 Stout St.

Wayne Laboratories, Tiie 128 Waynesboro, Pa.

Western Machinery Co. * Saa Francisco 7, Calif., 760 Folsom St.

Western Oil Tool 4 Mfg. Co Casper, Wyo., Box 260

Wilfley fi Sons, A. R. A Back cover Denver, Colo., Denliam Bldg. New York City, 1775 Broadway

Yuba Manufacturing Company A 140 San Francisco, Calif., 351 Califoriiiii St. T H E MINES M A G A Z I N E ® O C T O B E R . 1950

engineered—to

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••—.-Tar.

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