Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Region

Edited by

Recep Efe, Munir Ozturk and Shahina Ghazanfar

Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Region, Edited by Recep Efe, Munir Ozturk and Shahina Ghazanfar

This book first published 2012

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2012 by Recep Efe, Munir Ozturk and Shahina Ghazanfar and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-3757-1, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3757-6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................ xi Chapter One................................................................................................. 1 Dendroarchaelogical Studies of Shipwrecks along the Mediterranean Coast of Israel Nili Liphschitz Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 13 Land Use Change in the Lower Alentejo (South of Portugal) and the New Environmental Challenges: The Olive Culture Maria Jose Roxo and Jose Eduardo Ventura Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 29 Characteristics of Forest Fire Databases Designed to Improve Risk Management: Some Reflections on the Portuguese Experience Fantina Tedim and Salete Carvalho Chapter Four.............................................................................................. 45 Crop Yield in Drought-prone Areas: Projections for a Changed Climate with the AquaCrop Model Eline Vanuytrecht and Dirk Raes Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 51 Olive and Olive Oil Culture in the Mediterranean Basin Recep Efe, Abdullah Soykan, Đsa Cürebal and Süleyman Sönmez Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 63 Findings Related to Olive at Excavations of (the Ancient City of Adramytteion) Ören Tulin Çoruhlu Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 73 Early Warning Systems and Emergency Plan in Urban Areas: A Study Case Giuseppe Ragonese and Donatella Termini

Table of Contents viii

Chapter Twenty Four............................................................................... 271 Using Remote Sensing for Assessing the Impact of Mining Activities in the Kaz Mountains Emre Özelkan, Muhittin Karaman and Z. Damla Uça Avcı Chapter Twenty Five ............................................................................... 283 Neotectonic Development of Drainage Networks Studied Using Geomorphic Indices in Kaz Mountain (Mount Ida), NW Turkey Türkan Bayer Altın Chapter Twenty Six ................................................................................. 299 Delta Degradation as a Global Process Vladimir Starodubtsev and Vyacheslav Bogdanets Chapter Twenty Seven............................................................................. 307 Monitoring the Effects of 18 Mart Can Thermal Power Plant in Forest Ecosystems on Kaz Mountains (8 Year Results) Mehmet Sayman, Nihal Özel, Giyasettin Akbin, H. Handan Öner and Seda Şenturk Chapter Twenty Eight.............................................................................. 321 Pistachio: A New Possibility Vasko Zlatkovski, Fidanka Trajkova and Sasha Mitrev Chapter Twenty Nine............................................................................... 333 Geotourism in the Oman Mountains: A Concept of Sustainable Tourism Sobhi Nasir Chapter Thirty ......................................................................................... 339 A Gold Mining Gallery Turning into a Natural Cave: Sarmaşikli Cave (Küçükkuyu – Çanakkale – NW Turkey) Lutfi Nazik, Kadir Tuncer, Selahattin Yıldırım, Murat Poyraz and Özgür Sapancı Chapter Thirty One.................................................................................. 347 River Water Regulation under Modern Climate Change Conditions Tsisana Basilashvili, Jarji Tabatadze and Magda Janelidze

PREFACE Our consumerist attitude towards natural resources has adversely

affected the carrying capacity of our planet, as the global ecological deficit has increased without regeneration. The situation in the Mediterranean Region is no different. Ecosystems there have reached a stage where biological diversity is greatly threatened.

Reclamation of damaged ecosystems needs a thorough understanding of the ecological functions that control them. Although restoration and reclamation efforts are underway, the process of acquiring knowledge and learning is slow. Learning the dynamics of a habitat, the plasticity of individuals in an ecosystem, and the microclimatic features are all integral to any restoration programme. In addition, stresses induced due to global climate change must be taken into consideration while planning restoration so that resulting restoration projects are resilient and self sustaining.

This book, Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Region, is a result of papers presented at the International Conference on the Mediterranean region held in Edremit, Turkey from 5-7 May 2011. 160 participants from 25 countries attended and presented 170 papers, of which 35 are selected for this publication. Chapters include aspects of environmental ecology, drought, changes in land use/fragmentation, tourism, sea level rise, environmental transformation, climate change, rural development and agriculture, water use, urban ecology, and forest resources/fires. Although much remains to be done, we fervently hope that this book will upgrade the importance of awareness among the public for protecting this fragile environment.

—The Editors

CHAPTER THIRTY

A GOLD MINING GALLERY TURNING INTO A NATURAL CAVE:

SARMAŞIKLI CAVE (KÜÇÜKKUYU – ÇANAKKALE – NW TURKEY)

LUTFI NAZIK , KADIR TUNCER, SELAHATTIN YILDIRIM , MURAT POYRAZ

AND ÖZGÜR SAPANCI

Introduction

Natural caves, especially those in limestone, can reach up to several hundred kilometres in depth or length. Artificial caves are made by men for shelter, a place of worship, settlement, graves, storage, mines, and tunnels in a substrate that is easy to carve, such as tuff, marl, clayey limestone, or fine grained sandstone. One of the most interesting caves of such, are the cave settlements in Cappadocia. These cave settlements are kilometres long, with many stories.

Mines form another type of artificial cave. The underground tunnels formed by excavating valuable metals such as gold, silver, tin, zinc and lead, are built up in various geometric forms according to the position of the mineral deposits. Such caves do not have a distinct structure, after being abandoned they are affected by climatic and other natural forces. It seems that some types of these galleries and desandres are concealed after becoming useless. These are abandoned depending on lito-stratigraphical, hydrological, geomorphological, vegetation and climatic conditions after being exposed to the natural effects.

Anatolia consists of various ore beds, with different formation and evolution characteristics (Ketin, 1996 and Goncuoglu, 2010). As a result of these cave excavations through galleries in different periods, by

Chapter Thirty 340

different cultures such as the Hittites, followed by Hellenes and Romans, different shapes were formed (Yildirim, 2000). Of all the caves found in almost every part of Turkey (in particularly Canakkale, Balikesir, Usak, Kutahya, Bursa, Bilecik, Kirikkale, Nigde, Konya, Zonguldak, Cankiri, Ordu, Gumushane, Rize, and Artvin), the most interesting and characteristic among them is Sarmasikli Cave, which is located in the northwest of Bahcedere Village, 6 kilometres from Kucukkuyu (Fig. 30-1, 30-2). Sarmasikli, which is the oldest of the 5 plantations situated there, and the entrance of the Sarmasikliyani Caves right next to it, are covered by deposits of stalactites. These deposits are deceptive, as the cave is artificial in formation.

Fig. 30-1: Şarmaşıklı Cave location map

Sarmasıklı Cave

Geology: The area of Sarmasikli is ophiolite melange from Late Cretaceous (Fig. 30-3). Melanj is found in a wide area which is a mixed rock set made of spilite, diabase, gabbro and limestone. The thickness of Triassic aged limestone can vary from a few meters to 1 kilometre. Inside the limestone is cream coloured, layered, and marble in some places, together with many cracks. There are generally alternation zones throughout the lines in the direction of WNW-ESE (Yıldırım 2008). These

A Gold Mining Gallery Turning into A Natural Cave: Sarmasikli Cave 341

alternation zones are formed by means of silicification, limonitization, hematitization, ankeritization and carbonation.

Most of the Miocene sediments and limestone blocks in the ophiolitic melange is covered by the volcanic rocks from Later Cretaceous. From hydrological and karstification point of view they are surrounded by impermeable rocks both from the sides and bottom.

Fig. 30-2: The DEM Image of the surroundings of Sarmasikli Cave

The Physical Characteristics of Sarmasikli Cave

Sarmasikli, located in the southern part (Fig. 30-1 and 30-2) overlooking the Edremit gulf of the Kaz Mountains, is split deeply by streams. It is an artificial cave made of galleries and passages in a general north-south direction, with sharp turns in the east-west direction.

The total length of the Sarmasikli cave is 150 meters together with its subsidiary affluent. However, there are inaccessible parts of the cave because of the danger of collapse. For this reason, the cave must be longer. On the other hand, the end point of the cave is 66 meters under the ground. These show that the work here was done in a thickness of 66 meters. But, it is not possible to lift up materials from -66 meters. Parallel to a sloping brae, other entrances and exits must exist except for the main entrance of the working area which is so close to surface. But these entrances and exits have not been detected yet.

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Fig. 30-3: The geology map of Sarmasikli Cave’s surrounding (after Yildirim 2008)

A Gold Mining Gallery Turning into A Natural Cave: Sarmasikli Cave 343

Fig. 30-4: Plan of Sarmasikli Cave

It was enlarged in various geometric shapes according to the position of the mines and its connection to the outside (Nazik, 2005, 2008).

Similar characteristics can be seen in the Sarmasikiyani Cave near the Sarmasikli Cave.

This artificial cave and mine has a total length of 65 meters in a north-south and east-west direction (Fig. 30-4). The end point of the cave is 3.5

Chapter Thirty 344

meters deep, which is 30 meters deeper than the entrance. The entrance section of this cave is covered with different kinds of stalactites (especially wall stalactites) as it is in the Sarmasikli Cave (Fig.30-5).

Sarmasikli and Sarmasikliyani caves are artificial caves which came into being as a result of gold mining. A large number of subsidiary affluent split into many different directions in the cave, which exists in connection with the lead vein being followed on NNW-SSE directions.

Fig 30-5: The Stalactites at the entrance of the Sarmasikli Cave

The Age and natural formation of the Sarmasikli cave

Sarmasikli cave was dug for gold mining. Stone gutters used for gold washing were found on the surface in front of the galleries where wood and coal were used both for lighting and excavating raw materials. Radiocarbon dating shows that this cave was opened at least 2500-3000 years ago. This is also seen from the karstic formation of stalactites at the entrance section of the caves that are in partially ruined. Although this characteristic exists in extremely limited areas and thicknesses of the rocks suitable for karstification, among the primary factors (original) determining karstification, litho-stratigraphic position is the most important one, secondary shaping factors (geomorphologic features, climate and vegetation) prepare the conditions for a dense and rapid karstification in the Kaz Mountains. The entrance section of Sarmasikli and Sarmasikliyani caves are the first parts that were opened for working. These sections came under the effect of the natural conditions, together with the control of karstic periods by becoming an accumulation area after becoming useless. As a consequence of this, the solutions being melted by the rains from the carbonated schists right at the top of the galleries in these sections turn into stalactites by passing through the cracks on the side walls and ceilings of the caves. Of all these stalactites, the wall stalactites top the list. In

A Gold Mining Gallery Turning into A Natural Cave: Sarmasikli Cave 345

addition to this, stalactites, stalagmites, and columns are seen, too. However, in deeper parts, similar deposits could not have evolved.

The ages of caves and stalactites

In aging technique, the age of these coal pieces which are common in new parts and form the last section of Sarmasikliyani Cave were calculated (Picture 30-9) as 1650 (± 55).

Conclusions

Sarmasikli and Sarmasikliyani caves in the southern brae, overlooking the Edremit gulf of the Kaz Mountains are artificial caves which were dug in ancient times for mining gold. The caves are shaped according to the vein in which the mine was dug. The entrance sections of the caves are covered with the stalactites formed in natural periods. The year when the caves were dug can be calculated from the age of coals and wood pieces used for lighting and excavation. This is estimated as 1650 years (± 55 years). However, the first parts of these galleries should be older. When the shape and size of the stalactites in the entrance sections are taken into consideration, it can be said that these caves started to be excavated at least 2500-3000 years ago.

References

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Ketin, Đ. (1966). Anadolu’nun Tektonik Birlikleri. MTA Yayını, Sayı 66, Ankara.

Nazik, L. (2003). Mağaraların oluşum ve gelişim özellikleri. Mağara Ekosisteminin Türkiye'de Korunması ve Değerlendirilmesi Sempozyumu I, Bildiriler Kitabı, 6-7 Aralık, Alanya.

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